Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Manila is well-known all over the world for its bustling city life and it plenty of

tourist attractions that showcase the rich culture of the Philippines but aside from the

impressive display of hospitality and the wide array of delicious food sold in streets and

various Filipino restaurants all over the metro. Manila is also infamous for one other

thing the traffic congestion with millions of cars and public utility vehicles traveling to

and from the city on daily basis, motorist and commuters are subjected to Manila traffic

daily during rush hours (Neity,2018).

The study of Kang-Mae and Banister (2006) states that while Metro Manila is home

to impressive skylines and high-rise buildings that can attest to the advancement of the

metropolitan area, the same cannot be said about the road infrastructures developed in the

cities because together with roads with insufficient vehicle capacity, the constant road

repairs and the ongoing completion of road projects to ease traffic congestion means that

it will become worse before it will become better. The research by Bissel (2015) said that

traffic congestion being one of the most pertinent problems in Metro Manila and in other

major cities in the country, it might still be a mystery for some what really causes the

long hours of traffic jams. According to the study by Yuvallos (2022), from

overpopulation to unreliable public transportation, there are numerous reasons why

Manila traffic is just worsening problem even with numerous proposed solution. Yulo

(2010) states that there is no readymade universally acceptable solution to the urban

transport problem. Planners, engineers, economists and transport technologists each have

their own views, which when combined, invariably produced a workable strategy.

Causes
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One of the reasons why Metro Manila traffic continues to worsen is due to the

poor management of public transport which pushes public utility vehicles and jeepneys to

compete for passengers (Go-Fu,2021). The global awareness of effects of continuous

pollution from burning fossil fuels and carbon emissions, it has now become more

apparent how congested traffic negatively affetcs the environment through increased

vehicle emissions and harmful chemicals. The study conducted by Declou (2007) states

that the Manila population’s constant exposure to emissions and air pollution has taken

its toll on public health. The inefficient Manila traffic scheme and constant exposure to

road emmisions from both public, since the longer you are on road, the more emission

your public transport or private vehicle emits. Metro Manila is hailed as the main center

of commerce and education in the Philippines, with millions of people flocking to the

region in search of a job and educational opportunities with multinational companies and

established institutions taking root in the Philippine capital, people from the provinces

choose to recolate and secure jobs in this economic center. In the study conducted by

Zadda (2019) states that recently, the impact of transportation infrastructure has been a

hot topic, and the economic effect of transportation infrastructure has been receiving

more attention and debate because of the pursuit to direct economic growth of both

regions and sector . To review multiple impacts of transportation infrastructure,

scientometric studies have been used to analyze the literature and reveal trends in some

specific topics such as transport phenomenon and public transport. Transportation is vital

for students as it affects their academic success, attendance, and well-being. According to

Benjamin C. Atl (2014), transportation difficulties can increase stress, aggressive

behavior, anxiety, and depression. (Hopson et. al. (2022) found that longer travel times

can lead to poorer academic performance, unless they enable access to better schools.

(Johanes Mugoro, 2014) noted that transportation issues can cause students to miss
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school, skip classes, and face harassment from bus operators. For university students,

transportation is important for mobility and impacts city planning and economics.

Therefore, understanding how students travel and their transportation choices is key for

developing urban policies and promoting sustainable transport options (Claudia Balseca

Clavijo, 2017).

Effects

The study of Kowslowsky and Kluger (2013) states that due to the unmanaged public

transportation more citizens are opting alternative transportation services or investing in

their own private vehicles for easier and more comfortable daily travel. Since vehicle

emissions produce greenhouse gasses it affects the air pollution and damages the health

condition of every passengers. The study Vanaag (2018) states that the more pollutants

the population is exposed to, the more effects it has on general public health, leading to

more medical bills and a shorter lifespan. The study of Zackariahs (2010) states that

people from provinces flocking to Manila for better job opportunities means that more

people are residing in the cities of Metro Manila, but more people are also expected to

commuter and travel around the cities during rush hour this turned Manila into denser

traffic and more vehicles on the road. The research conducted by Avilanfo (2020) states

that there are multitude of other costs and problems that is brought about by the

horrendous daily traffic situation in Manila , aside from these Manila traffic also affects

safety, the economy, and the utilization of the country’s most important resources. The

study of Mckienly (2015) conducted a study that Manila traffic affects millions of people

in Metro Manila, from workers trying to clock in on time at their offices to students

travelling to their universities for their classes. The social effects of traffic congestions

are undeniable, with studies of Abartorz (2011) showing that the average Filipino wasted

about 188 hours per year stuck in traffic during rush hour. The study of Zephan (2019)
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states that transportation infrastructure, as a complex network, connects cities and

accommodates human activities coupling the social, economic and environmental

systems with the urbanization and population growth. Additionally, the transportation

network contributes to the socioeconomic development and the increased quality of life

through generating inter- or intra-city connections during urbanization. In addition this

study is supported by Ashington (2015) the author states that goals such as low-carbon,

resilient and sustainable development should not be ignored when the transportation

network is expanded. In detail, transportation infrastructure among cities leads to urban

aggregation and diffusion, greatly boosting the regional and national economic

development. However, the irrational planning of transportation infrastructure also

generates negative effects, such as the ecological destruction, increased traffic accidents,

climate change, CO2 emissions and lower transport efficiency. Therefore, it is necessary

to identify multiple impacts of transportation infrastructure from existing studies.

According Asha Kaushik and colleagues (2023) they examine how commuting impacts

students' academic performance.

Performance: The research shows that longer commuting times are linked to lower

academic achievement among Bachelor of Technology students.

Class Attendance: The study found that 53% of commuting students felt that their travel

negatively affected their ability to attend classes regularly and on time, which is essential

for doing well academically.

Stress and Anxiety: A significant 86% of students reported feeling constant stress about

meeting attendance requirements, fearing they could be barred from exams if they don't

attend enough. This anxiety can further harm their focus and academic performance.

Policy Implications: The results suggest that academic administrators should take

commuting issues into account when creating policies. By offering flexible attendance
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policies or support for commuting students, schools can improve the academic

environment. Relevance: Although the study focuses on students in India, the findings

may also apply to other countries with similar attendance rules, highlighting a global

need to understand how commuting affects students' academic experiences.

Solution

The article by Reich (2014) states that because of this problem the bad

transportation system, one possible solution is for cars to be limited, and public mass

transportation be given priority on Metro Manila roads. However due to the long ques of

traffic jam or long ques at the terminal some people are buying their own vehicle which is

the problem that never ends another car, another one that would cause more traffics. The

conducted research of Cahyuro (2017) states that the freedom and opportunities promised

by modern transport systems epitomize some of humanity’s greatest achievements. Well-

designed, safe and equitable transport systems have the potential to optimize access to

employment opportunities, to services, including health and education, to social and

family networks, and impact positively on health and wellbeing. However, at present, the

opposite is often observed, with many planning and transport designs demonstrating the

negative impacts of adopting certain ways of moving about.

The study of Veighna (2019) shows why a lot of people wanted to have their own

private vehicle and the solution that can be done for this is to first convince them that

having their own will just add to more cars in the roads every day. It is hard to convince

them since the first thing that made them buy their own car is because commuting for

them is every inefficient that’s why the government must do something about the mass

public transportation so that commuting will be efficient and comfortable to the

commuters. The research of Proudfoot (2016) shows that to lessen the greenhouse effects

on the air pollution the car and vehicles are also need to be lessen and promote more
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sustainable and green environment not just for commuters but also for every human being

along the area. The study conducted by Ashington (2015) states that the benefits of

cycling have long been recognized, the bicycle is cheap to buy and run and is in urban

areas often the quickest door-to-door mode, it is a benign form of transport, being

noiseless, non-polluting, energy-and space-efficient and non-threatening to most other

road users. A pro-cycling city would promote fitness among cyclists and health among

non-cyclists. Cycling is thus a way of providing mobility, which is cheap for the

individual and for society.

Definition of Terms

Long Ques. A line of people, usually standing or in cars, waiting for something or a

lot of people who want something(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/

subpopulation).

Traffic Jam. A situation of too many vehicles on a road so that they can move only

very slowly or not at

all(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/trafficjam).

Traffic Congestion. Traffic congestion refers to the condition in which there is an

excessive amount of vehicles on roads or at intersections, leading to a significant

slowdown or halt in the flow of traffic. It occurs when the demand for transportation

exceeds the capacity of the road network, causing delays, longer travel times, and

reduced overall efficiency of transportation systems

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/trafficcongestion).

Rush Hour. The busy part of the day when towns and cities are crowded, either in

the morning when people are travelling to work, or in

the evening when people are travelling home.(https://www.britannica.com/rushhour)

Greenhouse Gases. Any gas that has the property of absorbing infrared

radiation (net heat energy) emitted from Earth’s surface and reradiating it back to Earth’s

surface, thus contributing to the greenhouse effect.

(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/greenhousegases)

Horrendous. Extremely bad or unpleasant

(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/horrendous)

Green environment. The main objective of implementing these practices is saving

the Earth by preventing the exploitation of natural resources and preserving the

environment. There are several other concepts that support a green environment, such as

green chemistry, green economy, green tourism, and green energy. All three work

together to fight climate change and slow down the effects of global warming

(https://www.britannica.com/greenenvironment)

Bustling. An adjective that means full of busy

activity(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/bustling)

Vehicle emission. Vehicle emissions are pollutants released from the exhaust of cars,

trucks, and buses, contributing to air quality degradation and climate change. These

emissions include harmful gases like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and

hydrocarbons (https://www.britannica.com/vehicle/emmision)