1

Principles of Soil Science

Module 4: Chemical Properties of Soils

Overview
This module covers the importance of studying the chemical reaction and chemical properties of
the soil. In this module, the student will gain knowledge the relationship between soil minerals
and soil pH, pH levels ranges and its meaning, and strategies on adjusting soil pH. They will also
learn the effect and the importance of cation exchange capacity (CEC) of a certain soil in
connection to crop growth, in terms of soil nutrient supplying capacity.
Hence, in this module, student will learn proper management to improve soil productivity after
knowing the CEC and soil pH levels of a certain soil. The student will gain deep understanding
about CEC and appreciate its importance. It is needed to learn the CEC in order to estimate the
fertilizer needs of a crop thereby ensuring economic use of fertilizers. They will also learn the
importance of liming the soil, that bring soil pH to near neutral (pH 6-7.0) so as to benefit from the
full potential of the soil. Liming involves replenishing calcium and magnesium cations, and
eventually helps improve plant root environment and soil conditions for microbial activities and
increasing availability of most essential nutrient elements.
Keywords:
colloids silicate clays non silicate clays
kaolinite montmorillonite illite
soil ph reserve acidity cation exchange capacity (CEC)
active acidity base saturation (BS) exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
buffering capacity liming relative neutralizing power (RNP)
saline soils sodic soils
Learning Plan

Lesson No. 1: Soil Colloids

Learning outcome:

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. define and describe soil colloids, and
2. learn the classification of soil colloids.

Introduction:

Soil chemical properties are important because: (1) they affect the speciation of nutrients and
availability (to plants) of nutrients, (2) they affect the fate of chemicals added to the soil, and (3)
they affect the dominant biology and physical properties of the soil system. For instance, soils
high in Na+ has dispersed/weak structure and soils with low pH, favors fungi and antagonistic to
bacteria. Addionally, most of the chemical properties of soils are associated with soil colloids.
Therefore, it is important to be familiar and understand soil colloids.
Soil colloids are soil particles either organic or inorganic that carry charges on their surfaces,
which is considered as surface-active materials in the soil. Soil colloids able to attract either
cations or anions. Ion exchange between the solid and liquid phase of the soil is one of the
important properties of soils. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil measures the quantity
of cations that a given amount of soil can hold or exchange which in turn depends on the type of
colloidal materials that constitute the soil.
Discussions:
Lesson 1.1 Definition of Soil Colloids
Most chemical interactions in the soil occur on colloid surfaces (considered as an active portions
of the soil). Soil colloid refers to a mineral or organic particles in soil having a diameter of less
than .001 mm (which is within clay size range > 0.002 mm). Soil colloids are very small particles
of matter that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Because of their smallness, soil colloids
have tremendous surface area per unit volume (specific surface area). This characteristic plus
the presence of electrical charges on their surfaces that makes them chemically reactive. Thus,
colloids are considered as the seat of chemical activities or reactions in soils.
 2

Lesson 1.2 Classification: Organic and Inorganic

There are two groups of soil colloids: organic and mineral or inorganic.
 The organic colloids consists of the plant and animal residues in all stages of
decomposition. These are represented as well by what we called humus.
 The mineral (inorganic) colloids is composed of both primary and secondary minerals of
the soil. These are exemplified by the silicate and non-silicate clays.
Lesson 1.3 Examples of silicate and non-silicate clay minerals
These are termed as silicate clay minerals because of their basic chemical structure which are
made up of silicon and aluminum.
Table 1. Examples of Silicate clay minerals
Kaolinite Si4Al4O10 (OH)8
Montmorillonite Si8 (Al4 -Mgx) O20 (OH)4
Vermiculite Mg. Ca (Si8 Alx) (Mg, Fe6) O20 (OH)4
Illite Muscovite K2 (Si6 Al2) Al4 O20 (OH)4
Biotite K2 (Si6 Al2) (Mg, Fe)6 O20 (OH)4

Table 2. Examples of Non-Silicate clays

Hematite Fe2O3
Goethite Fe2O3.H2O
Limonite Fe2O3.3H2O
Boehmite Al2O3.H2O
Gibbsite Al2O3.2H2O
The oxides and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum are known collectively as sesquioxides. In
addition to the silicate and non-silicate clay minerals, other non-crystalline volcanic materials are
called allophanes which are considered as well as colloidal in size and contribute to chemical
properties of soils. Allophanes are also silicates but are non-crystalline or amorphous.
References:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos.
VSU Lecture Manual
Pre-recorded video discussions:
 Lesson 1 Soil colloids part 1 https://youtu.be/YKyBo2ON_o4
 Lesson 1 Soil colloids part 2 https://youtu.be/qYCTEJQc-ec
Study Guide / Review Questions:
1. Briefly describe the importance of soil chemical properties.
2. Define soil colloids.
3. Enumerate and describe in 1 sentence the 2 classification of soil colloids.
4. Describe the basic structure of silicate clays.
5. Enumerate 5 examples of silicate clays and 5 examples for non-silicate clays.
6. Define the terms “sesquioxides” and “allophanes”.

Learning Plan

Lesson No. 2: Silicate clays

Learning outcome:

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. discuss and illustrate basic structural unit of clays,
2. describe important properties of silicate clays, and
3. explain the sources of negative charges.
 3

Discussions:
Lesson 2.1 Basic structural units; tetrahedron

Silicate clay particles are consists of sheets of silica tetrahedron and aluminum octahedron
molecular units (Figure 1). A silica tetrahedron consists of a silicon atom at the center surrounded
by oxygen and hydroxyl (OH).

A tetrahedron has a four-sided molecular configuration while an octahedron has an eight-sided

arrangement. The silica and the alumina layers or sheets are bound by shared oxygen atoms.
Thus, each clay partilces is a crystal unit made up of layers or sheets. This arrangement is called
a lattice structure.

Figure 1. Basic crystal structure of aluminum silicate clays. The basic unit of a clay structure is
the tetrahedron which has a silicon atom at the center surrounded by four oxygen atoms at the
corners. A continuous network of these octahedron has aluminum, magnesium, or other cations
at the center surrounded by hydroxyls at the six corners. A layer of these octahedron make up
the aluminum sheet (Bear, 1955).

Photo Source:
https://www.google.com/search?q=Basic+structural+units%3B+tetrahedron&sxsrf=ALeKk00_wJ7JnStzzgAV_0vKiCGDYlyRQw:162
2699925718&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZwpil5PrwAhVCA4gKHdwQDzIQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1366&bih
=657#imgrc=h2-txzw_yebecM

Lesson 2.2 Properties of silicate clays

Crystal size, shape, bonding, specific surface area, and clay type of Kaolinite, Montmorillonite,
and illite

Kaolinite has a crystal size of 0.1 to 5 microns and is shaped like hexagon. The lattice are tied by
a strong H bond. The specific surface area ranges from 7 to 30 M2/g. Each particle or crystal unit
is made up of one layer of aluminum octahedral. Hence, kaolinite is called a 1:1 type of clay.

Montmorillonite is 0.01 to 1 micron in size and is shaped like flakes. The lattices are bound by
weak oxygen atoms linkage and the surface area is quite large, of about 700 to 800 M 2/g. The
crystal unit consists of 2 layers of silica tetrahedral between which is aluminum octadehron.
Montmorillonite is classified as a 2:1 type of clay.

Illite has also a small particle size ranging from 0.1 to 2 microns. The crystals, like kaolinite are
flake-like and the layers are bound by strong K linkage. The specific surface area ranges from 65
to 100 M2/g. It is also a 2:1 type of clay.

Among the three silicate clays above, the montmorillonite is the most chemically reactive mainly
because of its very high specific surface area. The large surface area is due to the fineness of the
particles and exposure of internal surface of the lattices. The weak bonding of the lattices cause
the layers to expand when wet hence exposing the internal surfaces. Soil dominated by
montmorillonite expand when wet and shrink when dry producing large craks on the surface. Soil
order vertisol has this type of clay.
 4

Table 3. Properties of Silicate clays

Type Mineral Layer Charge CEC (cmol Comment Specific surface
(+) / kg (mg2 / g)

1:1 Kaolinite ~0 2-15 Low layer charge; 7-30

low CEC

2:1 Mica (illite) ~0.7-1.0 10-40 High layer charge; 40-100

low CEC due to
fixed K+

Vermiculite ~0.6-0.9 100-200 CEC proportional 600-800

to layer charge

Montmorillonite ~0.2-0.6 70-120 CEC proportional 600-800

to layer charge

2:1:1 Chlorite variable 10-40 CEC less due to 25-150

interlayer filling

Lesson 2.3 Sources of negative charges

Basically, soils are dominated with negative charges. Now, what are the sources of these negative
charges. The negative charges of clays arise mainly from exposed hydroxyl groups at the broken
edges of crystals and from isomorphous (same size) substitutons of ions in the silica or octahedral
sheets. The exposed edges of minerals like kaolinite have oxygen and hydroxyl groups attached
to either silica or aluminum sheets. The exposed O2 contributes to negative charges.

pH-dependent charges and permanent charges (isomorphous substitution)

Negative charge arises also when the H of the hydroxyl dissociates especially at high or alkaline
pH environment. This mechanism can be visualized as follows:

This mechanism is particularly true for kaolinite clays. Since the amount of negative charges
depend on soil pH, the charge arising therefore are termed as pH-dependent charges. Most of
the negative charges of 1:1 types are pH-dependent charges.
Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of an ion in the crystal lattice by another ion of about
the same size.
For example:
 If Al+++ in the octahedral layer is replaced with Mg ++ one negative charge originally holdng
the trivalent Al is left unsatisfied.
 When Si++++ in the tetrahedral layer is substituted by Al+++ , a negative charge arises.

The Si, Al, and Mg ions have the same sizes. Charges arising from isomorphous substitution are
called permanent charges because they are not affected or dependent by pH. This mechanism is
the one predominantly occurring in 2:1 type of clays such as montmorillonite and vermiculite.
References:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos.
VSU Lecture Manual
 5

Pre-recorded video discussions:

 Lesson 2 Silicate clays part 1 https://youtu.be/I_wkApJWCX4
 Lesson 2 Silicate clays part 2 https://youtu.be/yZT2vGyTN88
Study Guide / Review Questions:
1. Differentiate silicon tetrahedron and aluminum octahedron.
2. Why is it that montmorillonite is considered as the most reactive silicate clay?
3. Briefly describe the silicate clays kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite in terms of their crystal size and
shape.
4. Soil order “vertisol” is considered as high swelling and shrinking soils because it its silicate clay. What
silicate clay is it?
5. True or False. The soils are mainly dominated with negative charges.
6. Define pH dependent charge and isomorphous substitution.

Learning Plan
Lesson No. 3: Organic colloids
Learning outcome:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. explain how organic colloids contribute to the chemical properties of soils.
Discussions:
Organic colloids and chemical properties
Organic colloids represented by humus are also colloidal in nature and also possess negative
charges. While the structural framework of inorganic colloids is made up mainly of Si, Al, and O 2,
the organic colloids consists of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). Humus in not crystalline
by nature but has also about the same specific surface area with that of the inorganic colloids.
The main source of negative charges in humus is the dissociation of H + from carboxylic (-COOH)
and phenolic ( OH) functional groups at high pH. Hence, the charges are also called pH-
dependent charges. Humus, like montmorillonite clays enables the soil to have a greater ability
to adsorb (attract on the surface) and exchange ions (cation exchange capacity).
Importance of the presence of negative charges in the soils
The presence of negative charges in the soil enables the soil to store nutrients, specifically the
positively charged ions or cations. The cations are adsorbed (attracted on surfaces of colloids)
and kept from being washed away by water passing through the soil solum. These cations come
from the gradual but continuous weathering of minerals, decomposition of organic matter and
additions from inorganic fertilizers. If the cations are not absorbed, soils cannot maintain their
fertility level because the constant passage of water will deplete the soil of its nutrients.
The negative charge of soils can be demonstrated by the positively charged organic dye, which
is gentian violet. When this dye reacts with the soil, the dye loses its color indicating its adsorption
by the soil. While a negatively charged dye, which is the eosin red does not lose its color when it
reacts with the soil.
Reference:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos
Pre-recorded video discussions:
 Lesson 3 Organic colloids https://youtu.be/LGXUvxx9Q0s
Study Guide / Review Questions:
1. What are organic colloids?
2. What are the structural framework of organic colloids made up?
3. What are the source of negative charges of organic colloids?
 6

Learning Plan

Lesson No. 4: Factors affecting strength of absorption of ions in soil colloids

Learning outcome:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. discuss the factors that affect the adsorption of ions in soil colloids

Discussions:
Cations or positive charged ions are adsorbed on surfaces of colloids at varying levels depending
on their valence, ionic size, hydration size and concentration of cations. Therefore, the greater
the valence, the stronger is the adsorption. Thus, Ca++ is more srongly adsorbed that K+. The
smaller the ionic size, the higher the ability of the cation to closely approach the colloidal surface.
The ionic size of the common cations in soils are as follows:
H+  2.08A⁰
K+  1.33A⁰
Ca ++
 0.99A⁰
Na+  0.95A⁰
Mg++  0.65A⁰
Al+++  0.50A⁰
It follows also that the smaller the hydration size of the cation, the stronger is its adsorption
capacity. Calcium has larger ionic size (0.99A⁰) than sodium (0.95A⁰) but sodium has a larger
hydrated size than calcium. The greater the concentration of a particular cation in the solution
surrounding the colloids, the more strongly adsorbed is that cation.
The varying strengths of adsorption of cations has important implications in their retention in soils.
It means that in strongly-leached soils, the more strongly adsorbed cations will be left or will
continue to persist in the soil. The more strongly adsorbed cation can easily replace the less
strongly adsorbed cations, so that when the more strongly adsorbed cation is introduced into the
soil, especially in large amounts, the more weakly-held cations would be leached out.
The strength of adsorption of cations in soil colloids are arranged as :
(Al+++, H+) > Ca++ > Mg++ > K+ > Na+
Reference:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos
Pre-recorded video discussions:
Lesson 4 Factors affecting strength of cation adsorption https://youtu.be/AdO8IO6TATA
Study Guide / Review Questions:
1. What are the 4 factors that affects the adsorption of ions in soil colloids.

Learning Plan
Lesson No. 5: Cation Exchange Capacity
Learning outcome:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. explain the concept of cation exchange capacity,
2. describe the characteristic of cation exchange process or reaction, and
3. learn how to calculate for CEC.
Discussions:
Lesson 5.1 Concept of Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

As previously discussed, the presence of negative charge (anions) in soil colloids enables the soil
to adsorb cations. The ability of the soil to adsorb and exchange cations with those in the
surrounding soil solution as well as with plant roots is called cation exchange capacity or CEC. It
can be define also as the sum of the negative charges of the soil colloids. Since soil colloids
 7

possess also positive charges. The negative charges are net negative charges or the ones that
haven’t neutralized by the inherent positive charges in the soil. The negative charges of the soil
will attract cations and therefore, the sum of all adsorbed cations per unit amount of soil is also a
measure of CEC.
The unit of CEC in soils is expressed as milliequivalent per 100 g of soil or me/100g. In typical
soils, CEC value ranges from 10 me/100 g to 30 me/100g.

Figure 2. Cation exchange between soil colloid and soil solution and plant root. Cations in colloids
exchange in equivalent amounts cations from either soil solution or from plant roots. One me of a
cation is exchanged for one me of another. Plant roots exchange H + ions for K+ , Ca++ , Mg++, etc.
Lesson 5.2 Characteristics of Cation Exchange Reactions
Cation exchange reactions in soils are instantaneous, reversible, and stoichiometric. The reaction
may be represented as :

While the Ca++ ions are replaced by H+ ions, H+ may in turn be replaced by Ca ++ that is when
conditions are favorable for such reaction. The reaction or exchange process implies that there is
equivalent exchange (stoichiometric) between Ca ++ and H+ ions. Then one me of Ca++ is replaced
by one me of H+. One me of Ca++ is 0.02 g while one me of H+ is 0.001 g.
Therefore,
0.02 𝑔 𝐶𝑎++
= = 20𝑔 𝐶𝑎++ /𝑔 𝐻 +
0.001 𝑔 𝐻 +
Twenty grams of Ca++ is needed to replace 1 g of H+ in the soil.
Lesson 5.3 Explanation of the unit of CEC (me/100g)

The milliequivalent (me) unit for CEC refers to the amount of cations held per 100g of soil. The
me of each cation is computed to get the total amount of cations per 100 g soil. The equivalent
weight of an element or a cation is the ratio of its atomic weight to its valence. Expressing it in
more convenient unit of milliequivalent, that is why 1000 is included in the denominator.
The general formula for 1 milliequivalent weight of an element is:
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= = 𝑔/𝑚𝑒
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 1000
For example, for K+ (the atomic weight is 39) the g/me would be:
39𝑔
= = 0.039𝑔 𝐾/𝑚𝑒
1 𝑥 1000
Lesson 5.4 Sample problems in calculating for CEC
Sample problem No. 1: The CEC of soils is calculated by simply adding up the mes of all the
cations adsorbed. The following are the amounts of cations from soil analysis:
Exchangeable cations me/100g soil
Ca++ 10.0
Mg++ 5.0
K+ 0.5
Na+ 1.5
H+ 5.0
 8

Solution:
CEC = sum of mes of cations
CEC = 10.0 + 5.0 + 0.5 + 1.5 + 5.0
= 22.0 me/100g

Sample problem No. 2: Suppose that in Sample problem No. 1 the following additional information
were given:

Bulk density of soil 1.5 g/cm3

Depth of plow layer 20 cm
Atomic weight of Ca++ 40 g

Calculate the total weight in kg of Ca in the whole plow layer of one hectare (the plow layer of one
hectare at a specified depth is called hectare-furrow-slice or HFS, 1ha = 10,000m 2).

Solution:

Based on the data from Sample problem No.1, the amount of Ca in the soil is 10.0 me/100 g soil.
Therefore, me of Ca is to converted to weight unit using the constant value of g Ca/me and is
computed as:
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎++
𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎++ /𝑚𝑒 =
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎++ 𝑥 1000

40𝑔
= = 0.02𝑔 𝐶𝑎++ /𝑚𝑒
2 𝑥 1000

Hence,

0.02 𝑔
10 𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑎++ 𝑥
𝑚𝑒

= 0.2 g Ca++/100g soil

Now that the weight of Ca per 100 g soil is known, the weight of Ca per on HFS can be computed
by ration and proportion. But what is the weight of one HFS? This can be derived from the formula
for calculating bulk density (B.D.):
𝑀𝑠
𝐵. 𝐷. =
𝑉𝑡
Where:
Ms is the mass or weight of soil,
Vt is total or bulk volume of the soil (of one HFS)
By transposition:

Ms= (B.D.) (Vt)

= (1.5 tons/m3) (10,000m2 x 0.020 m)
=3,000 tons
=3,000,000 kg

Note that the volume of one HFS was calculated by multiplying area (10,000 m 2) and depth of
plow layer (20 cm or 0.20 m) resulting to m 3 unit for volume. Note also that the bulk density value
is 1.5 g/cm3 is numerically equal to 1.5 ton/m 3 (the g/cm3 was transformed to ton/m3 because the
volume unit is already in m 3).

The following conversions show that 1.5 g/cm 3 = 1.5 tons/m3:

1.5 𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑛 106 𝑐𝑚3

𝑥 𝑥 = 1.5 𝑡𝑜𝑛/𝑚3
𝑐𝑚3 10 6 𝑔 𝑚3

By going back to the calculation of weight of Ca per one HFS, we come up with:
 9

0.2 𝑔 𝐶𝑎 (10−3 g/kg) 𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑎

=
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (10 g/kg) 3 𝑥 106 kg soil
−3

(0.2)𝑥 (3𝑥106 )
𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑎 /𝐻𝐹𝑆 = = 6, 000
100

Note that in converting g Ca and g soil to kg unit in the left side of the equation, both numerator
and denominator were multiplied by the same number (10−3 g/kg).
Hence, there was no change in value.

Sample problem no. 3: In determining the CEC, 100 g soil sample was saturated with ammonium
acetate (NH4OAc) to replace all the cations with NH4+. After distillation of the ammonia, it was
found that 0.27 g of NH4+ was adsorbed by the soil. What is the CEC of the soil? (the atomic
weight of N is 4 and H is 1).

Solution:

Transform the amount of NH4+ into me units. Since the soil is saturated with NH 4+, it is assumed
that all exchange sites were occupied by NH4+ and all cations were replaced.

14 + 4
𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 + /𝑚𝑒 = = 0.018
1 𝑥 1000
1 𝑚𝑒
0.27 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 + 𝑥
0.018g

= 15 me NH4+/100 g soil

CEC is also 15 me / 100 g soil

Reference:

Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos

Pre-recorded video discussions:

 Lesson 5 Cation Exchange Capacity part 1 https://youtu.be/woA2lcU_RP4
 Lesson 5 Cation Exchange Capacity part 2 https://youtu.be/-ZpkuKdHIAE
 Lesson 5 Cation Exchange Capacity part 3 https://youtu.be/j4auEsni3s8
 Lesson 5 Cation Exchange Capacity part 4 https://youtu.be/-Thk6I19tXE

Study Guide / Review Questions:

1. Define CEC or Cation Exchange Capacity.
2. What are the units for CEC?
3. Describe in 3 words the reaction of cation exchange.
4. What is the formula in computing the CEC.
5. Make sure to practice sample computation in solving CEC.

Learning Plan

Lesson No. 6: Base Saturation and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage

Learning outcome:

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. define base saturation and exchangeable sodium percentage, and
2. learn how to calculate base saturation and exchangeable sodium percentage

Discussions:

Lesson 6.1 Definition and computation of Base saturation

 10

Base saturation is the degree by which the exchange sites in the colloids are occupied by basic
cations. The basic cations are Ca++, Mg++, K+ , Na+, NH4+, etc. The acid cations are H+ and Al+++.
Aluminum is an acid cation because upon hydrolysis, it yields H +.

Percentage base saturation is calculated simply by taking the ratio of the bases with the CEC.

Sample problem: Assuming that the soil contains the following exchangeable cations:

Exchangeable cations me/100g soil

Ca++ 10.0
Mg++ 5.0
K+ 0.5
Na+ 1.5
H+ 5.0
Al+++ 4.0

Solution:

Base saturation formula:

me of bases
% 𝐵. 𝑆. = 𝑥 100
𝐶𝐸𝐶

10.0 + 5.0 + 0.5 + 1.5

% 𝐵. 𝑆. = 𝑥 100
26
= 65.4%

Lesson 6.2 Definition and computation of exchangeable sodium percentage

Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is the degree by which the exchange sites of colloids
are occupied with sodium ions. This soil property is of particular concern because at high ESP
values (greater than 15%) the soil becomes highly dispersed. This undesirable physical condition
leads to poor aeration and drainage or permeability to water. Soils with excessive amounts of
soluble sodium are termed as sodic soils.

The ESP is computed by taking the ratio of the me of Na + and that of CEC.

Sample problem: Given that the soil has a CEC of 22 me / 100 g and an exchangeable Na +
content of 1.5 me / 100 g, calculate for the ESP.

Solution:

ESP formula:
me Na +
𝐸𝑆𝑃 = 𝑥 100
𝐶𝐸𝐶
1.5
= 22 𝑥 100
= 6.8 %
Lesson 6.3 Sodic soils reclamation and calculations

Soil sodicity can be corrected by replacing Na + in the exchange sites of colloids with Ca ++ and
then washing out the Na+. A convenient source of Ca++ is gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O.

Sample problem: A soil containing 10 me /100g of exchangeable Na + with a CEC of 25 me/100

g. What is the ESP of the soil? How much gypsum is needed per one HFS to reduce the ESP to
only 8%? Assume one HFS weighs 2,000,000 or 2 x 106 kg.
Solution:

With a Na+ content of 10 me/100 g, the ESP of the soil is:

 11

me Na +
𝐸𝑆𝑃 = 𝑥 100
𝐶𝐸𝐶
10
= 𝑥 100
25
= 40 %

To reduce the ESP from 40% to 8%, the me Na + that should remain in the soil is calculated as
follows:

Use the same ESP formula:

me Na +
𝐸𝑆𝑃 = 𝑥 100
𝐶𝐸𝐶
(ESP)(CEC)
me Na+ =
100

(8)(25)
=
100
= 2.0 me/100g

Hence,
10 me Na+ - 2.0 me Na+ = 8 me Na+
8 me Na+ should be removed to bring down ESP from 40% to 8%.

Since cation exchange reaction is stoichiometric, 8 me Ca is needed to replace me of Na per 100

g soil. In terms of weight unit, the amount of Ca++ needed is:

0.02 g Ca
8 𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑎 ++ 𝑥 = 0.16 𝑔 𝐶𝑎/100𝑔𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
me
The equivalent amount of gypsum is computed as:

CaSO4.2H2O
0.16 𝑔 𝐶𝑎 𝑥
𝐶𝑎

40+32+64+2+16
= (0.16)( )
40

= 0.616 g gypsum / 100 g soil

By ratio and proportion:

𝑔𝑦𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑚 (0.616)(2x10 6 )
𝑘𝑔 =
𝐻𝐹𝑆 100

= 12, 320

Reference:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos

Pre-recorded video discussions:

 Lesson 6 Base saturation and exchangeable sodium https://youtu.be/gge676MBZfU

Study Guide / Review Questions:

1. Differentiate base saturation and exchangeable sodium.
2. What is the formula in computing for base saturation.
3. What is the formula in computing for exchangeable sodium percentage.
 12

Learning Plan

Lesson No. 7: Soil pH

Learning outcome:

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. define soil pH and explain its importance,
2. discuss the sources of acidity,
3. describe the kinds of acidity,
4. explain buffering capacity, and
5. illustrate the effects of soil pH on nutrient availability.

Discussions:

Lesson 7.1 Definition of Soil pH

Soil pH is the degree of acidity and alkalinity (or basicity) of the soil. It is also called soil reaction
and is determined by the relative concentration of H + and OH- ions. Mathematically, pH is
expressed as:
pH = - log (H+)
The equation reads as pH equals the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. To
remove the negative sign, it may be written as:
1
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
[𝐻 + ]
Thus, if the H+ concentration is 0.00001 moles / liter, the pH the soil is 5.
pH = - log (0.00001)
= - (-5)
=5
Additionally, if the pH is 4, then the H+ concentration is 0.0001 moles per liter. To summarize, the
lower pH value is, the higher the H+ concentration and the lower is the OH- concentration.

pH value range

The pH value ranges from 1 to 14. At pH 7.0, the soil is said to be neutral, or the concentration of
H+ and OH- are equal. At pH values below 7.0, the soil is acidic and above 7.0, the soil is
considered alkaline or basic. Acidity and alkalinity are described at increasing degrees namely
slightly acidic, moderately acidic, strongly acidic, etc.

The most favorable soil pH for most agricultural crop is between 6.0 and 7.0 or an optimum of
about 6.5. The range of pH of typical soils in the Philippines is pH 5.5 to 6.5. The acidity of soils
begins to be a problem for growing crops when it reaches 5.0 and lower or reaches the scale of
8.0 and higher.

Figure 3. Ranges of soil pH as acidic, neutral and alkaline/basic

 13

Lesson 7.2 Sources of soil acidity

Basically, soils becomes acidic when the bases are leached out and are replaced by H + ions.
Thus, old soils, particularly in humid tropics, where the bases such as calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium have been washed away by rainwater are generally acidic.

The H ions which are responsible for soil acidity can come from many sources like hydrolysis of
aluminum, decomposition of organic matter, and nitrification of ammonium.

 Hydrolysis of aluminum. The release of H+ ions from Al+++ is done by the following stepwise
hydrolysis:
Al+++ + H2O  Al (OH)++ + H+
Al(OH)++ + H2O  Al(OH)2+ + H+
Al(OH)2+ + H2O  Al(OH)3 + H+

 Nitrification of ammonium. Ammonium ions mineralized from organic matter and that
from inorganic fertilizers contribute to soil acidity through the following reactions
mediated by bacteria:

NH4+ + ½ O2 --------------- > NO2- + H2O + 2H+

Nitrosomonas

NO2- + ½ O2 --------------- > NO3-

Nitrobacter
 Decomposition of organic matter. Soil acidity may also develop from the decomposition of
organic matter due to the formation of organic acids like fulvic acid, humic acid, and
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid, a weak acid is generated by te reaction of CO 2 and water:

CO2 + H2O --------------- > H2CO3

In some cases, where soils are abundant with content of sulfate or are derived from sulfur-bearing
minerals, the acidity is due to the oxidation of sulfur compounds. Such soils have been found to
occur in the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Bangladesh, India, and Indonesia and are called acid
sulfate soils. The pH of these soils could be as low as 4.0 due to the formation of sulfuric acid,
H2SO4. The oxidation of sulfur compounds to sulfate is also facilitated by soil organisms which
belong to the genus Thiobacillus.
The reactions involved are:
H2S + 2O2 --------------- > H2SO4
hydrogen sulfide sulfuric acid

2S + 3O2 + 2H2O --------------- > 2H2SO4

elemental sulfur

Lesson 7.3 Kinds of acidity: active and reserve acidity

 Active acidity is due to H+ ions in soil solution while reserve or exchange acidity is due to
H+ and Al+++ ions adsorbed on colloid surfaces. Active acidity and reserve acidity should
be in equilibrium such that when the H + in solution is depleted, say through leaching, H +
ions in the exchange complex move out to replace the H + lost from the soil solution. The
H+ concentration in exchange sites is estimated to be about 1,000 times than that in soil
solution in sandy soils and about 100,000 greater in clayey soils.
 When soil pH is determined by the usual method of mixing equal amounts of soil and
water, what is being actually determined is active acidity. When KCl is used instead of
water, what is being measured includes reserve acidity. The K in KCl replaces the
exchangeable H+ in soil colloids so that both the exchangeable H + and H+ in the soil
solution are determined.
 14

Lesson 7.4 Buffering capacity: Definition and importance

When the H+ ions in the soil solution are leached out, the H+ in the exchange complex immediately
replaces the H+ lost. Therefore, the pH of the soil hardly changes. The resistance of the soil to
drastic changes in pH is called buffering capacity.
Take note that the greater the buffering capacity of an acid soil, the greater the amount of lime is
needed in order to neutralize the acidity. In terms of CEC, the higher the CEC, the greater the
buffering capacity is. Sandy soils have generally lower CEC, then they also have lower buffering
capacity. Which means that more lime is needed to raise the pH level of an acidic clay soils than
acidic sandy soils.
It is important to learn the buffering capacity of a certain soil. Due to the relative stability of soil
pH attributed to its buffering capacity, plants and soil organisms are somehow benefited since
they do not have to make sudden adjustments arising from drastic fluctuations in pH.

Lesson 7.5 Effects on nutrient availability

The most importance effect of soil pH is facilitating the availability of nutrients and activities of
microorganisms.

When the soil pH is too low (below 5.0), aluminum, zinc, copper, iron, and manganese become
more soluble so that the amounts released in the soil may reach to toxic levels for plants. Under
acidic conditions also, phosphorus becomes unavailable for plant use when it becomes
complexed into insoluble forms with Fe and Al as ferric hydroxyphosphate and aluminum
hydroxyphosphate as shown in the reactions below:
Fe3+ + 2H2O + H2PO4- -----------> Fe(OH)2H2PO4 + 2H+
insoluble ferric hydroxyphosphate
Al3+ + 2H2O + H2PO4-  Al (OH)2H2PO4 + 2H+
insoluble aluminum hydroxyphosphate
If the soil is dominated with manganese oxides, phosphate (H 2PO4-) may also precipitate as
insoluble manganese phosphate compounds.

The other elements that may become unavailable to plants under acidic conditions are nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, molybdenum, and boron. In some cases,
the unavailability of nutrients could have been an indirect effect on the release of nutrients.
 15

Figure 4. Relationships existing in mineral soils between pH and the availability of plant nutrients
on the other. The wide portions of the bands indicate the zone the most readily available nutrients.
Considering the correlations as a whole, a pH range approximately 6 to 7 seems to promote the
most ready availability of plant nutrients.

Photo Source:
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fa%2Fa3%2FSoil_pH_effect_on_nutrient_availability.svg&imgr
efurl=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASoil_pH_effect_on_nutrient_availability.svg&tbnid=Yu6lAjYLdTuF3M&vet=12ahUKEwjI1eTa24fxAhUKhJ
QKHY0yDHkQMygAegQIARA9..i&docid=fF4FPwFoLjlXMM&w=800&h=699&q=ph%20and%20nutrient%20availability%20in%20soil&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwjI1eTa24fxAhUKhJQ
KHY0yDHkQMygAegQIARA9
For example: release of Nitrogen is hindered due to the adverse effect of soil acidity on
microorganisms which decomposes organic matter. The symbiotic nitrogen fixation (conversion
of atmospheric N to NH3 by bacteria in root nodules of legumes) and nitrification (conversion of
ammonium, NH4+ to nitrate, NO3-) may also be inhibited at pH below 5.5 Most species of
bacteria and actinomycetes cannot function well in acidic soils. The fungi group of
organisms are more versatile, being able to function at any pH level of the soil.

At alkaline or basic soil conditions, nutrients likewise become unavailable. Phosphate

becomes complexed with calcium to form the insoluble compounds calcium
hydroxyapatite or calcium phosphate dehydrate. These precipitated phosphates have the
formulas CaHPO4’2H2O and [Ca3(PO4)2]3.Ca(OH)2. Potassium may also become
unavailable when abundant calcium competes with potassium for absorption by plant
roots. Most of the micronutrients (except molybdenum) become unavailable at high pH.
Iron deficiency commonly develops alkaline soils.
Reference:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos
Pre-recorded video discussions:
 Lesson 7 Soil pH part 1 https://youtu.be/escc9O6JbQo
 Lesson 7 Soil pH part 2 https://youtu.be/YL10xBkNj7A

Study Guide / Review Questions:

1. What is soil pH?
2. Briefly explain the importance of knowing soil pH.
3. Describe different kinds of acidity.
4. Briefly explain buffering soil capacity.
5. Discuss briefly the effects of soil pH on nutrient availability.
6. What is the pH range to considered soil is acidic?
7. What is the pH range to considered soil is basic or alkaline?

Learning Plan
Lesson No. 8: Liming

Learning outcome:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. define liming and enumerate examples,
2. discuss relative neutralizing power (RNP),
3. compute for RNP, and
4. illustrate the effect of lime in soil.

Discussions:

Lesson 8.1 Definition and examples of Lime

Lime refers to any calcium or magnesium or both containing material, which can be added to the
soil to increase soil pH or neutralize acidity. The common agricultural lime materials are oxides,
hydroxides, and carbonates of lime.
 16

Limestone. It is the most commonly used commercial lime. It is made up of the minerals calcite
(CaCO3) or dolomite CaMg(CO3)2. Limestone deposits are crushed to specified particle size and
have an average purity of 94%.

The oxides and hydroxides forms of lime are caustic (corrosive) and are more difficult to handle
and less popular.

Burned lime or quick lime, CaO or MgO is made by igniting calcium or magnesium carbonates.
Here is the chemical reactions:
CaCO3 + heat -------------> CaO + CO2
calcite
CaMg(CO3)2 + heat -------------> CaO + MgO + 2CO2
dolomite
Burned lime is about 95% pure. It is hygroscopic that tends to absorb water from the air and cakes
readily even when sealed in bags. The hydroxide of lime is also called slaked lime. Slaked lime
has a purity of about 95%. It is made by reacting CaO or MgO with water. Here is the chemical
reactions:
CaO + H2O -------------> Ca(OH)2
MgO + H2O ------------> Mg(OH)2

Commercial liming materials carry a guarantee of fineness. Take note that the finer the particles
are, the faster the reaction is with the soil. Also, the finer particles, the greater the specific surface
area exposed for chemical reaction with the soil.

The conventional and desirable particle size specification is for 100% of the material to pass
through a 10-mesh sieve and at elast 50% to pass a 50-mesh sieve. The hole size of a 10-mesh
sieve is about 0.07 inch while that of a 50-mesh sieve, 0.0122 inch.

Lesson 8.2 Relative Neutralizing Power (RNP) definition

The relative neutralizing power (RNP) of lime refers to the strength or effectiveness in correcting
soil acidity compared to calcium carbonate. Since calcium carbonate is used as standard, RNP
is also called as calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE). The RNP of lime is computed from the ratio
of the molecular weight of calcium carbonate and that of the liming material.

Lesson 8.3 Sample problem

Sample problem: The RNP of CaO.

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
𝑅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑥 100
CaO
atomic weights:
Ca = 40
C = 12
O = 16

40 + 12 + (16 𝑥 3)
𝑅𝑁𝑃 = 𝑥 100
40 + 16
100
= 𝑥 100
56
= 178%

Explaination: The RNP of CaO of 178% means that every kg of CaO is equivalent in neutralizing
ability to 1.78 kg of CaCO3. The calculation shows that the lower the molecular weight of the liming
material, the greater is its RNP.

The calculation above shows that the effectiveness of the lime does not depends only to its
fineness but its RNP as well. Take note that the purity of the material as well determined the
 17

effectiveness of lime. Remember that the greater the purity is, the greater is the neutralizing ability
of lime. Therefore, the lower the purity is, the greater the amount of lime is needed to correct the
soil acidity.

For instance, if it takes 2,000 kg pure CaO to neutralize the acidity of one hectare, 2,500 kg of
80% pure CaO is needed to achieve the same effect. Here is the computation:
2,000 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑂, 80% =
0.80

= 2,500 kg

Lesson 8.4 Effects of lime on the soil

What will happen when lime is applied to the soil? It reacts with carbonic acid to form bicarbonates
which subsequently dissociate with the Ca replacing H in the exchange sites.
The chemical reactions are:

CaO + H2O -------------> Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + 2H2CO3 -------------> Ca(HCO3)2 + H2O
carbonic acid calcium bicarbonate

CaCO3 + H2CO3 -------------> Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 + 2H2O + 2CO2

colloid micelle

The beneficial effects of the reaction of lime with the soil are:
1) The H+ ion concentration decreases and soil acidity is reduced.
2) There is an increase in the availability of nutrients, particularly Ca, Mg, K, P, and Mg.
3) It reduces the toxicity of Al, Fe, and Mn.
4) It stimulates the activities of heterotrophic soil organisms or those responsible for the
decomposition of organic matter with the subsequent mineralization of nitrogen.
5) It enhances the symbiotic nitrogen fixation of bacteria in legumes.
6) It encourages soil granulation.

However, liming could also have harmful effects, particularly when excessive amounts are used.
These include the decreased availability and development of deficiency of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, P, and
B. It could also trigger K and Mg deficiency due to antagonism between Ca, K, and Mg.

Reference:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos

Pre-recorded video discussions:

 Lesson 8 Liming https://youtu.be/paQrV3qHMf8
Study Guide / Review Questions:
1. Define liming.
2. Mention some examples of liming materials.
3. What is RNP?
4. Discuss the effect of lime in soil.

Learning Plan
Lesson No. 9: Soil Salinity and Sodicity
Learning outcome:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. define saline soils and sodic soils, and
2. explain how to reclaim these soils.
 18

Discussions:

Lesson 9.1 Definition of Saline and Sodic soils

Saline soils are soils with high soluble salt content in which the plant growth is adversely affected.
Soils are considered saline if the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil extract is greater than 4
mmhos/cm. These soils usually occur in arid areas wherein the constant movement of water to
the surface is due to evaporation concentrates the salts. These soils are also found near the sea
coasts due to intrusion of sea water. Take note that these soils are alkaline, but the pH content
does not go beyond 8.5. Addiotionally, the adverse effect of too much soluble salts in these soils
is the osmotic effect wherein water is drawn away from roots which leads to water stress in plants.

While, the sodic soils are soils with soluble sodium content of more than 15% of the CEC. The
EC is less than 4 mmhos/cm and the pH goes above 8.5 and even reach 10.0. These soils are
highly dispersed and poorly drained. The harmful effect on plants is the toxicity of Na + ions and
the associated OH ions.

Lesson 9.2 Reclaimation of saline and sodic soils

Saline and sodic soils are considered as problematic soils because of too high content of salts
and sodium. How to reclaim these soils?

Saline and sodic soils are difficult and often expensive to reclaim, but theoretically, it is possible
to alleviate the condition by certain procedures:
1) To repeatedly flood the soil with fresh water and leach out the soluble salts and sodium
that is if the soil is well-drained.
2) Construction of diversion canals in order to prevent the entry of salt water.
3) Application of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is usually recommended followed by leaching. The
sulfur in gypsum transforms the toxic sodium carbonate (Na 2CO3) to sodium sulfate
(Na2SO4) which easily leached out.This is specific to sodic soils.
4) For saline soils, the cheapest way is to plant salt-tolerant crops like cotton, pea, lettuce,
onions, tomatoes, and coconut.

Reference:
Cosico, W.C., 2005. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture,
UP Los Banos

Pre-recorded video discussions:

 Lesson 9 Saline and sodic soils https://youtu.be/zLj-TCZbfXs

Study Guide / Review Questions:

1. Differentiate saline soils from sodic soils.
2. Mention different ways to reclaim or strategies to reclaim saline and sodic soils.