INSTITUTO SUPERIOR PARTICULAR INCORPORADO Nº 9123 “SAN

BARTOLOMÉ”
_________________________________________________________

Art Presentation Nº 1:
ROMAN ART

Date: May 27th

Career: Traductorado en Inglés (1st 1)
Subject: Culture and Art.
Professor: Suarez, Ana Paula.
Members of the group: Lara Díaz, Chiarotti Agustín, Marelli Anghelina, Menichelli
Simón, Nieto Rocío.

1
History

The age of kings (753 BC – 509BC)

What is Rome? A city on Seven Hills, capital of Italy, there was a tiny tribal
settlement of the Latins by the river Tyber.
How did this manage to conquer the world? First it was lucky with its neighbours to
the north, the Etruscans of modern Tuscany, a mysterious people whose language
has never been fully deciphered, to the South Greek colonies, these peoples all
traded with each other; it was at the crossroads of their trade routes that Rome
appeared. From the very start Rome has been an open City, a safe haven for
outcasts, murderers and runaway slaves. Rome offered migrants a unique
opportunity to become fully fledged citizens; this will make Rome the largest
metropolitan city of the ancient world. The Romans themselves believed they were
descendants of refugees from the Middle East who had survived the Trojan War.
Romulus and Remus were the great grandchildren of the Trojan hero Aenas nursed
by an Italian she Wolf the brothers quarrelled where to sight the future world Capital.
As Legend has it there were seven Kings Each of which enjoyed a lengthy Reign
and left some beneficial Legacy a calendar, a sewer system for the capitolium and a
temple to the senior god Jupiter. Much of what the Romans later became famous for
aqueducts, bridges, perhaps even the gladiatorial games were borrowed from the
Etruscans. These people had invented the Latin alphabet by adapting the Greek
letters for their own needs; it's not surprising that their last kings at Etruscan Rome
borrowed her military and government organisation from them, while maintaining her
stern patriarchal simplicity. In 509 Rome was shaken by a sex scandal, the son of
King Tarquin the proud raped the chased Lucrecia, Tarquin was expelled making
him the last king of Rome.

Birth of the republic (509 BCE – 289 BCE)

The Romans decided to prevent any such concentration of power ever again. From
509 onwards they elected two consuls to serve a year of peace instead of a
monarch. The consuls were controlled by the Senate that consisted of 300 fathers
patres in Latin, hence the term patricians, those not so lucky to be born into the right
families joined the plebs even if they were as rich as patricians they were not entitled
to take up positions in the state. It is in the 200 years of struggle for these rights that
the Republic literally meaning public thing will be formed. The plebeians would make
up the backbone of the army and to have their own way they would threaten the
fledgling state with immigration to a neighbouring Hill. Each time the scared
patricians caved in, introducing for instance the special position of a representative
or Tribune of the plebeians, they had the right to veto (prohibit) any decisions of the
consuls. One of the main achievements of the struggle was the publication of the first
written laws. By 287 BC the plebeians had achieved complete equality rights with the
patricians. The unity of Rome found its best expression in the formula Senatus

2
Populusque Romanus (The Senate and The People of Rome) which still adorns the
manhole covers in Rome.

The expansion of Rome (390 BCE – 146 BCE)

In 390 BC the history of Rome could have come to an end. The city was
unexpectedly taken by the Gauls, the guard dogs had sensed no danger for which
they would be crucified every year since. Geese awoke the last protectors of the
capitoline Hill Fortress instead, saving Rome from complete destruction. The shaken
Romans conducted a military reform. Source?
The Roman legion was divided into Manipula (a handful) making it more mobile in
battle. The roman army spent the next 100 years in constant wars. Instead of simply
imposing a tribute on the conquered, the Romans would enter into a treaty of
alliance with them and the loyal allies Supply Rome with a Never-Ending stream of
recruits, thanks to this, the Roman Legions were able to stand their ground in battle
with the most efficient fighting force of the time, the all conquering Macedonian
Phalanx, led by Pyrrhus a relative of Alexander the Great the last stronghold of
resistance in Italy. Source?
The Greek city of Tarentum then hired the most costly and celebrated contemporary
warlord of the time to defend against Roman expansion. Having conquered
Tarentum and reached Sicily, Rome now had to take on a much more dangerous
adversary, Carthage, lord of the Mediterranean. The Romans called the Phoenicians
of Carthage Punics, hence to the Punic Wars. They fought over the next 100 years.
In 149 BC Rome had taken the greater part of Punic territory and that of their allies,
but after each defeat the trading power of Carthage would rapidly recover. Senator
Cato the Elder, began to finish every speech with the same refrain ”Carthage must
be destroyed” and so it was done that the city was wiped out, all of its population
was enslaved, allegedly ploughing salt into the Earth as an eternal curse. Also in 146
BC the Romans wiped out another city, Corinth, making Greece and Macedonia
Roman provinces. Source?
Rome appropriated the Colossal Riches of the disintegrating Empire of Alexander,
but the patriarchal simplicity of Rome succumbed to the sophisticated Greek culture.
Greek became in effect a second state language. The Roman ability busied itself
learning new words, history and rhetoric. Cicero, the most famed orator of Rome
would come to model his speeches on those of the Greek Demosthenes. However
across this immense territory four rights were only afforded to the Romans
themselves, even other Italians the majority of the military had no citizenship rights;
these would demand equality, declare war and win the right to take part in managing
the state. This was a total Game Changer while ancient Greece remained a
collection of squabbling city states Rome gradually extended citizenship rights to the
conquered laying down the bases for an Empire.

Civil Wars and the fall of the Republic (133 BCE – 30 BCE)
Having conquered half the world, Rome fell victim to globalisation, cheap grain and
an inflow of unpaid slave labour, bankrupted the small farmers. These rushed into
the cities and joined the ranks of the proletariat, those who have nothing to lose

3
except their own offspring. At the same time the rich grew 100 times richer having
bought land from the ruined peasants for a song. Previously united, the Senate and
the Roman people split into two hostile camps. The tribunes of the people, the
Gracchi brothers (Tiberius and Gaius) would try to reconcile them. They proposed
granting excessed public lands to the impoverished peasants and suggested free
distributions of bread to the poor. The disgruntled Senators decided to suppress the
Gracchi movement by force, killing the brothers and several thousand of their allies.
Rome was gripped by civil wars, social mobility for the proletariat was offered by
Gaius Marius, a popular general. He began enrolling the proletariat into the army
with a promise of a grant of land at the end of service; this would make the legions
personally devoted to their generals. In 49 BC two outstanding generals fought over
Rome, Gnaeus Pompeius had won the Eastern provinces for Rome including
restless Judea. Cleared the Mediterranean of piracy (71BC – 49 BC), defeated
Spartacus' slave revolt and justifiably added the title “Great” to his name Gaius Julius
Caesar had conquered Gaul, nowadays they would call it genocide. He butchered a
million Gauls and enslaved as many more. He went on to defeat the Germans and
then invaded Britain. According to the law a general had to dismiss his legions
before returning to Rome and in return have his moment of glory, a triumphal entry
into the capital to the applause of the citizens. Caesar performed a hitherto unseen
manoeuvre (48 BCE – 45 BCE). He refused to submit to the Senate and having
crossed the Italian border, the river Rubicon marched his legions to Rome. It would
take him several years to defeat Pompeius the Great and his other rivals pitching
Roman against each other. In the process Caesar annexed new territories and gave
Cleopatra the Egyptian throne. After a romantic cruise along the Nile, she would give
birth to Caesarion or Little Caesar. On his return Caesar would add Imperator
(commander, general)or Emperor to his name, titled originally meaning “victorious
commander” and gain control of all political positions; Consul, Tribune of the people
and Dictator. Rumours spread that Caesar wanted to declare himself King.
Conspiracy was brewing in the Senate and Caesar was assassinated. He left his
wealth quite unexpectedly for all concerned to his Grand nephew 19-year-old Gaius
Octavius. This Octavian immediately joined in the power struggle. In 31 BCE, he
defeated his last rival, the warlord Mark Anthony who likewise had an affair with
Cleopatra the lovers would take their own lives. Octavian was left ruler of a vast
territory.

The age of Augustus (27 CE – 14 CE)

Julius Caesar ruled for 4 years, Octavian assuming the title Augustus, meaning the
venerable or the great, ruled for an endless 43 years. He did notformally abolish the
Republic, he simply took control of all possible positions making his power almost
absolute but he modestly called himself Princeps (the first Senator) and even though
skirmishes with barbarians continued along the borders inside them the period of
Pax Romana set in a period of peace and stability that was to last 200 years the
Empire experienced an economic upswing bread was distributed for free to 200,000
people, on Augustus orders a 500 M Basin was dug at the very centre of the capital

4
where 3,000 Gladiators mimic sea battles on real sea vessels. In Rome construction
was booming, concrete multi-story districts were growing, Augustus had to introduce
height regulations limiting skyscrapers to six floors and still the citizens were
unhappy. They complained about traffic jams, pollution of the waters of the Tyber and
high rents. Source?
The golden Century of poetry dawned. Maecenas, a quasi minister of culture,
allocated special grants to praise the value of the state, temples would be built in the
honour of Augustus and even a month was named after him thus the cult of the
Roman emperors was emerging they would come to be venerated alongside Mars
and Jupiter.Source?

The Height of Empire (96 CE – 180 CE)

The second century would go down in history as the era of the good Emperors
(Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and Antonius Pius). Trajan was considered by his
contemporaries the best Emperor ever, Rome became a million-strong city and the
Empire reached its largest extent. Rome connected new territories via a network of
paved roads; this system still determines the transport map of Europe. After Trajan's
conquest, Hadrian bested himself with defence, erecting massive fortifications in
Britain and between the Ryn and the Danu. Pantheon was built in Rome, the first
temple to be topped by a massive Dome, a real architectural sensation of the day
dedicated to all the gods Hadrien would also include his lover among them the young
Antinous more of his images have survived than of any Roman. The last good
Emperor, the throned philosopher, Marcus Aurelus, would spend most of his reign on
military expeditions in between battles; he wrote his manifesto for stoic philosophy,
Meditations.Source?

The end of Empire (305 CE – 476 CE)

After Diocletian's (284 CE – 305 CE) departure, the co-rulers were fighting for power,
Constantine the future St Constantine the Great, emerging victorious, before the
crucial battle for Rome he allegedly had a vision of a cross. After this, he made all
religions equal, after 300 years of persecutions, the Christians came out of the
catacombs and were now entitled to build churches alongside the temples of
Augustus and Mars. Constantine would take the cross from Jerusalem to the new
capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople.
Theodosius I would make Christianity the official religion and begin to destroy the
ancient temples. He would also be the last emperor of a United Roman Empire. His
sons split the empire into West and East. The eastern half would live another
thousand years and is known to us as Byzantium. The western part would fall victim
to the great migration of peoples. Rome founded by migrants would fall to the
onslaught of a new wave of refugees ironically the last ruler of Rome would be called
Romulus. Source?

5
Ancient Rome Geography

Rome is one of history's largest and most powerful civilizations. The Roman Empire
ruled across parts of three continents (Europe, Africa, and Asia) for over 1,000
years.
Rome began as a small village near the Tiber River, on what nowadays it is known,
as the Italian Peninsula close to the Mediterranean Sea. The city was far enough
inland to provide some protection from those at sea but close enough for ease of
transportation.
The Tiber River is the second longest river in Italy and was a source of freshwater
and rich soil needed to support the development of people, animals, and crops of
Rome.
The Tiber provided easy transportation and the river’s valley created a large area for
farming. The river also served as a defense system against attacks coming from the
other side of the river.
The Alps and Apennine Mountain ranges were natural barriers that helped protect
Rome from invasions and provided a strategic location for the city during war time.
The Alps provided a roadblock that forced invaders to move through narrow
passages, allowing the Romans time to prepare and attack.
The Apennine Mountains divided the peninsula in half, providing protection against
invasion from the east. This allowed Rome to defend against invaders approaching
from either side of the mountains.
Being close to the Mediterranean Sea allowed Rome to trade with cities in Greece,
northern Europe, and North Africa. The Mediterranean also provided the Romans
with a rich source of food through fishing.

6
Growth and expansion of the city of Rome

Rome. It is situated on the Tiber River in the central part of the country. The
historical site of Rome on its seven hills was occupied as early as the Bronze Age (c.
1500 BCE), and the city was politically unified by the early 6th century BCE. It
became the capital of the Roman Empire. The Romans gradually conquered the
Italian peninsula, extended their dominion over the entire Mediterranean basin, and
expanded their empire into continental Europe. Under Pompey the Great and Julius
Caesar, Rome’s influence was extended over Syria, Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Gaul.
After the Battle of Actium, all Roman lands were controlled by Octavian (Augustus),
the first Roman emperor. As the imperial capital, Rome became the site of
magnificent public buildings, including palaces, temples, public baths, theatres, and
stadiums. It reached the peak of its grandeur and ancient population during the late
1st and early 2nd centuries CE. It remained the capital of the Roman Empire until
Emperor Constantine the Great dedicated Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 330.
● National Geographic Society. (2022, October 12). The Gods and Goddesses
of Ancient Rome | National Geographic Society.
Education.nationalgeographic.org; National Geographic. The Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Rome
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/gods-and-goddesses-ancie
nt-rome/

7
Roman Society

The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center empire, with a population
variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million. Rome began as a small city
on the banks of the Tiber River in Italy. The founding of the city is dated to 753 BCE.
Rome was a patrilineal society (legitimate descent and inheritance from the father's
bloodline). They worshipped the supreme sky god better known as Jupiter. The
male deity as head of the pantheon reflected the value of masculinity over femininity
in Latin culture.
The society was clearly patriarchal from an early stage and would continue along
those same lines through the history of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire
The far more popular and better-known foundation myth is that the city was founded
in 753 BCE by the demi-god Romulus after he killed his brother Remus.
Roman society, during the republic, was governed by a strong military ethos.
● National Geographic Society. (2022, October 12). The Gods and Goddesses
of Ancient Rome | National Geographic Society.
Education.nationalgeographic.org; National Geographic. The Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Rome
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/gods-and-goddesses-ancie
nt-rome/

Classes & Conflicts

The family was the nucleus of Roman society and formed the basis of every
community. Stable families made for a stable society and were the most important
component of a strict hierarchy based on gender, citizenship, ancestry, and census
rank.
The family was the nucleus of Roman society and formed the basis of every
community. (the consul during the republic, emperor during the empire), the senate,
judges, and assemblies while, socially, there was the head of the house (pater
familias).
The consul, emperor, or head-of-the-house provided their charges with parental care
and necessities and, in return, received their loyalty and service.

8
Society was divided in two classes – the upper-class Patricians and the
working-class Plebeians – whose social standing and rights under the law were
initially rigidly defined in favour of the upper class until the period characterized by
the Conflict of the Orders.
The Conflict of the Orders began when Roman Patricians were campaigning against
neighbouring tribes for supremacy in the region and needed men for their armies. In
494 BCE, the Plebeians, who made up the bulk of the fighting force, refused to serve
in the military until they were given a voice in government.
Prior to the conflict, Plebeians were strictly second-class citizens who were forbidden
to marry Patricians while, after 445 BCE, this law was changed and Plebeians could
marry whomever they chose and had a voice in politics. By the time the Conflict of
the Orders ended, Roman society was defined by five social classes:

● Patricians
● Equites
● Plebeians
● Freedmen
● Slaves

Patricians have traditionally been presented as landed gentry and the Plebeians as
the landless poor, this is a misconception. The Patricians definitely did make up the
senate and were the ruling class but there were many powerful Plebeian families
and, as Roman history progressed, many Patrician families lost their wealth and
standing while Plebeian families' fortunes improved dramatically. National
Geographic Society. (2022, October 12).

The Equites (equestrian class, cavalry) were

originally the royal mounted knights who were

9
given a certain amount of money to purchase and care for their horse in the period of
the early republic and so became associated with commerce and trade. They
eventually formed part of the upper-class dealing with business. The equites were
patrician-class males, socially inferior to the senatorial class, who ran the banks,
collected taxes, operated import-export of goods, and managed trade houses as well
as the slave trade.
Mark, J. (2019, October 23). Ancient Roman Society. World History

Freedmen were slaves who had managed to buy their freedom or whose owners had
set them free. Freed slaves were granted citizenship but could not hold political
office. Any children of freed slaves,

were given full rights as citizens. Slaves were the lowest class in society without any
rights and considered property of the master. The quality of life as a Roman slave
varied according to one's master and
one's job. Even so, no matter how easy
a slave's responsibilities might seem,
they were still subject to the whims of
their master who could have them
beaten, or even killed, for any reason.
Slave revolts were a perennial fear of
the Romans which was realized in the
Spartacus Slave Revolt of 73-71 BCE
which terrorized the Romans and
haunted them for years after.
Most slaves were foreigners captured in
war or taken by slavers but some
Romans sold themselves or their
children into slavery as a means of
paying off a debt.
● Mark, J. (2019, October 23).
Ancient Roman Society. World History

● https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1463/ancient-roman-society/

Marble relief depicting two pairs of collared slaves being led on ropes by helmeted
men, from Smyrna (Izmir, Turkey), 200 CE. (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)

10
Family

In Patrician families, The father was the head of the family and made all the
decisions regarding finance and the raising of children. Fathers had complete control
over their children.
Childbirth took place in the home, attended by a mid-wife and the slaves of the
mother. Men did not participate in childbirth. Once the child was born and cleaned, it
was placed on the floor in a blanket and the father called into the room. At this point,
the father could either pick the child up – signifying it was accepted into the
household – or turn away from it. If the father rejected the child, it was taken from the
house and left in the streets to die.Mark, J. (2019, October 23).

Women

Women were subject to the will of their fathers throughout their lives, even after they
were married, and had no political voice or power. Daughters were taught how to
keep and run a household, take care of their husbands, and advance his career. In
the late stages of the Roman Republic, women gained more rights but were still
under the control of their fathers and husbands. Mark, J. (2019, October 23).

Marriage

The central purpose of the marriage was to produce and raise children who would
become responsible and productive members of society. Since males dominated the
social hierarchy, the focus of the home was largely on the first-born son. Women had
no legal right over their children and, in the event of a divorce, the children
automatically went to the father. Mark, J. (2019, October 23).

Home

The home may have been governed by the father but it was maintained by the
mother on every level and this included making it a haven of peace and harmony.
Although everyone in the household was responsible for pleasing the gods and
spirits, it fell primarily to the woman of the house to ensure that the household spirits
were honored daily.Mark, J. (2019, October 23).

11
Religion & The State

Religion informed each home, community, and the state. The state sponsored and
encouraged homogeneous religious belief and ritual and religion empowered the
state. All through the year there were festivals celebrating the gods, great deeds of
the past linked with the gods, and the harvest provided by providence. The greatest
festival of the Roman calendar was Saturnalia, honoring the agricultural god of seed,
sowing, and the harvest, Saturn. Mark, J. (2019, October 23)

The Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Rome

The Roman Empire was primarily a polytheistic civilization, which meant that people
recognized and worshiped multiple gods and goddesses. The main god and
goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The Roman Empire
was a primarily polytheistic civilization, which meant that people recognized and
worshiped multiple gods and goddesses.They believed that these deities served a
role in founding the Roman civilization and that they helped shape the events of
people’s lives on a daily basis. Romans paid allegiance to the gods both in public
spaces and in private homes.
While the Roman state recognized
main gods and goddesses by
decorating public buildings and
fountains with their images. The
gods and goddesses of Greek
culture significantly influenced the
development of Roman deities and
mythology. Due to Rome’s
geographic position, its citizens
experienced frequent contact with
the Greek peoples. Many of the
gods and goddesses of Greek and Roman culture share similar characteristics.
However, these deities were renamed and effectively rebranded for a Roman
context.
The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.
Jupiter was a sky-god who Romans believed oversaw all aspects of life; he is
thought to have originated from the Greek god Zeus. Jupiter also concentrated on
protecting the Roman state. Juno was Jupiter’s wife and sister. She resembled the
Greek goddess Hera in that she kept a particularly watchful eye over women and all

12
aspects of their lives. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom and craft. She watched
over schoolchildren and craftspeople such as carpenters and stonemasons. Minerva
is thought to be the equivalent of the goddess Athena.
Other Roman gods and goddesses who were adapted from Greek culture include
Venus, who drew on Aphrodite, goddess of love; Neptune, a sea god who was
inspired by the Greek god Poseidon; Pluto, who ruled the Roman underworld as the
god Hades did in Greek
culture; Diana, Roman
goddess of the hunt who had
her Greek equivalent in
Artemis; and Mars, god of
war, who was fashioned after
the Greek god Ares.
Rome did have some of its
own gods and goddesses who
did not trace their origins back
to Greek culture. For example,
Janus was a god with two faces that represented the spirit of passages such as
doorways and gates, who could look into both the past and the future at the same
time. Janus’ son was Tiberinus, the god of the river Tiber, which runs through the city
of Rome.
National Geographic Society. (2022, October 12).

Romulus and Remus

According to Roman mythology, the gods had a hand in the founding of the city of
Rome itself. Mars, god of war, and a Vestal Virgin named Rhea Silvia were the
parents of twin boys, Romulus and Remus. Vestal Virgins were not permitted to
marry or bear children but were instead to devote their lives to serving Vesta,
goddess of the hearth.

It is said that King Amulius ordered that the twins be thrown into the Tiber River as a
punishment to Rhea Silvia for betraying her vow of celibacy. Luckily, the boys were
rescued from the river by a mother wolf. She helped to raise them until a local couple
adopted them.

13
National Geographic Society. (2022, October 12).

As the boys grew up, they became important members of the community. They

dethroned King Amulius and worked together to establish a new city. In a later

argument about the city, however, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Romulus went

on to name the city after himself, calling it Rome.

National Geographic Society. (2022, October 12).

14
Roman Art

From celebratory statues to intricate mosaic panels, art was created for a wide
variety of functions and contexts during the centuries that the Roman Empire
reigned. The style of Roman art was influenced by several civilisations as they were
in constant expansion, some of the civilizations were the Etruscans, Egyptians and
the most important the Greeks.
One of the characteristics of Roman art was that it was mainly decorative, it
indicated status and wealth. For example, they decorated their homes with mosaics
and paintings. (Henig, M.)

Mosaic
Roman art was mostly influenced from Greek art. They were found generally in the
floor of villas, houses or public places.
Mosaics were constructed with small pieces called ‘tesserae’ or ‘tessellae’ and were
usually cubes of approximately a centimetre square. Different raw materials gave the
various shades required: natural stone, cut brick, tile and pottery created coloured
shades of blue, black, red, white and yellow.
The designs on the mosaic floors show a remarkable uniformity throughout the
Roman world, with the same themes and motifs occurring again and again. Some of
them include portraits, action scenes, violent hunts, exotic creatures, and
mythological episodes are all frequent subjects on mosaics. (Meyer, I.)

Paintings
They were also used for decoration purposes, paintings were displayed in the walls
of villas and homes as mosaics were displayed in the floor. The largest body of
evidence comes from the Campanian cities and suburban villas destroyed by the
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79, like Pompeii and Herculaneum. Most of them
were frescoes (a method of painting water-based pigments on freshly applied
plaster, usually on wall surfaces).
Four ‘styles’ have been distinguished, the first based on rendering panels of coloured
marble in painted imitation, the second opening up the wall to illusionistic

15
mythological or landscape painting, and the later styles adding more decorative and
imaginative motifs the third one with surface ornamentation and the fourth revives
large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas. (Stewart, P).

Scultures
Roman sculptures were greatly influenced by Greek art, not only Romans admired
them but also made replicas of the most famous statues. Eventually the Roman gave
sculptures their own twist adding realism.
Firstly, Roman sculpture purposes involved commemorating the dead or notable
people. In the funerary context portrait sculpture was rooted in the longstanding
tradition of the display of wax portrait masks, called imagenes. In addition to that, it
involved honouring the living for their achievements and benefactions, providing
permanent votive memorials in sanctuaries and communicating authority and power.
Nobility used portraits to preserve the images of their ancestors, the institutional
authority set up public honorific statues as self promotion. The most significant were
the statues shown in the forum or agora, those were usually over lifesize in bronze,
limestone or marble. Only the rich and important received portraits of this kind. Used
in recognition of their patronage, the benefactions or services that they performed,
the buildings they had constructed.
The representation of the imperial family was everywhere, there were thousands of
images of emperors which were idolised. There were portraits in coinage, bust and
statues and those were used to showcase family ties and stability. Most of the
representations were not commissioned by the sitter but rather they were displayed
by people who wanted to give honour.
Wealthy women were represented in statues and bust with intricate hairstyles as it
was a symbol of their wealth. But women were not the only ones making statements
with their hair, Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180 CE) was portrayed with a beard which
was unusual for emperors, but this is associated with his admiration of Greek
philosophy. (Trentinella, R.)

Ancient Roman Architecture

It continued the legacy left by Greek architects and the established architectural
classical orders, such as Doric, Ionic and especially the Corinthian. Besides this, the
Romans were innovators indeed, and they both combined and designed new

16
construction techniques and materials to produce a whole range of brand new
architectural structures.
For instance, columns continued to be used even when they were no longer
structurally necessary. This was to give buildings a traditional and familiar look.

The Pantheon.
It is one of the most well-preserved architectural marvel from the ancient Roman era.
It is the only one that remains practically the same. Unlike many other Roman
temples that were almost always dedicated to particular Roman deities, the
Pantheon was a temple for all the Roman gods. The construction of this one was
completed in 125 A.C.E.
In 609 A.C.E., it is converted into a Christian church, and oficially named the Basilica
of Saint Maria and Martyres.
It has a large circular portico that opens up to a rotunda. The rotunda is covered by a
majestic dome that adds a whole new dimension to its grandeur.
It was an inspiration to Raphael, one of the greatest architects of the Renaissance,
and he requested it to be his place of eternal rest.
More contemporary information, in 1965 the Pantheon is oficially designated as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. (Architecture design. “The Pantheon”)

Colosseum
Also named the Flavian Amphitheater was a giant amphitheater built in Rome under
the Flavian emperors. The construction was begun between 70 and 72 A.C.E. The
artificial lake that was the centerpiece of that palace complex was drained, and the
Colosseum was sited there; a decision that was as much symbolic as it was practical
so they can host thousands of Romans.
It was the scene of thousands of hand-to-hand combats between gladiators. The
Colosseum is a freestanding structure of stone and concrete, using a complex
system of barrel vaults and groin vaults and measuring 620 by 513 feet (189 by 156
meters) overall.
The Colosseum was damaged by lightning and earthquakes and, even more
severely, by vandalism and pollution. All the marble seats and decorative materials
disappeared. (National Geographic Society. “The Colosseum” (2023).

17
Arch of Constantine
It was constructed in 315 A.C.E. to commemorate the monumental victory of
Emperor Constantine I.
It stands 21 meters (69 feet) tall, 25.9 meters (85 feet) wide, and is constructed using
a combination of brick and concrete, clad in opulent marble, creating a grand and
imposing structure. The arch's design show a fusion of architectural elements from
various periods, blending the traditional Roman style with influences from the Greek
Hellenistic period.
Beyond its architectural splendor, the Arch of Constantine holds immense historical
significance. It marks a crucial turning point in Roman history—the triumph of
Christianity. The arch's reliefs portrait scenes related to religious ceremonies and
sacrifices, showcasing Constantine's association with Christianity and his support for
the faith. (Findley, A)

Appendix:

1- Mosaic of Justinian I, also known as Justinian

the Great, located in the Basilica of San Vitale in
Ravenna, Italy. C.E. 547

2- Pair of Centaurs Fighting Wild Cats

Mosaic from Hadrian’s Villa, ca.
120-130 C.E., Altes Museum Berlin.

18
 3- Wall painting from Room F of the
Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at
Boscoreale, fresco, h. 76 in. (193.04
cm.) width 44-3/4 in. (113.7 cm.),
Roman, Late Republican, c. 50–40
B.C.E.

4- Wall painting in the Villa of the

Mysteries, frescoes scene 1, 2 and
3- Pompeii 70-60 B.C.E.

5- The Augustus of Prima Porta is a

full-length portrait statue of Augustus, the
first Roman emperor. Size: 2.08 metres

19
tall and weighs 1,000 kilograms. 100 C.E.

6- Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius,

gilded bronze, c. 173–76 C.E., 424 cm
height.

7- Roman [Flavian Period], Head of a

Noble Woman, 96–100 C.E. Pentelic
Marble. Milwaukee Art Museum

20
Bibliography:
● Architecture design. “The Pantheon”
● Basilica Di Santa Maria Ad Martyres. Retrieved from Pantheonroma.com
● Britannica. Geography and travel
● Findley, A. Arch of Constantine. Retrieved from
https://smarthistory.org/arch-of-constantine-rome/
● Henig, M. Handbook of Roman art : a comprehensive survey of all the arts of
the Roman world. Retrieved from
https://archive.org/details/handbookofromana00heni
● Mark, J. (2019, October 23). Ancient Roman Society. World History
● https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1463/ancient-roman-society/
● Meyer, I. Roman Mosaic – An Overview of Ancient Roman Mosaic and Tiles.
Milwaukee Public Museum. Retrieved from
https://artincontext.org/roman-mosaic/
● National Geographic Society. (2022, October 12). The Gods and Goddesses
of Ancient Rome | National Geographic Society.
Education.nationalgeographic.org; National Geographic. The Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Rome
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/gods-and-goddesses-ancie
nt-rome/
● National Geographic Society. “The Colosseum” (2023). Retrieved from
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/colosseum/
● Stewart, P. (2008) The social history of art. Retrieved from
https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryofr0000stew/page/n7/mode/1up
● Trentinella, R. Roman Portrait Sculpture: Republican through Constantinian.
● Schroeder, S. (2017). The Roman Republic. Khan Academy
○ Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo/hd_ropo.htm
● Waage, F. Mosaic Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/art/mosaic-art/Roman-mosaics

21