 Social Interaction:

 Meaning of Social Interaction:

 Man is a social animal. It is hard for him to live alone. He always lives in groups. As
members of these groups, they act in a certain way. Their behavior is influenced by
each other. This interaction or shared activity is the core of social life. Social life
cannot exist without interactions.
 Social interactions are relationships where people interact with one another. These
interactions have an impact on both the people involved and the quality of their
relationships.
 Definition Of Social Interaction:
 Gillin and Gillin:
 According to Gillin and Gillin, “By social interaction we refer to social relations of all
sorts in functions – dynamic social relations of all kinds – whether such relations exist
between individual and individual, between group and group and group and
individual, as the case may be”.
 Eldredge and Merrill:
 Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is thus the general process whereby two
or more persons are in meaningful contact-as a result of which their behaviour is
modified, however, slightly”.
Explanation:
 When individuals or groups affect each other’s behavior, it is called social interaction.
Interaction occurs when people are actively engaged with one another. However, not
all actions can be considered social.
 Social interaction occurs when people and their attitudes are involved. It can be
defined as the dynamic interplay of forces that occur when individuals and groups
come into contact with each other, leading to changes in their attitudes and behavior.
 Social interaction usually takes place in the forms of cooperation’s, competition,
conflict, accommodation and assimilation. These forms of social interaction are called
“social processes”.
 Social Process:
 Meaning of Social Process:
 Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur repeatedly. By social
processes we mean those ways in which individuals and groups interact and establish
social relationships. There are various of forms of social interaction such as
cooperation, conflict, competition and accommodation etc.
 Definition Of Social Process:
 MacIver:
 According to MacIver, “Social process is the manner in which the relations of the
members of a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character”.
 Ginsberg:
 Ginsberg says, “Social processes mean the various modes of interaction between
individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and
integration, development, arrest and decay”.
 Horton and Hunt:
 According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers to the repetitive form
of behavior which are commonly found in social life”.
 Types of Social Processes:
 There are hundreds of social processes. But we find some fundamental social
processes that are found to appear repeatedly in society. These fundamental processes
are socialization, cooperation, conflict, competition, accommodation, acculturation
and assimilation etc.
 Social process can be positive or negative. Accordingly, social process have
been classified into two broad categories, variously entitled ‘associative and
dissociative’.
 Associative Process:
 The associative or conjunctive social processes are positive. These social processes
work for the solidarity and benefit of society. This category of social processes include
cooperation, accommodation, assimilation and acculturation etc. Three major social
processes such as cooperation, accommodation and assimilation are discussed below.
 Cooperation:
Meaning Of Cooperation:
 The term ‘cooperation’ has been derived from two Latin words – ‘Co’ meaning
‘together and Operary meaning ‘to work’. Hence, cooperation means
working together for the achievement of a common goal or goals. When two or more
persons work together to gain common goal, it is called cooperation.
 Cooperation is one of fundamental processes of social life. It is a form of social process
in which two or more individuals or groups work together jointly to achieve common
goals. Cooperation is the form of social interaction in which all participants benefit by
attaining their goals.
 Definitions Of Cooperation:
 Green:
 It is defined by Green as “the continuous and common Endeavour of two or more
persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.”
 Merrill and Eldregde:
 According to Merrill and Eldregde, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction
wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”.
 Fairchild:
 In the words of Fairchild, “Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or
groups combine their effort in a more or less organized way for the attainment of
common objective”.
Explanation:
 Cooperation involves two elements: (i) Common end and (ii) Organized
effort. When different persons have the same goals and also realize that individually
they cannot achieve these goals, they work jointly for the fulfillment of these goals.
 The reason why we need to work with others is because it’s impossible to solve many
of our personal problems alone. Cooperation is also necessary in various situations.
 For example, operating a modern factory, a large department store, or an educational
system would be impossible if the different divisions and branches within them don’t
work together.
Characteristics:
 Following are the important characteristics of cooperation:
1. Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction that takes place between
two or more individuals or groups.
2. Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have to work
consciously.
3. Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups personally meet
and work together towards a common objective.
4. Cooperation is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective efforts
involved in cooperation.
5. Cooperation is a universal process that is found in all groups, societies, and nations.
6. Cooperation is based on two elements: common end and organized effort.
7. Common ends can be better achieved through cooperation, and it is necessary for the
progress of both individuals and society.
 Types Of Cooperation:
 Cooperation is of different types.
 MacIver and Page:
 MacIver and Page have divided cooperation into two main types namely, (i) Direct
Cooperation (ii) Indirect Cooperation.
 Direct Cooperation:
 Under direct cooperation, all those activities in which people do things together may
be included.
 Example:
 Playing together, working together, carrying a load together, or pulling the car out of
mud together.
 Indirect Competition:
 Under indirect cooperation are in included those activities in which people do unlike
tasks together towards a common end.
 Example:
 when carpenters, plumbers and masons cooperate to build a house. This cooperation
is based on the principle of the division of labor.
 A.W Green:
 A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories such as (i)
Primary cooperation (ii) Secondary cooperation (iii) Tertiary
cooperation.
 Primary Cooperation:
 Primary cooperation is found in primary groups like families. In this type of
cooperation, the interests of individuals and the group are the same. When the group
achieves its goals, it also benefits the individuals.
 Secondary Cooperation:
 Secondary cooperation is seen in secondary groups such as government, industry,
trade unions, and churches.
 Example:
 In an industry, workers cooperate with each other to earn wages, get promotions, and
make profits. Sometimes, they may also seek prestige and power. In this form of
cooperation, the interests of individuals may not always align.
 Tertiary Cooperation:
 Tertiary cooperation happens when different big and small groups work together to
address a specific situation. The attitudes of these groups are usually opportunistic,
and their cooperation is not very strong. For instance, two political parties with
different ideologies may join forces to defeat a common rival in an election.
 Ogburn and Nimikoff:
 Ogburn and Nimikoff categorized cooperation into three main types:
 General Cooperation:
 This type of cooperation occurs when a group of people work together towards a
common goal. An example of general cooperation is the collaboration seen in cultural
functions.
 Friendly Cooperation:
 Friendly cooperation refers to the cooperation we offer each other to achieve
happiness and satisfaction within our group. Activities like dancing, singing, and
dating are examples of friendly cooperation.
 Helping Cooperation:
 Helping cooperation takes place when individuals assist those affected by famine or
flood. This type of cooperation is focused on providing aid to the victims.
 Accommodation:
 Accommodation is when people work together smoothly in a social situation. This
happens when individuals learn how to act and think in a way that fits well with
others.
 People can achieve accommodation by adopting new behaviors, habits, and attitudes
that are taught to them by society. This helps individuals or groups adapt to new
situations and overcome challenges they face.
 Sometimes, things change in society and people have to adjust. They learn how to
adapt to new circumstances. This is what accommodation means – being able to fit in
and adjust to a new environment.
 Definitions:
 MacIver and Page:
 As MacIver and Page say, “the term accommodation refers particularly to the process
in which man attains sense of harmony with his environment”.
 Ogburn and Nimikoff:
 According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Accommodation is a term used by sociologist to
describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”
 Horton and Hunt:
 As Horton and Hunt defines “Accommodation Is a process of developing temporary
working agreements between conflicting individuals or groups”.
 Gillin and Gillin:
 In the words of Gillin and Gillin “Accommodation is the process by which competing
and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order
to overcome the difficulties which arise in competition, contravention or conflict”.
Characteristics:
 The characteristics of accommodation are described below:
(i) It is the result of conflict:
 When hostile individuals or groups are involved in conflict, they realize the
importance of accommodation. Conflict cannot happen all the time, so they make
space for accommodation. It naturally occurs because of conflict. If there were no
conflict, there would be no need for accommodation.
(ii) It is a conscious and unconscious process:
 Accommodation is mainly an unconscious activity. A newborn individual
unconsciously accommodates themselves with their family, caste, play-group, school,
neighborhood, or the entire environment. Sometimes, individuals and groups
deliberately and openly try to stop fighting and start working together. For example,
warring groups make agreements to stop the war. Striking workers end their strike
after reaching an understanding with the management.
(iii) It is a universal activity:
 Human society consists of conflicting elements, so conflicts are unavoidable. No
society can function smoothly if individuals and groups are constantly in conflict.
They need to make efforts to resolve conflicts, making accommodation crucial.
Accommodation exists in varying degrees in every society, all the time.
(iv) It is a continuous process:
 Accommodation is not limited to a particular stage or social situation. Throughout
life, individuals have to accommodate themselves to different situations. The process
of accommodation continues without interruption, just like breathing.
(v) It is a mixture of love and hatred:
 According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, accommodation combines two attitudes:
love and hatred. The attitude of love encourages people to cooperate with one
another. However, it is hatred that leads to conflicts and involvement in them, and
then eventually leads to accommodation with one another.
Techniques and forms of accommodation:
 Here are some techniques and forms of accommodation that you should know:
1. Temporary or permanent: Accommodation can be either temporary
or permanent. It can last for a long time. It may not completely solve the problem, but
it can bring conflicting individuals or groups together. If it is for a specific period, it is
considered temporary. If it is for a lifetime, it is considered permanent.
2. Mediation and conciliation: This occurs when a third party, who is
neutral and unbiased, intervenes in a dispute. The third party acts as an intermediary
and may suggest ways to resolve the differences. However, the disputing parties are
not obligated to accept the decision. For example, the USA and UK often act as
mediators and conciliators.
3. Arbitration: Similar to mediation and conciliation, but in this case, the
decision made by the third party is final. The disputing parties may disagree with the
third party, but they are required to accept the decision and cannot challenge it. The
 third party can be a single person or a group, or it can be in the form of a board. For
instance, the court intervenes in disputes within factories or conflicts among people.
4. Compromise: In this situation, the rival parties willingly give up their
claims and demands in order to achieve peace. While compromise may not completely
resolve differences, both parties agree to cooperate and make concessions for certain
benefits. It’s a process of “give and take.” Compromises usually occur between equals.
5. Rationalization: Rationalization is the act of replacing the real reason for
doing something with a socially acceptable reason. For example, individuals from an
exploited group may rationalize their position by considering it as “God’s will.”
6. Truce: A truce means that the issue, conflict, or rivalry is not fully resolved,
but it is temporarily calmed down for a specific or indefinite period. It may be based
on a “ceasefire line,” like the case of Kashmir between Pakistan and India. It refers to
a state of “no wars, no peace” between individuals, groups, or nations.
7. Toleration: This is based on the principle of “live and let others live,” where
individuals and groups accommodate themselves with other groups by showing
toleration.
 Assimilation:
 Assimilation refers to the process where people from different cultures come together
and start to adopt or merge with each other’s cultures. This process happens
gradually over time and is more of a slow evolution rather than a sudden change. It
goes through different stages before complete assimilation takes place.
 Basically, assimilation is a social process that leads to the disappearance of cultural
differences and beliefs. For example, when someone gets married to a person from a
different background, after some time, they may start to forget their own cultural
norms and embrace the new ones. When there is no longer any cultural diversity
between the husband and wife, we can say that assimilation has occurred.
 Definitions:
 Some of its definitions of assimilation are given below:
 Biesanz and Biesanz:
 According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process whereby
individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals”.
 E.S. Bogardus:
 “Assimilation”, says E.S. Bogardus, “is a process whereby attitudes of many persons
are united, and thus, develop into a united group”.
 Ogburn and Nimikoff:
 As Ogburn and Nimkoff define, “Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or
groups once dissimilar become similar, that it become identified in the interests and
outlook”.
 Park and Burgess:
 According to Park and Burgess, “Assimilation is a process of interpenetration and
fusion in which individuals and groups acquire the attitudes and values of other
persons or groups, and by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated with
them in a common cultural life”.
Characteristics of Assimilation:
1. Assimilation is a process where things are connected or related.
2. Assimilation happens everywhere and all the time.
3. Assimilation takes time and happens gradually. People start to adopt the expectations
of a different group and slowly adapt to new values. It cannot happen quickly. For
example, it took over two centuries for the Anglo-Saxon and Norman cultures to
assimilate in Britain.
4. Assimilation occurs without people realizing it. They are not aware that they are
giving up their own values and taking on new ones.
5. Assimilation is a two-sided process. It involves both giving and receiving. When
different groups interact, they borrow cultural aspects from each other and
incorporate them into their own culture. This exchange influences both groups. They
let go of some of their cultural elements and replace them with new ones.
 Dissociative Processes:
 Social process which leads to negative results is called dissociative processes. These
social processes result in disintegration of society. These also known disjunctive social
processes. Competition and conflict etc. are examples of dissociative social processes.
 Competition:
 Competition is a type of social process where people strive to obtain something they
desire. It is the most basic form of social struggle. Competition happens when there is
not enough of a certain thing for everyone to have as much as they want. According to
Ogburn and Nimkoff, competition arises when demand exceeds supply. For
example, people do not compete for sunshine, air, and gifts of nature because these
things are readily available.
 In any society, there are usually more people who want jobs than there are jobs
available. This leads to competition for those jobs. Even among those who are already
employed, there is competition for better jobs. So, there is competition not just for
basic necessities like bread, but also for things like luxuries, power, social status,
finding a partner, fame, and anything else that can’t simply be obtained by asking for
it.
 Definitions:
 Sutherland, Woodword and Maxwell:
 According to, Sutherland, Woodword and Maxwell. “Competition is an impersonal,
unconscious, continuous straggle between individuals and groups for satisfaction
which, because of their limited supply, all may not have”.
 E.S. Bogardus:
 As E.S. Bogardus says. “Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not
exist in quantity sufficient to meet the demand.”
 Biesanz and Biesanz:
 According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Competition is the striving of two or more
persons for the same goal with is limited so that all cannot share it”.
 Park and Burgess:
 Park and Burgess write, “Competition is an interaction without social contract”.
 Characteristics:
 By analyzing various definitions, we can identify the following characteristics of
competition:
(i) Universal: Competition is present in every society and in every age. It can be
found in all groups. It is a part of the universal struggle for survival, not only in
human society but also in the plant and animal worlds.
(ii) Impersonal: Competition is not a personal action. It is an interaction
without social contact. The competitors do not know each other and do not
compete on a personal level. Their focus is solely on the goal or reward they aim
to achieve. That’s why competition is considered an impersonal affair.
(iii) Unconscious Activity: Competition occurs at the unconscious level.
Competitors are mainly driven by the desire to achieve their goals or obtain
rewards. They rarely have awareness of other competitors. For example,
students in a class may strive to obtain the highest marks in a final examination,
but they do not perceive their classmates as competitors. Although students may
be conscious of the competition and concerned about their marks, their attention
is primarily on the reward or goal, not on other competitors.
(iv) Continuous Process: Competition is ongoing and never-ending. It is not
sporadic or intermittent. Due to limited availability of goods, people continuously
compete for their acquisition. The pursuit of status, fame, power, and wealth
drives competition to persistently exist in human society.
 Forms of Competition:
 Competition can be divided into many categories or forms. They are economic
competition, cultural competition, social competition, racial competition, political
competition etc. It exists everywhere but appears in many forms.
1. Economic Competition:
 Economic competition refers to a race between individuals and groups to achieve
certain material goods in various economic activities. This competition occurs in areas
such as production, consumption, distribution, and exchange of wealth. An example of
economic competition is when two industrial sectors compete to produce goods. In
modern industrial society, people’s materialistic tendencies have greatly contributed
to economic competition.
2. Cultural Competition:
 Cultural competition occurs between different cultures when they try to establish
their superiority over others. This type of competition leads to the existence of diverse
cultures in society. For instance, in ancient times, there was a strong competition
between the Aryans and non-Aryans, sometimes resulting in conflicts. Present-day
examples of cultural competition can be seen in the religious competitions between
Hindus and Muslims.
3. Social Competition:
 Social competition is predominantly found in modern societies and is a fundamental
feature of today’s world. People compete with each other to acquire a high status,
popularity, name, and fame in society. Social competition plays a crucial role in
determining an individual’s status within the society.
4. Racial Competition:
 Racial competition occurs when different races try to prove their superiority over
others. The world is made up of various races, and intense competition always arises
between them. For instance, in India, there is a competition between the Indo-Aryan
race and the Dravidian race. Similarly, in South Africa, there is competition between
the white and black races.
5. Political Competition:
 Political competition takes place within the political sphere. In democratic countries,
competition is inevitable among political parties and even within the members of a
political party who aim to gain political power. Likewise, there is always diplomatic
competition between different nations at the international level. A prime example of
political competition in India is the competition between Congress (I) and B.J.P. for
political power.
 Functions of competition:
 Competition serves several functions:
1. Affects social structure: Competition influences the social structure
and how different groups and individuals are distributed within a culture. These
changes occur due to competitive forces.
2. Promotes invention and efficiency: Competition leads to
innovation and efficiency in all areas of social interaction. It drives progress in both
material and non-material aspects of culture.
3. Fosters democratic spirit: The purpose of competition is to allow
individuals and groups to compete in social, political, and economic aspects of life.
Without competition, those from higher social classes would have advantages in socio-
economic activities over others.
 Conflict:
 Conflict is a common and important social process. It occurs when people focus more
on themselves than on the task they are competing for.
 Instead of cooperating, conflict involves trying to win by weakening or eliminating
competitors. It is a purposeful effort to go against, resist, or force another person’s
desires. Conflict can take various forms, including occasional, personal, and hostile
competition.
 Definitions:
 J H. Fitcher:
 According to J.H. Fitcher, “Conflict is the social process in which individual or groups
seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence”. As K. Davis defines, “Conflict is u codified form of struggle”.
 A.W Green:
 According to A.W. Green, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or
coerce the will of another or others”.
 Gillin and Gillin:
 Gillin and Gillin say, “Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups
seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence”.
 Type of Conflict:
  Conflict can manifest itself in various ways and intensities, occurring in every aspect
of human interaction. Maclver and Page have identified two fundamental types
of conflict: direct and indirect.
(i) Direct Conflict:
 Direct conflict arises when a person or a group intentionally harms, obstructs, or
destroys their opponent in order to achieve a specific goal or reward. Examples of
direct conflict include litigation, revolution, and war.
(ii) Indirect Conflict:
 In indirect conflict, individuals or groups attempt to undermine the efforts of their
opponents in an indirect manner. For instance, two manufacturers engaging in a
competition to continuously lower the prices of their products until both businesses
become financially insolvent. In this case, indirect conflict occurs.
 Other Types:
i. Class conflict: There are different social classes in society. The upper classes
often exploit the lower class for their own benefit and hinder the progress and
prosperity of the lower classes. This exploitation leads to conflicts between classes.
Examples of class conflict include the French Revolution and the Russian Revolution.
Other examples of conflicts can be found between tenants and landlords, as well as
between laborers and industrialists.
ii. Racial conflict: When different races coexist in a country, racial conflicts can
arise. For instance, in the USA, UK, and South Africa, conflicts between blacks and
whites exist because the blacks are a minority and are exploited by the whites, which
leads to racial tensions.
iii. Religious conflict: Religious conflicts can occur between different sects
within a religion or between different religions. Within a religion, there may be
conflicts between sects. For example, in Pakistan, there is a Shia-Sunni conflict due to
their differences in beliefs. There are also conflicts between Catholics and Protestants
in Christianity. Between religions, conflicts can occur between Hindus and Christians,
Sikhs and Hindus, and Muslims and Christians in various parts of the world.
iv. Political conflict: When a political party gains power in a country, they
often suppress their political opponents. Political conflicts can also arise between
different countries, which may result in devastating wars.
v. Inter and intra community conflicts: Intercommunity conflicts
occur between different communities, pitting one community against another. On the
other hand, intra-community conflicts usually happen within a single community and
involve divisions, feuds, or conflicts between different factions or sects, etc.