Implementation of DDL commands of SQL with suitable examples

 Create table
 Alter table
 Drop Table
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Oracle has many tools such as SQL * PLUS, Oracle Forms, Oracle Report Writer,
Oracle Graphics etc.
 SQL * PLUS: The SQL * PLUS tool is made up of two distinct parts. These are
 Interactive SQL: Interactive SQL is designed for create,
access and manipulate data structures like tables and indexes.
 PL/SQL: PL/SQL can be used to developed programs for
different applications.
 Oracle Forms: This tool allows you to create a data entry screen along with
the suitable menu objects. Thus it is the oracle forms tool that handles data
gathering and data validation in a commercial application.
 Report Writer: Report writer allows programmers to prepare innovative
reports using data from the oracle structures like tables, views etc. It is the
report writer tool that handles the reporting section of commercial
application.
 Oracle Graphics: Some of the data can be better represented in the form of
pictures. The oracle graphics tool allows programmers to prepare graphs using
data from oracle structures like tables, views etc.

SQL (Structured Query Language):

Structured Query Language is a database computer language designed for
managing data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), and originally
based upon Relational Algebra. Its scope includes data query and update, schema
creation and modification, and data access control.
SQL was one of the first languages for Edgar F. Codd's relational model and
became the most widely used language for relational databases.
 IBM developed SQL in mid of 1970’s.
 Oracle incorporated in the year 1979.
 SQL used by IBM/DB2 and DS Database Systems.
 SQL adopted as standard language for RDBS by ASNI in 1989.

DATA TYPES:

1. CHAR (Size): This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed
length. The size in brackets determines the number of characters the cell can
hold. The maximum number of character is 255 characters.

2. VARCHAR (Size) / VARCHAR2 (Size): This data type is used to store

variable length alphanumeric data. The maximum character can hold is 2000
character.

3. NUMBER (P, S): The NUMBER data type is used to store number (fixed or
floating point). Number of virtually any magnitude may be stored up to 38 digits

of precision. Number as large as 9.99 * 10 124. The precision (p) determines the
number of places to the right of the decimal. If scale is omitted then the default
is zero. If precision is omitted, values are stored with their original precision up
to the maximum of 38 digits.

4. DATE: This data type is used to represent date and time. The standard format is
DD- MM-YY as in 17-SEP-2009. To enter dates other than the standard format,
use the appropriate functions. Date time stores date in the 24-Hours format. By
default the time in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is specified.
The default date for a date field is the first day the current month.
 5. LONG: This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to
2GB. Long data can be used to store arrays of binary data in ASCII format. LONG
values cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as SUBSTR cannot
be applied.

6. RAW: The RAW data type is used to store binary data, such as digitized picture or
image. Data loaded into columns of these data types are stored without any further
conversion. RAW data type can have a maximum length of 255 bytes. LONG RAW
data type can contain up to 2GB.

SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including:

 Clauses, which are in some cases optional, constituent components of statements and

queries.

 Expressions, which can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of columns and

rows of data.

 Predicates which specify conditions that can be evaluated to SQL three-valued logic

(3VL) Boolean truth values and which are used to limit the effects of statements and

queries, or to change program flow.

 Queries which retrieve data based on specific criteria.

 Statements which may have a persistent effect on schemas and data, or which

may control transactions, program flow, connections, sessions, or diagnostics.

 SQL statements also include the semicolon (";") statement terminator. Though not

required on every platform, it is defined as a standard part of the SQL

grammar.
  Insignificant white space is generally ignored in SQL statements and queries, making it

easier to format SQL code for readability.

There are five types of SQL statements. They are:

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)

2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)

3. DATA RETRIEVAL LANGUAGE (DRL)

4. TRANSATIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE (TCL)

5. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL)

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): The Data Definition Language (DDL) is

used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily be
used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project.
Let's take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDL commands:
1. CREATE 2. ALTER 3. DROP 4. RENAME

1. CREATE:
(a)CREATE TABLE: This is used to create a new relation (table)

Syntax: CREATE TABLE <relation_name/table_name >

(field_1 data_type(size),field_2 data_type(size), .. . );

Example:
SQL> CREATE TABLE Student (sno NUMBER (3), sname CHAR (10), class CHAR (5));

2. ALTER:
(a) ALTER TABLE ...ADD...: This is used to add some extra fields into
existing relation.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name ADD (new field_1 data_type(size), new field_2
data_type(size),..);
Example: SQL>ALTER TABLE std ADD (Address CHAR(10));

(b) ALTER TABLE...MODIFY...: This is used to change the width as well as

data type of fields of existing relations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name MODIFY (field_1 newdata_type(Size), field_2

newdata_type(Size),... field_newdata_type(Size));

Example:SQL>ALTER TABLE student MODIFY(sname

VARCHAR(10),class VARCHAR(5));

c) ALTER TABLE..DROP.....This is used to remove any field of existing relations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name DROP COLUMN (field_name);

Example:SQL>ALTER TABLE student DROP column (sname);

d)ALTER TABLE..RENAME...: This is used to change the name of fields

in existing relations.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name RENAME COLUMN (OLD field_name) to

(NEW field_name);

Example: SQL>ALTER TABLE student RENAME COLUMN sname to stu_name;

3. DROP TABLE: This is used to delete the structure of a relation. It permanently

deletes the records in the table.
Syntax: DROP TABLE relation_name;
Example: SQL>DROP TABLE std;

4. RENAME: It is used to modify the name of the existing database

object. Syntax: RENAME TABLE old_relation_name TO
new_relation_name; Example: SQL>RENAME TABLE std TO std1;
RESULT:
 Implementation of DML commands of SQL with suitable examples
• Insert table
• Update table
• Delete Table
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DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML): The Data Manipulation Language (DML)
is used to retrieve, insert and modify database information. These commands will be used by
all database users during the routine operation of the database. Let's take a brief look at the
basic DML commands:
1. INSERT 2. UPDATE 3. DELETE
1. INSERT INTO: This is used to add records into a relation. These are three type
of INSERT INTO queries which are as
a) Inserting a single record
Syntax: INSERT INTO < relation/table name> (field_1,field_2……
field_n)VALUES (data_1,data_2, data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO
student(sno,sname,class,address)VALUES
(1,’Ravi’,’M.Tech’,’Palakol’);
b) Inserting a single record
Syntax: INSERT INTO < relation/table name>VALUES (data_1,data_2,........data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student VALUES (1,’Ravi’,’M.Tech’,’Palakol’);

c) Inserting all records from another relation

Syntax: INSERT INTO relation_name_1 SELECT Field_1,field_2,field_n

FROM relation_name_2 WHERE field_x=data;
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO std SELECT sno,sname FROM student
WHERE name = ‘Ramu‘;
d) Inserting multiple records
Syntax: INSERT INTO relation_name field_1,field_2,.....field_n) VALUES
(&data_1,&data_2,........&data_n);
Example: SQL>INSERT INTO student (sno, sname, class,address)
VALUES (&sno,’&sname’,’&class’,’&address’);
Enter value for sno: 101
Enter value for name: Ravi
Enter value for class:
M.Tech Enter value for
name: Palakol

2. UPDATE-SET-WHERE: This is used to update the content of a record in a relation.

Syntax: SQL>UPDATE relation name SET Field_name1=data,field_name2=data,
WHERE field_name=data;
Example: SQL>UPDATE student SET sname = ‘kumar’ WHERE sno=1;

3. DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of a relation but it will retain
the structure of that relation.
a) DELETE-FROM: This is used to delete all the records of relation.
Syntax: SQL>DELETE FROM relation_name;
Example: SQL>DELETE FROM std;
b) DELETE -FROM-WHERE: This is used to delete a selected record from a relation.
Syntax: SQL>DELETE FROM relation_name WHERE condition;
Example: SQL>DELETE FROM student WHERE sno = 2;

5. TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data permanently. But structure will not
be removed.
Difference between Truncate & Delete:-
 By using truncate command data will be removed permanently & will not get back
where as by using delete command data will be removed temporally & get back by
using roll back command.
 By using delete command data will be removed based on the condition where as by
using truncate command there is no condition.
 Truncate is a DDL command & delete is a DML command.

Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <Table name>

Example TRUNCATE TABLE student;

 To Retrieve data from one or more tables.

1. SELECT FROM: To display all fields for all

records. Syntax : SELECT * FROM relation_name;
Example : SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- ----------- ----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

2. SELECT FROM: To display a set of fields for all records of

relation. Syntax: SELECT a set of fields FROM
relation_name; Example: SQL> select deptno, dname from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME

10 ACCOUNTING
20 RESEARCH
30 SALES
3. SELECT - FROM -WHERE: This query is used to display a selected set of fields for
a selected set of records of a relation.
 Syntax: SELECT a set of fields FROM relation_name WHERE condition;
Example: SQL> select * FROM dept WHERE
deptno<=20; DEPTNO DNAME
LOC
------ ----------- ------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS

RESULT:
 Implementation of different types of functions with suitable examples.
• Number Function
• Aggregate Function
• Character Function
• Conversion Function
• Date Function

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NUMBER FUNCTION:

Abs(n) :Select abs(-15) from dual;

Exp(n): Select exp(4) from dual;
Power(m,n): Select power(4,2) from
dual; Mod(m,n): Select mod(10,3) from
dual;
Round(m,n): Select round(100.256,2) from
dual; Trunc(m,n): ;Select trunc(100.256,2) from
dual; Sqrt(m,n);Select sqrt(16) from dual;
Develop aggregate plan strategies to assist with summarization of several data entries.

Aggregative operators: In addition to simply retrieving data, we often want to perform some
computation or summarization. SQL allows the use of arithmetic expressions. We now
consider a powerful class of constructs for computing aggregate values such as MIN and
SUM.
1. Count: COUNT following by a column name returns the count of tuple in that column. If
DISTINCT keyword is used then it will return only the count of unique tuple in the column.
Otherwise, it will return count of all the tuples (including duplicates) count (*) indicates all
the tuples of the column.
Syntax: COUNT (Column name)
Example: SELECT COUNT (Sal) FROM emp;
2. SUM: SUM followed by a column name returns the sum of all the values in that column.
Syntax: SUM (Column name)
Example: SELECT SUM (Sal) From emp;

3. AVG: AVG followed by a column name returns the average value of that column values.
Syntax: AVG (n1, n2...)
Example: Select AVG (10, 15, 30) FROM DUAL;

4. MAX: MAX followed by a column name returns the maximum value of that column.
Syntax: MAX (Column name)
Example: SELECT MAX (Sal) FROM emp;
SQL> select deptno, max(sal) from emp group by deptno;

DEPTNO MAX (SAL)

10 5000
20 3000
30 2850

SQL> select deptno, max (sal) from emp group by deptno having max(sal)<3000;

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)

30 2850

5. MIN: MIN followed by column name returns the minimum value of that column.
Syntax: MIN (Column name)
Example: SELECT MIN (Sal) FROM emp;

SQL>select deptno,min(sal) from emp group by deptno having min(sal)>1000;

DEPTNO MIN (SAL)

10 1300
CHARACTER FUNCTION:

initcap(char) : select initcap(“hello”) from dual;

lower (char): select lower (‘HELLO’) from dual;

upper (char) :select upper (‘hello’) from dual;

ltrim (char,[set]): select ltrim (‘cseit’, ‘cse’) from dual;

rtrim (char,[set]): select rtrim (‘cseit’, ‘it’) from dual;

replace (char,search ): select replace(‘jack and jue’,‘j’,‘bl’) from dual;

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS:
To_char: TO_CHAR (number) converts n to a value of VARCHAR2 data type, using the
optional number format fmt. The value n can be of type NUMBER, BINARY_FLOAT, or
BINARY_DOUBLE.

SQL>select to_char(65,'RN')from

dual; LXV

To_number : TO_NUMBER converts expr to a value of NUMBER data type.

SQL>Select to_number ('1234.64') from
Dual; 1234.64

To_date:TO_DATE converts char of CHAR, VARCHAR2, NCHAR, or

NVARCHAR2 data type to a value of DATE data type.
SQL>SELECT TO_DATE('January 15, 1989, 11:00 A.M.')FROM

DUAL; TO_DATE

15-JAN-89

STRING FUNCTIONS:
Concat: CONCAT returns char1 concatenated with char2. Both char1 and char2 can be any
of the datatypes
SQL>SELECT CONCAT(‘ORACLE’,’CORPORATION’)FROM
DUAL; ORACLECORPORATION

Lpad: LPAD returns expr1, left-padded to length n characters with the sequence of
characters in expr2.
SQL>SELECT LPAD(‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;
*********ORACLE
Rpad: RPAD returns expr1, right-padded to length n characters with expr2, replicated as
many times as necessary.
SQL>SELECT RPAD (‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;
ORACLE*********

Ltrim: Returns a character expression after removing leading blanks.

SQL>SELECT LTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;
MITHSS

Rtrim: Returns a character string after truncating all trailing blanks

SQL>SELECT RTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;
SSMITH

Lower: Returns a character expression after converting uppercase character data to

lowercase.
SQL>SELECT LOWER(‘DBMS’)FROM DUAL;
dbms

Upper: Returns a character expression with lowercase character data converted to uppercase
SQL>SELECT UPPER(‘dbms’)FROM DUAL;
DBMS
Length: Returns the number of characters, rather than the number of bytes, of the given
string expression, excluding trailing blanks.
SQL>SELECT LENGTH(‘DATABASE’)FROM
DUAL; 8
Substr: Returns part of a character, binary, text, or image expression.
SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(‘ABCDEFGHIJ’3,4)FROM DUAL;
CDEF
Instr: The INSTR functions search string for substring. The function returns an integer
indicating the position of the character in string that is the first character of this occurrence.
SQL>SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR',3,2)FROM DUAL;
14
DATE FUNCTIONS:
Sysdate:
SQL>SELECT SYSDATE FROM
DUAL; 29-DEC-08
next_day:
SQL>SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’WED’)FROM
DUAL; 05-JAN-09
add_months:
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,2)FROM
DUAL; 28-FEB-09
last_day:
SQL>SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)FROM
DUAL; 31-DEC-08
months_between:
SQL>SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)FROM EMP;
4
Least:
SQL>SELECT LEAST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM
DUAL; 10-JAN-07
Greatest:
SQL>SELECT GREATEST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM
DUAL; 10-JAN-07
Trunc:
SQL>SELECT TRUNC(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM
DUAL; 28-DEC-08
Round:
 SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM
DUAL; 28-DEC-08
to_char:
SQL> select to_char(sysdate, "dd\mm\yy") from
dual; 24-mar-05.
to_date:
SQL> select to date (sysdate, "dd\mm\yy") from
dual; 24-mar-o5.

RESULT:
 Implementation of different types of operators in SQL.
• Arithmetic Operator
• Logical Operator
• Comparision Operator
• Special Operator
• Set Operator
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ARIHMETIC OPERATORS:

(+) : Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator .

(-):Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand .

(*):Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator .
(/):Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand .
(^):Power- raise to power of .
(%):Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder.

LOGICAL OPERATORS:
AND : The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

OR: The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE
clause.
NOT: The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.
COMPARISION OPERATORS:
(=):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition becomes true.
(!=):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomes true.
(< >):Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomes true.
(>):Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true.
(<):Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true.
(>=):Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(<=):Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.
SPECIAL OPERATOR:
BETWEEN: The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set
of values, given the minimum value and the maximum value.

IS NULL: The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL attribute value.
ALL: The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set
ANY: The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list
according to the condition.

LIKE: The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.It allows to use percent sign(%) and underscore ( _ ) to match a given string pattern.
IN: The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have
been specified.
EXIST: The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets certain criteria.
SET OPERATORS:

The Set operator combines the result of 2 queries into a single result. The
following are the operators:
 Union
 Union all
 Intersect
 Minus

Union: Returns all distinct rows selected by both the queries

Union all: Returns all rows selected by either query including the duplicates.
Intersect: Returns rows selected that are common to both queries.
Minus: Returns all distinct rows selected by the first query and are not by the second
RESULT:
 Implementation of different types of Joins
• Inner Join
• Outer Join
• Natural Join..etc
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The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a
database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common
to each.The join is actually performed by the ‘where’ clause which combines specified rows
of tables.
Syntax:
SELECT column 1, column 2, column
3... FROM table_name1, table_name2
WHERE table_name1.column name = table_name2.columnname;
Types of Joins :
1. Simple Join
2. Self Join
3. Outer Join

Simple Join:
It is the most common type of join. It retrieves the rows from 2 tables having a
common column and is further classified into
Equi-join :
A join, which is based on equalities, is called equi-join.
Example:
Select * from item, cust where item.id=cust.id;
In the above statement, item-id = cust-id performs the join statement. It retrieves rows
from both the tables provided they both have the same id as specified by the where
clause. Since the where clause uses the comparison operator (=) to perform a join, it is
said to be
 equijoin. It combines the matched rows of tables. It can be used as follows:

 To insert records in the target table.

 To create tables and insert records in this table.
 To update records in the target table.
 To create views.

Non Equi-join:
It specifies the relationship between columns belonging to different tables by
making use of relational operators other than’=’.

Example:
Select * from item, cust where
item.id<cust.id; Table Aliases
Table aliases are used to make multiple table queries shorted and more readable. We give
an alias name to the table in the ‘from’ clause and use it instead of the name throughout
the query.

Self join:
Joining of a table to itself is known as self-join. It joins one row in a table to another.
It can compare each row of the table to itself and also with other rows of the same table.

Example:
select * from emp x ,emp y where x.salary >= (select avg(salary) from x.emp
where x. deptno =y.deptno);

Outer Join:

It extends the result of a simple join. An outer join returns all the rows returned by
simple join as well as those rows from one table that do not match any row from the
table. The symbol(+) represents outer join.

– Left outer join

– Right outer join
– Full outer join

RESULT:
 Study and Implementation of
• Group by & Having Clause
• Order by Clause
• Indexing

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GROUP BY: This query is used to group to all the records in a relation together for each
and every value of a specific key(s) and then display them for a selected set of fields the
relation.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields> FROM

<relation_name> GROUP BY <field_name>;

Example: SQL> SELECT EMPNO, SUM (SALARY) FROM EMP GROUP BY

EMPNO;

GROUP BY-HAVING : The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE
keyword could not be used with aggregate functions. The HAVING clause must follow the
GROUP BY clause in a query and must also precede the ORDER BY clause if used.

Syntax: SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM

table_name WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;
Example : SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID) GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT (Orders.OrderID) > 10;

JOIN using GROUP BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by
matching a common field in them and also group the corresponding records for each and
every value of a specified key(s) while displaying.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields (from both relations)> FROM relation_1,relation_2

WHERE relation_1.field_x=relation_2.field_y GROUP BY field_z;
Example:
SQL> SELECT empno,SUM(SALARY) FROM
emp,dept WHERE emp.deptno =20 GROUP BY
empno;

ORDER BY: This query is used to display a selected set of fields from a relation in
an ordered manner base on some field.

Syntax: SELECT <set of fields> FROM

<relation_name> ORDER BY <field_name>;

Example: SQL> SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp ORDER BY job;

JOIN using ORDER BY: This query is used to display a set of fields from two relations by
matching a common field in them in an ordered manner based on some fields.
Syntax: SELECT <set of fields (from both relations)> FROM relation_1, relation_2
WHERE relation_1.field_x = relation_2.field_y ORDER BY field_z;
Example: SQL> SELECT empno,ename,job,dname FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno = 20 ORDER BY job;
 INDEXING: An index is an ordered set of pointers to the data in a table. It is based
on the data values in one or more columns of the table. SQL Base stores indexes
separately
from tables.
An index provides two benefits:
 It improves performance because it makes data access faster.
 It ensures uniqueness. A table with a unique index cannot have two rows
with the same values in the column or columns that form the index key.

Syntax:
CREATE INDEX <index_name> on <table_name> (attrib1,attrib 2….attrib n);

Example:
CREATE INDEX id1 on emp(empno,dept_no);

RESULT:
 Study and Implementation of
• Sub queries
• Views

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SUBQUERIES: The query within another is known as a sub query. A statement
containing sub query is called parent statement. The rows returned by sub query are
used by the parent statement or in other words A subquery is a SELECT statement that is
embedded in a clause of another SELECT statement
You can place the subquery in a number of SQL clauses:
 WHERE clause
 HAVING clause
 FROM clause
 OPERATORS( IN.ANY,ALL,<,>,>=,<= etc..)

Types
1. Sub queries that return several values
Sub queries can also return more than one value. Such results should be made use
along with the operators in and any.
2. Multiple queries
Here more than one sub query is used. These multiple sub queries are combined by
means of ‘and’ & ‘or’ keywords.
3. Correlated sub query
A sub query is evaluated once for the entire parent statement whereas a
correlated Sub query is evaluated once per row processed by the parent
statement.
VIEW: In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as
if the data were coming from one single table.
A view is a virtual table, which consists of a set of columns from one or more tables. It is
similar to a table but it does not store in the database. View is a query stored as an object.

Syntax: CREATE VIEW <view_name> AS SELECT <set of

fields> FROM relation_name WHERE (Condition)
Example:
SQL> CREATE VIEW employee AS SELECT empno,ename,job FROM EMP
WHERE job = ‘clerk’;
SQL> View created.

Example:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List]

AS SELECT ProductID, ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No;

UPDATING A VIEW : A view can updated by using the following syntax :

Syntax : CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name
AS SELECT column_name(s)
FROM
table_name
WHERE
condition

DROPPING A VIEW: A view can deleted with the DROP VIEW command.

Syntax: DROP VIEW <view_name> ;

RESULT:
 Study and Implementation of different types of constraints

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CONSTRAINTS:
Constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. If there is any violation between
the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted by the constraint. It can be specified
when the table is created (using CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created
(using ALTER TABLE statement).

1. NOT NULL: When a column is defined as NOTNULL, then that column becomes a
mandatory column. It implies that a value must be entered into the column if the record is to
be accepted for storage in the table.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name (column_name data_type (size) NOT NULL, );
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3)NOT NULL, name CHAR(10));

2. UNIQUE: The purpose of a unique key is to ensure that information in the column(s) is
unique i.e. a value entered in column(s) defined in the unique constraint must not be repeated
across the column(s). A table may have many unique keys.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) UNIQUE, ….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE, name CHAR(10));
3. CHECK: Specifies a condition that each row in the table must satisfy. To satisfy the
constraint, each row in the table must make the condition either TRUE or unknown (due to a
null).
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size)
CHECK(logical expression), ….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER (3), name
CHAR(10),class CHAR(5),CHECK(class IN(‘CSE’,’CAD’,’VLSI’));

4. PRIMARY KEY: A field which is used to identify a record uniquely. A column or

combination of columns can be created as primary key, which can be used as a reference
from other tables. A table contains primary key is known as Master Table.
 It must uniquely identify each record in a table.
 It must contain unique values.
 It cannot be a null field.
 It cannot be multi port field.
 It should contain a minimum no. of fields necessary to be called unique.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size) PRIMARY KEY,
….);
Example:
CREATE TABLE faculty (fcode NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY, fname
CHAR(10));

5. FOREIGN KEY: It is a table level constraint. We cannot add this at column level. To
reference any primary key column from other table this constraint can be used. The table in
which the foreign key is defined is called a detail table. The table that defines the primary
key and is referenced by the foreign key is called the master table.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE Table_Name(column_name data_type(size)
FOREIGN KEY(column_name) REFERENCES table_name);
Example:
CREATE TABLE subject (scode NUMBER (3) PRIMARY KEY, subname
CHAR(10),fcode NUMBER(3), FOREIGN KEY(fcode) REFERENCE faculty );

Defining integrity constraints in the alter table command:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name ADD PRIMARY KEY (column_name);

Example: ALTER TABLE student ADD PRIMARY KEY
(sno); (Or)

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name

PRIMARY KEY(colname)
Example: ALTER TABLE student ADD CONSTRAINT SN PRIMARY KEY(SNO)

Dropping integrity constraints in the alter table command:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name DROP constraint_name;
Example: ALTER TABLE student DROP PRIMARY KEY;

(or)

Syntax: ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

Example: ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINT SN;

6. DEFAULT : The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE
Table_Name(col_name1,col_name2,col_name3 DEFAULT
‘<value>’);
Example:
CREATE TABLE student (sno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE, name CHAR(10),address
VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT ‘Aurangabad’);
RESULT:
 Study and Implementation of Database Backup & Recovery Commands.
Study and Implementation of Rollback, Commit, Save point.

EX.NO:

DATE:
AIM:

PROCEDURE:
A transaction is a logical unit of work. All changes made to the database can be
referred to as a transaction. Transaction changes can be made permanent to the database only
if they are committed a transaction begins with an executable SQL statement & ends
explicitly with either rollback or commit statement.

1. COMMIT: This command is used to end a transaction only with the help of the commit
command transaction changes can be made permanent to the database.

Syntax: SQL> COMMIT;

Example: SQL> COMMIT;

2. SAVE POINT: Save points are like marks to divide a very lengthy transaction to smaller
once. They are used to identify a point in a transaction to which we can latter role back.
Thus, save point is used in conjunction with role back.

Syntax: SQL> SAVE POINT ID;

Example: SQL> SAVE POINT xyz;

3. ROLLBACK: A role back command is used to undo the current transactions. We can
role back the entire transaction so that all changes made by SQL statements are undo (or)
role
back a transaction to a save point so that the SQL statements after the save point are
role back.
 Syntax: ROLLBACK (current transaction can be role

back) ROLLBACK to save point ID;

Example: SQL> ROLLBACK;

SQL> ROLLBACK TO SAVE POINT xyz;

RESULT:
 Creating Database/ Table Space
 Managing Users: - Create User, Delete User
 Managing Passwords
 Managing roles: - Grant , Revoke

EX.NO:

DATE:
AIM:

PROCEDURE:
DATABASE is collection of coherent
data. To create database we have :
Syntax: CREATE DATABASE
<database_name> Example : CREATE
DATABASE my_db;

TABLESPACE:
The oracle database consists of one or more logical storage units called tablespaces.
Each tablespace in an Oracle database consists of one or more files called datafiles,
which are physical structures that confirm to the operating system in which Oracle is
running.
Syntax:
CREATE<tablespace name> DATAFILE'C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\product\
10.2.0\ server \<file name.dbf ’SIZE 50M;
Example:
Create tablespace te_cs DATAFILE 'C:\oraclexe\app\oracle\product\
10.2.0\ server\usr.dbf ’SIZE 50M;
CREATE USER:
The DBA creates user by executing CREATE USER statement.
The user is someone who connects to the database if enough privilege is granted.
Syntax:
SQL> CREATE USER < username> -- (name of user to be created )
IDENTIFIED BY <password> -- (specifies that the user must
login with this password)
SQL> user created
Eg: create user James identified by bob;
(The user does not have privilege at this time, it has to be granted.These privileges determine
what user can do at database level.)
PRIVILEGES:
A privilege is a right to execute an SQL statement or to access another user's object.
In Oracle, there are two types of privileges
 System Privileges
 Object Privileges
 System Privileges : are those through which the user can manage the performance
of database actions. It is normally granted by DBA to users.
Eg: Create Session,Create Table,Create user etc..
 Object Privileges : allow access to objects or privileges on object, i.e. tables,
table columns. tables,views etc..It includes alter,delete,insert,select update etc.
(After creating the user, DBA grant specific system privileges to user)

GRANT:
The DBA uses the GRANT statement to allocate system privileges to other user.
Syntax:
SQL> GRANT privilege [privilege…. … ]
TO USER ;
SQL> Grant succeeded
Eg: Grant create session, create table, create view to James;
Object privileges vary from object to object.An owner has all privilege or specific privileges
on object.
SQL> GRANT object_priv
[(column)] ON object

TO user;
SQL>GRANT select, insert ON emp TO James;
SQL>GRANT select ,update
(e_name,e_address)
ON emp TO James;
CHANGE PASSWORD:
The DBA creates an account and initializes a password for every user.You can change
password by using ALTER USER statement.
Syntax:
Alter USER <some user name>
IDENTIFIED BY<New
password>
Eg: ALTER USER
James IDENTIFIED
BY sam
REVOKE:
REVOKE statement is used to remove privileges granted to other users.The privileges you
specify are revoked from the users.
Syntax:
REVOKE [privilege..
…] ON object
FROM user
Eg:
● REVOKE create session,create table from James;
● REVOKE select
,insert ON emp
FROM James
ROLE:
A role is a named group of related privileges that can be granted to user.In other words,
role is a predefined collection of previleges that are grouped together,thus privileges are
easier to assign user.
SQL> Create role custom;
SQL> Grant create table, create view TO
custom; SQL> Grant select, insert ON emp TO
custom;

Eg: Grant custom to James, Steve;

RESULT: