Calculus: Vectors and coordinates

Adnan Sadik

Contents
1 Basic Properties of Vectors 1

2 Theory 3

3 polar coordinates 6

4 Problems 8

1 Basic Properties of Vectors

Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors a and b is given by:
a · b = |a||b| cos θ
where θ is the angle between a and b.
In terms of components:
a · b = ax bx + ay by + az bz

Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors a and b is given by:
|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
where θ is the angle between a and b, and the direction of the result follows the
right-hand rule.
In terms of components:
a × b = ⟨ay bz − az by , az bx − ax bz , ax by − ay bx ⟩
,→ Dot product= 0 if two vectors are perpendicular(orthogonal).
Cross Product is 0 if two vectors are parallel.

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Cross Product Using Determinants
The cross product can also be computed using a matrix determinant:

i j k
a × b = ax ay az = i(ay bz − az by ) − j(ax bz − az bx ) + k(ax by − ay bx )
bx by bz

Unit Vector
The unit vector of a vector a, denoted as â, is a vector that has the same direction as
a but with a magnitude of 1. It is given by:
a
â =
|a|

where |a| is the magnitude of a, i.e.

q
|a| = a2x + a2y + a2z

Projection of One Vector onto Another

The projection of a vector a onto another vector b is given by:
a·b
Projb a = b
|b|2

Alternatively, using the unit vector b̂ in the direction of b, the projection can also be
written as:
Projb̂ a = (a · b̂)b̂

Dot and Cross Product Geometrical Interpretation

- The **dot product** a · b measures how much of vector a lies in the direction of
vector b. It lies in the plane formed by a and b.
- The **cross product** a × b produces a vector that is **perpendicular** to the
plane formed by a and b, and its magnitude represents the area of the parallelogram
created by a and b.

2
2 Theory

Line:
⃗r = r⃗0 + t⃗v
where r0 is any point on the line and v is the direction vector for the line.(can
be found by subtracting two points on this line). so,

⃗r = p⃗0 + t(p⃗0 − p⃗1 )

if r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and v = (a, b, c), you can get the parametric form

x = x0 + ta

y = y0 + tb
z = z0 + tc

Plane:
⃗n · (⃗r − r⃗0 ) = 0
(Dot product of any line on the plane and the normal vector is 0) If you are
given n = (a, b, c) and r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) you will get,

ax + by + cz = ax0 + by0 + cz0

(exercise)( Notice the rhs is just constant given we know the normal vector and
some point on the plane, often denoted this part as d).

Three points P, Q, R given. plane=?

ans: We need ⃗n, so we take P Q × QR = ⃗n

Three vectors u, v, w. are they on the same plane?

ans: we check
u.(v × w)
is 0 or not. (v × w gives a perpendicular to the plane formed by v, w and ). if
that perpendicular when taken dot product with u give 0 that means u is also
on the same plane.

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 Scalar Triple Product = a · (b × c)
 
ax ay az
b bz b b b by
= det  bx by bz  = ax y − ay x z + az x
cy cz cx cz cx cy
cx cy cz

Exercise: given 4 points,how do you decide whether they are on the same plane
or not?
What about given 3 points, how do you decide coplanar or not?

plane equation can also be written as:

⃗r = p⃗ + s⃗u + t⃗v

with two vectors on the plane u, v and a point p on the plane.(compare this
with line equation). Bonus: This follows easily from the two boxes above.(can
you see why?

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Distance from a point to a line:
1. given point
P (x1 , y1 , z1 )

2. Plane Equation:
Ax + By + Cz = d
then, ⃗n = (A, B, C)
3. choose any point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) on the plane i.e. it satisfies the plane
equation:
Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 = d

4. The shortest distance will be perpendicular to the plane just as the normal
vector ⃗n. So, all we need to do is project P⃗P0 onto ⃗n. Thus, answer:

P⃗P0 · ⃗n
P roj⃗n P⃗P0 =
||⃗n||

5. if you plug the coordinates in and do the math in fact, you can find the
formula:
|Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D|
√
A2 + B 2 + C 2
(Do this part as an exercise)

How do you find angle between two planes?

ans: angle between two planes is the same as the angle between two normal
vectors. and angle between any two vector u, v is simply:
u.v
cos θ =
||u||||v||

Distance between point and a line?

point=P , line=Q, v(some point, direction vector)

|P Q × v|
ans = P Q sin θ =
|v|

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3 polar coordinates

how to transform?

1. plug in cos θ = r/x and sin θ = r/y

2. do some algebra to make it look nice.

p
3. plug in r = (x2 + y 2 )

In polar coordinates, the unit vectors er and eθ are defined as:

   
cos θ − sin θ
er = , eθ =
sin θ cos θ
The derivatives of the unit vectors with respect to θ are:
   
der d cos θ − sin θ
= = = eθ
dθ dθ sin θ cos θ
   
deθ d − sin θ − cos θ
= = = −er
dθ dθ cos θ − sin θ
Thus, the derivatives are:
der deθ
= eθ , = −er
dθ dθ

position,velocity and acceleration vector

In polar coordinates, the position vector r is defined as:

r = rer
The velocity v is given by the derivative of the position vector:

dr d(rer ) der
v= = = ṙer + r
dt dt dt
der
Using the relationship dt = θ̇eθ , we get:

v = ṙer + rθ̇eθ
The acceleration a is given by the derivative of the velocity:
dv d  
a= = ṙer + rθ̇eθ
dt dt
Applying the product rule, we find:

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 der d deθ
a = r̈er + ṙ + (rθ̇)eθ + r
dt dt dt
der deθ
Using the derivatives dt = θ̇eθ and = −θ̇er , we have:
dt
 
a = r̈er + ṙθ̇eθ + ṙθ̇ + rθ̈ eθ − rθ̇2 er

Thus, the acceleration vector becomes:

   
a = r̈ − rθ̇2 er + 2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈ eθ

Ellipse
1. Ellipse Equation in Cartesian Coordinates:
The equation of an ellipse in the x − y plane is given by:

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
where a is the semi-major axis and b is the semi-minor axis.
2. Ellipse Equation in Polar Coordinates:
In polar coordinates, the equation of an ellipse centered at the origin with one focus
at the origin is given by:
ek
r(θ) =
1 + e cos θ
where e is the eccentricity. k is the intersection of the x-axis with directrix.
3. Eccentricity Formula:
The eccentricity e of an ellipse can be defined as:
r
b2
e= 1− 2
a
where a is the length of the semi-major axis and b is the length of the semi-minor
axis.
for any point P on the ellipse, the following relationship holds:
Distance from P to Focus
=e
Distance from P to Directrix
,→ center and focus are different.

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4 Problems
LINES
1. Find an equation for the line that goes through the two points A(1, 0, −2) and
B(4, −2, 3).
2. Find an equation for the line that is parallel to the line
x = 3 − t, y = 6t, z = 7t + 2
and goes through the point P (0, 1, 2).
3. Find an equation for the line that is orthogonal to the plane
3x − y + 2z = 10
and goes through the point P (1, 4, −2).
4. Find an equation for the line of intersection of the planes
5x + y + z = 4
and
10x + y − z = 6.
More problems on lines

PLANES
1. Find the equation of the plane that goes through the three points A(0, 3, 4),
B(1, 2, 0), and C(−1, 6, 4).
2. Find the equation of the plane that is orthogonal to the line
x = 4 + t, y = 1 − 2t, z = 8t
and goes through the point P (3, 2, 1).
3. Find the equation of the plane that is parallel to the plane
5x − 3y + 2z = 6
and goes through the point P (4, −1, 2).
4. Find the equation of the plane that contains the intersecting lines
x = 4 + t1 , y = 2t1 , z = 1 − 3t1
and
x = 4 − 3t2 , y = 3t2 , z = 1 + 2t2 .
5. Find the equation of the plane that is orthogonal to the plane
3x + 2y − z = 4
and goes through the points P (1, 2, 4) and Q(−1, 3, 2).

More problems on planes