Abstract

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) is an important crop for sugar and bioenergy

worldwide. Climate change is expected to have important consequences for sugarcane
production in the world, especially in the developing countries because of relatively
low adaptive capacity, high vulnerability to natural hazards, and poor forecasting
systems and mitigating strategies. In this paper, we briefly reviewed sugar cane
response to climate change events, sugarcane production in several different
countries, and challenges for sugar canola production in climate change in order for us
to better understand effects of climate change and to propose some physiological
strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of climate changes and improve sugarcane
production, sustainability and profitability. Some of the physiological strategies such
as land preparation; it is a process of preparing land for cultivating sugarcane. It
include the removal of the remains of the existed crop and removal of the weeds.
Other strategies like planting; in which the propagated part of the sugarcane is taken
and cultivated in the soil. Fertilization; it is the important strategy to increase the
production of the sugarcane. Fertilizers are used for the proper growth of the cane sett.
Pest control is also a good strategy to avoid the decrease of the yield of the sugarcane.
Proper irrigation is necessary for the proper growth of crop. It plays a significant role
in better yield. Soil preparation involves well-preparation to ensure good drainage and
sufficient soil moisture. The pH of the soil should be between 6.0 and 6.5 and the soil
should be free from weeds and other unwanted plants. The last one is harvesting of
the crop. The harvesting should be done at proper time the older one harvested first
then the younger one. These are some strategies to increase the yield of sugarcane
crop.

1
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The perennial grass of Poaceae family, that is cultivated for its juice primarily. This
juice is used for making sugar. More than 2500 year ago on the subcontinent of India
sugarcane first achieved dominance ( Balu, 1999) and commercial sugar was first
produced from sugarcane by China and India. In English diet sugar got the status of
staple food at the end of 18th Century (Galloway, 1989).

Mostly the sugar cane is growing in the tropical and subtropical reigon of the world.
The S. officinarum was present on the Indian subcontinent for a long time and played
a role in the development of the northern Indian canes in the future. Mukherjee, on the
other hand, categorized the cultivated sugarcanes into the following three species:

 S. officinarum, which is unknown in the wild state.

 S. barberi (The northern Indian canes) have thinner stalks and lower-quality
juice.
 Than S. officinarum; The China canes and Panache Indian canes of the S.
sinense group, which resembles S. barberi in appearance ( Mukherjee, 1957).

In Brazil, sugarcane is cultivated for producing biofuel also. It is because the cane can
directly produce ethanol. The straw and cane fiber by product of the sugar processing
can generate second generation bio-fuel. Some other products that can be produce
from the sugarcane are molasses, rum and cachaça etc. Sugarcane is an important crop
that is widely cultivated for its sugar content. Brandes explain and show the garden
culture of sugarcane for chewing by primitive tribe in Papua New Guinea with all
other crops such as , banana, breadfruit, sweet potato, betel nuts and yams
( Brandes,1929). The sugar occur in many varieties that is highly different in colour
and form.

A number of stalks produce by the sugarcane plant. The stalk that is 3 to 7 meter high
bear long sword shaped leaves. There are many segments in each stalk and a bud is
present at each joint. The propagation of sugarcane take place through the cutting.
Seed cane is the section of the stalk of immature cane which is used for planting. Well

2
worked field is required for seed cane plantation. Ratooning is another method for the
sugarcane propagation. In this method a portion of the stalk at the time of harvesting
left under ground to give rise the succeeding growth of cane. Propagation through this
method decrease the yield after each cycle. Sugarcane is grown in different types of
soil like, alluvial soil of the river and red volcanic soil. Artschwager and Brandes
propose that during the early Cretaceous period, approximately 60 million years ago,
a common ancestor of sugarcane originated in southern Asia and spread
southeastward across an ancient land mass that extended from southern Asia to
Australia (Artschwager & Brandes, 1958).

Sugarcane is typically propagated using vegetative materials such as stem cuttings,

which are commonly referred to as "setts" or "seed pieces." Traditionally, there are
three main components to breeding programs: cross-pollination, selection, and
germplasm collection and evaluation. The first step in any breeding program is to
collect germplasm that has the traits you want. Basic germplasm and commercial
hybrids typically make up the germplasm collection in sugarcane. In a program to
improve sugarcane, both kinds of germplasm play important roles. Preservation of
germplasm assets is a significant worry in all harvests and sugarcane is no exception.
As a crop, sugarcane has a proud history of germplasm collection that frequently
involved international collaboration ( Berding & Roach, 1987). The process of
establishing sugarcane involves planting these setts in a suitable soil environment and
providing them with appropriate care and management.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Dutch breeders in Java developed the
nobilisation breeding method, which involves crossing S. officinarum with S.
spontaneum and repeatedly backcrossing the hybrids as males to S. officinarum.
Sugarcane improvement researchers often refer to this procedure as introgression
breeding. However, according to Simmonds, introgression is the transfer of a small
number of specific genes from ill-adapted germplasm into commercial germplasm.
This was typically accomplished through backcross breeding or a modification
(Simmonds, 1993).

Here are the steps involved in establishing sugarcane:

3
Land preparation: The land must be prepared before planting by clearing it of any
existing vegetation, removing rocks and debris, and tilling the soil to ensure it is loose
and aerated. The principal objectives of land preparation are:

 to destroy the previous crop;

 to remove roots and stones to improve harvesting conditions, and volunteer
re-growth, which may transmit smut and ratoon stunting disease (RSD) to the
next crop;
 to break up existing plough pans; • to install suitable surface and sub-surface
drainage and field layouts;
 to ameliorate soil conditions by the addition of gypsum, lime or mill mud
 to provide an adequate tilth for germination and growth of the sugarcane crop
(Elis and Merry, 2004).

Selection of setts: High-quality setts should be selected for planting, which are
typically 2-3 nodes in length and have a diameter of 2-3 cm.

Planting: The yield of the plant cane crop is significantly affected by the time of year
at which it is planted. Most sugarcane is established following a neglected period after
the collect of the last ratoon crop. Cane is replanted in areas where seed cane is
available and soil moisture is stable after ploughing. The spacing is only long enough
to get rid of the old stubble and make new rows. There are numerous advantages to a
period of inactivity: good timing, with seed and moisture available, a different crop, a
longer leaching period for salt control or growth, and a plant cane crop that yields
more. The primary benefit of successive planting is that the cane area is always
maximized. In addition, the local conditions and management's business strategy
influence the selection of systems(Irvine, 2004). In general, the yield will be higher
the earlier it can be done during the planting period. This is due to the fact that the
emergent cane has a longer growth period and is better able to reach full tillering and
the leaf canopy before the rapid stalk elongation that comes with warmer weather.
Additionally, there is a greater chance of precipitation. This was demonstrated in
Zimbabwe, where five unfurled leaves on the primary tillers and a mean temperature
of 18.5°C were the prerequisites for the onset of rapid stalk elongation ( Elis et al,
1985). Setts should be planted in furrows or holes with a spacing of about 1-1.5
meters between rows and 0.3-0.5 meters between setts. Setts should be placed

4
horizontally with the top node slightly above the soil surface. Brandes lists the
desirable characteristics of the "ennoblised" ones for the process of ennobling the wild
S. spontaneum forms or other wild canes through their hybridization with S.
officinarum:

 High plant and cane weight as well as a high tonnage per hectare.
 The stalks' capacity for dropping old leaves, or "de trashing.
 Resistance to disease and pests; and a surprising capacity for adjusting to a
wide range of climates ( Brandes, 1956).

Fertilization: Sugarcane requires adequate nutrients for optimal growth, and therefore,
fertilizer should be applied to the soil based on a soil test and the crop's requirements.
Sugarcane fertility, which was discovered by Soltwedel in Java during the late 1880s,
pointed out a new era in sugarcane culture( Deerr, 1911).

Pest and disease management: Sugarcane is also susceptible to various pests and
diseases, and appropriate measures should be taken to control them. According to
Daniels & Roach the majority of sugarcane development took place in the primary
gene pool (GP-1) and was focused on obtaining specific characteristics like disease
resistance and waterlogging tolerance in GP-2 and GP-3( Daniel & Roach, 1987).
Sugarcane is susceptible to several diseases and pests that can reduce its yield. Proper
management measures such as the use of disease-resistant varieties, fungicides, and
insecticides should be implemented to control these pests and diseases. Sugarcane is
relatively susceptible to disease outbreaks for a number of reasons. The crop's
widespread cultivation encourages the growth and spread of disease. Sugarcane is
propagated vegetatively (via seed cane), and serious diseases frequently have a
systemic nature and can spread through seed cane. In addition, the crop is effectively
grown as a perennial because it is "ratooned," often for many years, prior to field
replanting. As a result, when fields are ratooned, systemic diseases can accumulate
and occur again. As a result, in every significant sugarcane industry, preventative
measures are taken to minimize or prevent disease outbreaks. This is made possible
by variety resistance and routine field control measures like paying attention to the
health of seedcanes and effectively eradicating crops prior to replanting fields.

5
Overall, the successful establishment of sugarcane requires proper management and
care, including appropriate planting techniques, adequate irrigation and fertilization,
and effective pest and weed management.

To improve strand establishment and yield of sugarcane, several physiological

strategies can be implemented. Some of these strategies include:

Soil preparation: The soil should be well-prepared to ensure good drainage and
sufficient soil moisture. The pH of the soil should be between 6.0 and 6.5, and the soil
should be free from weeds and other unwanted plants.

Irrigation: The objective in irrigation is to convey water to the stick roots at the right
amount and the right re-occurrence to boost development. In a perfect world, there
would be a tool that would tell the farmer how much moisture is in the soil so he
could plan the next irrigation cycle. Single-point moisture sensors are not always
accurate indicators of the soil moisture throughout a cane block because soil strata can
be highly variable. In addition, it may be prohibitively expensive to set up and
maintain multi-point moisture sensors. Sugarcane requires plenty of water for optimal
growth and yield. Sugarcane is one of the most water-intensive crops. Rice and trees
may be the only crops that use more. According to Lysimeter studies, the empirical
yield/water use relationship is roughly equivalent to 10 millimeters of water (crop
evapo-transpiration) yielding 1.0 t of cane per hectare. Depending on the climate in
the area and the age of the crop, a sugarcane crop will require anywhere from 1100 to
2000 millimeters of water (Thompson, 1976). It should be provided during the dry
season to ensure that the plants have sufficient water. The sugarcane plants should be
irrigated immediately after planting to ensure that the soil around the setts is moist.

Fertilization: Sugarcane requires adequate nutrients to grow and produce a good yield.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the primary nutrients required by sugarcane.
A balanced fertilizer program should be implemented to provide the plants with these
essential nutrients.

Weed control: Weeds have been describe as plants that are out of spot and there is
positively a bad situation for them in efficient sugarcane developing. They quickly
smother and destroy sugarcane when allowed to grow unchecked, as in abandoned
fields. The crop is impacted in a number of ways by weeds:

6
  they affect germination and compete with sugarcane for water,
nutrients, light, and space;
 they also contain pests and diseases; • They may release harmful
chemicals into the soil through excretion (Elis and Merry, 2004).

Weeds can compete with sugarcane for nutrients, water, and light. It measures such
as herbicides and mechanical cultivation should be implemented to ensure that the
sugarcane plants have access to these resources. Ratoons need to be well managed in
order to keep crops productive for a long time. Repairing a damaged field's
infrastructure—such as roads, waterways, drainage boxes, open drains, and sub-
surface drains—is the highest priority in road maintenance. Due to the rapid
expansion of rats and the high demand for machinery at a time when land preparation
and planting frequently receive higher priority, the window of opportunity for this is
frequently brief. Sugarcane is susceptible to weed competition, and therefore, weed
control measures should be implemented to prevent weed growth and ensure the crop
receives adequate nutrients and water.

Harvesting: Planning for the order in which the fields will be harvested should be part
of harvest preparation. Older ratoon fields are typically harvested first because they
may have a higher sucrose content and may be suitable for replanting, allowing for
more time for reformation. Cane from plants is frequently put off until later to give it
more time to grow and store sugar. Early-ripening varieties are harvested at the
beginning of the harvesting season, while later-ripening varieties are harvested later.
The fields closest to the mill may be harvested first, while those farther away may be
harvested last. The timing of the harvest can have a significant impact on the yield
and quality of sugarcane. Sugarcane should be harvested at the right time to ensure
that the sugar content is at its maximum level. Sugarcane is typically harvested after
12-18 months of planting, depending on the variety and environmental conditions.
Good harvest management is crucial to the profitability of both the cane grower and
the miller. The grower invests significant time and money to produce his crop but
poor harvesting and transport operations can result in dramatic losses of recoverable
sugar both from physical losses of cane infield and deterioration in cane quality
before milling. Ongoing ratoon yields can also be depressed by poor harvesting
practices. The harvesting and transport costs form a large proportion (normally 25–

7
35%) of the overall cost of cane production and must be minimized. Very careful
consideration must therefore be given to both the selection and the management of the
harvesting system (Weekes, 2004).

Overall, a combination of these physiological strategies can help to improve strand

establishment and yield of sugarcane. By implementing these measures, sugarcane
farmers can ensure that their crops produce a good yield of high-quality sugar.

8
CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Germination

Germination of the sugar cane plant can take place from seed or from cane cuttings.
Paying close attention to the quality of the cane sett, the environment in which it is
planted, and the planting method itself pays handsome role because good germination
is crucial to the development of a good crop (Bakker, 1999).

2.1.1. Development of a single shoot

The cane sett is a part of the vertical stem before it is cut. It is in the xylem that water
and nutrients move up. The new shoot grows from thebud, which might be viewed as
a small stem total with developing point and primordia ofleaves and roots. The bud
will begin to swell three days after planting if the conditions are favorable. The shoots
begin to break through the soil's surface on day twelve, undergoing rapid vertical
elongation. Even though shoots from buds on the side or bottom of the sett grow more
slowly in the beginning than from buds on top of the cutting, growth eventually picks
up. If the shoot is well-placed to compete for light and moisture, it will probably
survive. As a result, the beginning stages of leaf unfolding and division into distinct
leaves are crucial. After planting, the top leaf should emerge around twenty days later.
The bud is no longer dormant after being cut and planted. It starts to foster leaves and
initiates the progression of food from the sett. The sett roots start growing six days
after the plant was planted, and the bud has grown a lot. The shoot has emerged from
the bud nine days after it was planted. The sett roots develop somewhat stronger from
the root rings with buds on the side, or underneath, the sett than they do from the buds
on top of the planted and horizontal sett.

2.1.2 Factors affecting the germination of setts

Sugarcane is typically propagated using vegetative materials such as stem cuttings,

which are commonly referred to as "setts" or "seed pieces."

These are the following factor that affect the germination of setts.

9
2.1.2.1 The physical condition of cane cutting and buds

The seed cane's stalk and buds should be examined during preparation. The bud must
come out of its dormancy during the early stages of germination because it was a part
of the vertical stalk. The sett is vulnerable to fungi, pests, and diseases due to growth
cracks in the internode and splits in the ends. Dark buds and this may point to an old
or second-generation stalk that is not suitable for planting. The position of the buds on
the stalk will have a significant impact on their condition and viability. However, in
most cases, the person in charge of preparing the seed cane should try to ensure that
the material consists of firm, green buds (Dillewijn, 1952).

2.1.2.2 Germination gradient

Generally, buds in the upper, or younger, section of the stalk have the easiest time
germinating. According to a study conducted in 1939 by Clements, germination tends
to decrease between buds on leaves +9 and leaves +11 (leaf + I being the spindle).
The germination rate was slowed down because buds that were younger than leaf +9
took longer to mature. These young buds will be shielded from harm by the leaf
sheath. With the exception of the two buds at the top, which are too soft to be used as
planting material, these young buds can be used for commercial planting if necessary.
From buds at leaves +9 to + II, germination tends to be best and decreases from there.
Resulting development from the more seasoned buds will in general be more fragile.
The young shoot that emerges from the bud on the upward side is the fastest in terms
of speed, but subsequent growth is weaker. It took twice as long to produce shoots
from buds on the underside of the cane sett, but the growth that followed was stronger
(Dillewijn, 1952).

2.1.2.3 Position of bud at planting

Buds on the side and beneath the seed cane sett show more sett and shoot root
development in the early stages than buds on top of the sett that are the same age. The
former type of buds' young pant would be less susceptible to adverse conditions.
However, because it takes longer for shoots that germinate from such buds to
penetrate the soil's surface, they are somewhat vulnerable during that stage of
development. This emphasizes the significance of having well-maintained planting
materials .Clements looked into how much the position of buds on a given stalk

10
affects their ability to germinate. These show that the length of the shoot created from
buds as an afterthought or under the tail, albeit getting some margin to get through the
outer layer of the dirt, in time rises to that of shoots risen up out of the bud on the
highest point of the stick sett (Clements, 1980). On the whole it will be beneficial if
cane setts are planted with buds on the side. This is particularly important when the
quality of the planting material is marginal. Time and money spent on the selection of
seed cane based on quality is well worth while.

2.1.2.4 Length of Cutting

Clements discusses how the length and age of the seed cane sett influence the sett's
germination. His research serves as the basis for the discussion that follows. Young
shoots with unfolding leaves demonstrate apical dominance over germinating buds.
When two-bud setts are planted with the terminal bud on top, this is obvious. The bud
under the stick sett will in general sprout later than the bud on top. When the cane sett
only contains one bud, the bud planted on the side or underneath the sett forms sett
and shoot roots more strongly than the bud planted on top of the sett, as described in
the previous section. Because the flow of food that the bud needs to swell and form
the new shoot comes from that direction, the length at which the internode below the
bud is cut is important. When quickly expanding a small stock of cane stems from a
new variety necessitates the use of one-sett buds, the stems should be cut into one-bud
setts, leaving one third of the internode length above and below the bud. One-bud
settling should be planted with the bud on the side or underneath because shoot roots
develop more quickly (Clements, 1980). However, the young shoot is susceptible to
such attacks because rotting and pest or disease invasion will quickly reach the bud.

The location of the terminal bud at the time of planting is crucial when thinking about
cane setts with three buds. The center bud's shoot tends to be weak and sluggish when
placed up; however, when placed sideways, all three buds tend to germinate around
the same time and are of equal strength.

The shoot from the center bud may outnumber the shoots from the cutting's basal and
terminal buds where it is on top. The latter buds may not have as much opportunity to
form viable cane stems under these conditions.

11
Cane setts with four buds will demonstrate this more clearly. The shoots produced by
the second and fourth buds on top of the sett will suppress the terminal and basal
shoots when the third and terminal buds are placed underneath. The shoots from the
second and fourth buds will have little chance when the terminal bud is raised. The
shoots that emerge from the basal and basal + 1 buds will benefit most from the food
that is available in the early stages of shoot development when the buds are placed
sideways, making the other two shoots relatively weak.

Planting three-bud setts from the buds of leaves +9 to +13 (or possibly +18) is
expected to be most practical due to the vulnerability of one-bud setts. It is reasonable
to anticipate that planting the entire length of the cane stalk will result in clumps of
weak shoots separated by gaps. The active intercalary meristems of the internodes
will curve the cane's tops out of the ground if young buds (ages 3 to 8) are included.

It would save a lot of exertion and cost in the readiness of seed stick if whole lengths
of stick

could be planted with a subsequent palatable germination. According to Clements, it

would be justified to plant entire lengths of cane stalks if auxins in the stem tissue,
which cause top-dominance, could be eliminated. This might happen if the planting
material has been exposed to hot, dry weather for a long time. Using entire lengths of
cane stalks to experiment with planting a few weeks before the rainy season may yield
unexpected results.

2.1.2.5 Temperature

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is an important crop for sugar and bioenergy
worldwide. The increasing greenhouse gas emission and global warming during
climate change result in the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather

12
events. The optimum temperature for sugarcane growth is 25 to 35 degree Celsius.
Climate change is expected to have important consequences for sugarcane production
in the world, especially in the developing countries because of relatively low adaptive
capacity, high vulnerability to natural hazards, and poor forecasting systems and
mitigating strategies. Sugarcane production may have been negatively affected and
will continue to be considerably affected by increases in the frequency and intensity
of extreme environmental conditions due to climate change. The degree of climate
change impact on sugarcane is associated with geographic location and adaptive
capacity. In this paper, we briefly reviewed sugarcane response to climate change
events, sugarcane production in several different countries, and challenges for
sugarcane production in climate change in order for us to better understand effects of
climate change on sugarcane production and to propose strategies for mitigating the
negative impacts of climate change and improving sugarcane production
sustainability and profitability (Zhao& Li, 2015).

2.1.2.6 Variety

The germination process of various varieties differs significantly. The variety's ability
to withstand low temperatures appears to be linked to its breeding in a subtropical or
tropical region. The initial rate of germination and the development of sett roots in
relation to shoots and shoot roots vary. However, yield differences between varieties
are not reflected by differences in germination rate within reasonable limits
(Dillewijn, 1952). Varietal differences do not remain constant throughout the growing
season, as evidenced by a study carried out in Barbados by Stevenson and McIntosh.
It found that varieties derived from noble Barbados canes were less prolific in their
production of fibrous roots than those derived from wild canes(Stevenson &
Mclntosh, 1935). Throughout the growing cycle, it is necessary to compare the root
development of various varieties in order to obtain a complete picture. The
completion of germination, the beginning of boom growth, and the period
immediately preceding harvest are all crucial times for these examinations. The
gender Saccharum is a member of the Poaceae family. It has six species, two of which
are wild and low in sugar (Saccharum spontaneum and Saccharum robustum), and
four of which are grown and high in sugar (Saccharum officinarum, Saccharum
barberi, Saccharum sinense, and Saccharum edule) (Nair, 2009). Sugarcane

13
(Saccharum officinarum L.), a food crop that originated in Southeast Asia, is an
important economic player in many tropical and subtropical nations (Jangpromma et
al. , 2010)(Singh et al, 2010). It contains a lot of carbohydrates, minerals, fiber,
vitamin B6, and other nutrients (Archimede et al., 2011).

Sugarcane cultivation improves soil structure conservation and enriches it with

organic matter (Bell et al., 2001). Markets for sugar and rum have always been this
crop's primary focus, but energy and biofuels are also emerging (Small and Catling,
2006). According to Ekpélikpézé , Saccharum officinarum is a significant source of
income for rural producers in Benin. It is grown in the lowlands of various agro-
ecological regions. 2016a). Sucobe, a Chinese sugar industry located in the Savè
district of central Benin for the production of ethanol (Ekpelikpeze et al. , 2016a).
However, despite its economic significance, Benin's sugarcane is still understudied
scientifically. Its production is restricted by numerous biotic and abiotic factors,
which results in substantial losses for producers (Ekpélikpézé et al., 2016a). In the
production zones, a recent ethnobotanical study helped to comprehend the on-farm
management of the existing diversity, identify production constraints, and farmers'
preference criteria. Additionally, physicochemical analysis was carried out to assist in
making decisions regarding the cultivation of the cultivars (Ekpelikpeze et al., 2016b).
Improved, high-yielding cultivars are absolutely necessary for the production of any
plant species that can be economically profitable, including sugarcane.
Characterization of the available germplasm is a necessary first step to facilitate
breeding efforts because it particularly assists a plant breeder in selecting the
appropriate parental materials (Pandey et al., 2011). From a plant breeder's
perspective, understanding the connections between descriptors (characteristics) is
also important for planning and evaluating breeding programs and for selecting
superior genotypes from the breeding population (Sheela and Gopalan, 2006).

14
2.1.2.7 The nutritional state of the cane sett

Phosphates in the internode play a role in the process of breaking bud dormancy in
addition to the germination of buds. This is partly due to the flow of auxins from the
terminal bud to the cutting's base, as well as the phytic acid release of inorganic
phosphate. The germination bud receives this inorganic phosphate (Clements, 1980).
When selecting cane for planting, care should be taken to ensure that it has ample
access to readily available phosphate.

Proteins, which are necessary for the construction of protoplasm (the living part of the
cell) can only be made with nitrogen and carbohydrates. Nitrogen must be readily
available for germination, which involves the formation of new cells, to occur at
maximum speed.

Albeit a particular capability for potassium has not been laid out, sugaring cane is
fundamental, which utilizes a lot of it. At the point when the potassium level in the
stalks to utilized for plant material is low, germination of buds will in general be
erratic(Clements, 1980).

The pace of the germination of the youthful shoot and the improvement of sett roots
relies upon the accessibility of the vital food in the seed stick sett. Cane that will be
used as planting material may benefit from absorbing nitrogen shortly before harvest.
It's possible that this seed cane will produce more cane than others. Setting aside
fields for the production of seed cane is good agricultural practice for a number of
reasons, one of which is this. Internodes will be relatively large if the seed cane fields
are well fertilized, which means that the cane receives a well-balanced diet of
phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen, and its development is not hindered by a lack of
moisture. Buds will be attached to large internodes if the seed cane has well-
developed internodes, which is an important aspect. A strong early stand of cane can
emerge if these internodes are well-nourished.

2.1.2.8 Firming of the cane sett

15
When the cane sett is planted, the firming of the sett into the soil ensures that it is in
close contact with the soil. The rate of germination will suffer as a result of improper
contact between the root hairs and the soil solution caused by gaps or large pores
between the sett and the soil. Firming in the soil can be achieved by compacting the
soil around the newly planted cane sett by pressing it into the soil when planting by
hand. Rollers of the right weight and width can be included in planter equipment. To
provide the reader with a general understanding of their significance and relationship,
the factors that influence the germination of the buds on the cane sett used as planting
material have been described. Experiments ought to be carried out in order to
establish, for instance, the number of buds that the sett ought to have (along with) or
the planting depth that ought to be used at various times of the year for the principal
soil types (Thompson & Halse, 1964).

2.2 Soil Management

Improved nutrient availability, crop breeding, and crop protection have largely
contributed to the steady rise in agricultural production over the past century.
Notwithstanding, these upgrades have frequently led to ecological issues, for
example, water pollution, follow gas emanations or soil debasement. More sustainable
rehearses are expected to limit the ecological impact of agrarian creation and land use.

The term "sustainable agriculture" has been the subject of numerous definitions, and
three elements or dimensions are frequently included: economic, social, and
environmental (also known as biological or physical) (Herdt & Steiner, 1995).
However, it is generally agreed that agricultural systems are sustainable if they are
socially just, environmentally safe, and economically viable over a long period of
time (Lichtfouse et al., 2009).

Agro-biological systems presently supply the heft of humankind's food and fiber. If
agricultural productivity and environmental quality are to be sustained for future
generations, maintaining and improving soil quality is essential (Rasmussen et al.,
1998). Soil natural matter is a vital component in soil quality in light of its positive
effect on physical, compound and organic soil properties, for example, improvement
in soil structure, maintenance of water and plant supplements, expansion in soil
biodiversity and decrease in dangers of soil disintegration (Reeves, 1997).

16
Changes in agricultural management, such as crop rotation, fertilizer input, manure
application, or tillage, only slowly alter the soil's organic matter content, which is
typically estimated by determining the soil organic carbon (SOC) content. Most SOC
changes require numerous years to be perceptible by present logical strategies
(Rasmussen et al., 1998). Long-term experiments are the only way to measure these
incremental changes. Therefore, long-term agroecosystem experiments may be
helpful in determining the impact of new and conventional cropping methods on soil
quality and sustainability. Long-term experiments can also be used as early warning
signs of potential threats to crop production in the future (Richter et al., 2007). Long-
term data sets also provide computer models with reliable data. So long as they are
based on reliable data and the appropriate model representation of the process being
modeled, models can be effective tools for predicting the effect of various
management practices and shifting climate on soil quality and SOC. Along with long
haul tests, PC models may work on how we might interpret the connections between
agricultural the executives, soil quality and the worldwide climate (Beheydt et al.,
2007). Soil is a fundamental compartment of the climate and the focal coordinator of
the earthbound biological system. According to (Baker et al. 2007), soil organic
matter (SOM) content, which is dynamic and effectively responds to changes in soil
management, tillage, and plant production, is largely responsible for soil quality,
which is the fundamental foundation of environmental quality. It is necessary to
adhere to the fundamental principles of good farming practice in order to reduce the
issues of land degradation, decreasing soil fertility, and rapidly declining production
levels that occur in large parts of the world. The soil's three main solid components
are minerals, organic components, and microorganisms. They have a significant
impact on the processes and physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
terrestrial systems.

Until this point in time, logical achievements in person disciplines of the science of
soil minerals, soil natural matter and the microbiology of the soil are admirable. In
any case, minerals, natural matter and microorganisms shouldn't be considered as
discrete substances, but instead a unified framework continually in close affiliation
and collaborations with one another in soil conditions. These parts interact a lot with
terrestrial processes that are important to the quality of the environment and the health
of the ecosystem.

17
The International Society of Soil Science (ISSS) established the Working Group MO
"Interactions of Soil Minerals with Organic Components and Microorganisms" in
1990 because of the significance of interactions between soil minerals, organic matter,
and microorganisms. This Working Group aims to promote research and education on
the interactions of these major solid soil components and their effects on the
production of foodstuffs and fibers, environmental sustainability, ecosystem health,
and global human health. The Working Group has made a significant contribution to
the advancement of our understanding of physical, chemical, and biological interfacial
interactions in soil environments ever since it was established (Huang, 2004). The
activity of microorganisms in their immediate vicinity can be influenced, either
directly or indirectly, by mineral colloids in general.

By absorbing metabolites that would otherwise inhibit microbial growth, mineral

colloids can also stimulate microbial activity. Kaolinite and finely ground quartz are
more effective than montmorillonite. Antibiotics and pesticides, for example, can be
absorbed by the surfaces of mineral colloids, which are toxic to microorganisms.
Despite the ease with which soil organic matter can be divided into various fractions,
these do not represent static end products. The actual amounts, on the other hand,
point to a dynamic equilibrium. The aggregate sum also, dividing of natural matter in
the dirt is impacted by soil properties and by the amount of yearly contributions of
plant and creature buildups to the environment. Soil properties like texture, pH,
temperature, moisture, aeration, clay mineralogy, and soil biological activities, for
instance, determine the rate of decomposition and accumulation of soil organic matter
in a given soil ecosystem (Bot & Benites, 2005). The fact that many of these same soil
properties are influenced or altered by organic matter in the soil adds complexity.
Raw plant residues contain organic matter that helps shield the soil from the effects of
rain, wind, and sun. Expulsion, consolidation or consuming of deposits opens the dirt
to negative climatic effects, and expulsion or consuming denies the dirt living beings
of their essential energy source. The soil's organic matter serves multiple purposes. It
is significant from a practical agricultural standpoint for two primary reasons:

 as a"spinning supplement reserve";

 to reduce erosion, maintain tilt, and improve soil structure. As a rotating
supplement reserve, natural matter serves two fundamental capabilities:

18
  as soil natural matter is inferred basically from plant buildups, it contains the
entirety of the fundamental plant supplements. As a result, the nutrients that
plants need are stored in accumulated organic matter
 The stable organic fraction, or humus, adsorbs and stores nutrients in a form
that is accessible to plants.

Natural matter deliveries supplements in a plant-accessible structure upon decay.

According to (Bot and Benites, 2005), this nutrient cycling system must be
maintained by adding organic matter from crop residues, manure, and other sources at
the same rate as it decomposes, taking into account the rate at which plants absorb it
and losses caused by leaching and erosion. One of the crop and soil management
practices that has a significant impact on soil quality is fertilization (Chander et al.,
1998). Compost and farmyard manure are organic sources of nutrients that have been
shown to improve soil quality and the amount of organic matter in the soil. It is
common knowledge that composts, farmyard manures, plant residues, and other
organic amendments have a number of advantages for improving the chemical and
physical properties of soil. Many reports have additionally uncovered unique colloids
overall can straightforwardly or by implication impact the action of microorganisms
in their nearby area. By absorbing metabolites that would otherwise inhibit microbial
growth, mineral colloids can also stimulate microbial activity. Kaolinite and finely
ground quartz are more effective than montmorillonite. Antibiotics and pesticides, for
example, can be absorbed by the surfaces of mineral colloids, which are toxic to
microorganisms.

Despite the ease with which soil organic matter can be divided into various fractions,
these do not represent static end products. The actual amounts, on the other hand,
point to a dynamic equilibrium. Soil properties and the amount of plant and animal
residues added annually to the ecosystem have an impact on the total amount of
organic matter in the soil as well as how it is distributed. Soil properties like texture,
pH, temperature, moisture, aeration, clay mineralogy, and soil biological activities, for
instance, determine the rate of decomposition and accumulation of soil organic matter
in a given soil ecosystem (Bot and Benites, 2005). The fact that many of these same
soil properties are influenced or altered by organic matter in the soil adds complexity.
Raw plant residues contain organic matter that helps shield the soil from the effects of

19
rain, wind, and sun. The soil is subjected to adverse climate effects when residues are
removed, incorporated, or burned, and the soil organisms lose access to their primary
source of energy. The soil's organic matter serves multiple purposes. It is significant
from a practical agricultural standpoint for two primary reasons.

 as a "revolving food fund" also

 as a specialist to move along

soil structure, keep up with slant and limit disintegration. As a rotating supplement
reserve, natural matter serves two primary capabilities.

 Since soil organic matter is primarily composed of plant residues, it contains

all of the necessary nutrients for plants. As a result, the nutrients that plants
need are stored in accumulated organic matter.
 The stable organic fraction, or humus, adsorbs and stores nutrients in a form
that is accessible to plants. Upon decomposition, organic matter releases
nutrients in a plant-available form. According to Bot and Benites (2005), this
nutrient cycling system must be maintained by adding organic matter from
crop residues, manure, and other sources at the same rate as it decomposes,
taking into account the rate at which plants absorb it and losses caused by
leaching and erosion.

One of the crop and soil management practices that has a significant impact on soil
quality is fertilization (Chander et al., 1998). Compost and farmyard manure are
organic sources of nutrients that have been shown to improve soil quality and the
amount of organic matter in the soil. It is common knowledge that composts,
farmyard manures, plant residues, and other organic amendments have a number of
advantages for improving the chemical and physical properties of soil. 19841 aspects
of the biology of soils that have had organic matter added to them, such as the number
of general microorganisms (Nishio & Kusano, 1980), biomass of bacteria and fungi,
enzyme activities (Mohammadi, 2011), and biochemical properties (Lynch, 1983).
Microbial people group perform essential biological system administrations, including
supplement cycling, microbe concealment, adjustment of soil totals, also, corruption
of xenobiotics. It has been demonstrated that agricultural management practices have
an effect on soil microbial biomass, activity, and community structure. Microbial

20
biomass C (MBC) rises in response to increased nutrient reserves, improved soil
structure, and improved water retention when cropping intensity is increased or no
tillage is eliminated (Biederbeck et al., 2005).

2.3 Soil Quality

The capacity of a particular kind of soil to function within the boundaries of a natural
or managed ecosystem to sustain plant and animal productivity, to maintain or
improve water and air quality, and to support human health and habitation is referred
to as soil quality. Maintaining a high level of biological activity in a soil with a high
equilibrium level and a high level of productivity, regulating the flow of water and
solute, filtering and buffering, degrading, immobilizing, and detoxifying organic and
inorganic contaminants in the soil, and so on are all essential functions of soil for
maintaining good soil quality. This places an emphasis on how the earth's biosphere
stores and moves nutrients and other substances; and, in the end, supports the area's
socioeconomic structures (Seybold et al., 1998).

Application of nitrogen has an impact on soil microbes and their roles in C turnover
and transformation (Compton et al., 2004). In addition, microbes play a significant
role in the processes of decomposition, such as the turnover of soil carbon and the
breakdown of lignin and cellulose (LEI et al., 2018). Endophytic Gluconacetobacter
diazotrophicus thrives in sugarcane plant roots, rhizomes, stalks, and leaves in
anaerobic conditions (Hallmann, 1997). According to (Dobereiner, 1988), flavonoids
released by crop sources serve as signals to enter, colonize, and convert atmospheric
dinitrogen into ammonia. Using Gluconacetobacter bacteria in sugarcane resulted in
N savings of 25–50%, as demonstrated by several experiments conducted in India and
other nations (Reis et al., 1994). By transforming PO4 –3 into HPO4 –2 and H2PO4 –
1, Pseudomonas fluorescense improves P solubility (Satyaprakash et al., 2017). To
improve sugar crystallization during crushing, it is crucial to increase the P content of
sugarcane juice. Sugar crystallization in sugarcane juice typically occurs at levels
greater than 300 ppm, which improves mill sugar recovery (Sundara, 2000). By
making efficient use of P that isn't present in the soil, cane could take in more
phosphorus and use it for juice production. Through the release of cell wall degrading
enzymes, secondary metabolites, and other substances, the Trichoderma fungus not
only prevents soil-borne pathogens (Harman, 2006) but also makes the rhizospheric

21
environment favorable to the growth of sugarcane crops (Vinale, 2008). In addition to
enhancing crop growth and yields, Trichoderma also functions as a bio decomposer
and has the potential to increase soil organic carbon (Shukla et al., 2008). The above-
mentioned microorganisms' effects on sugarcane growth and yield have been the
subject of numerous tests. However, combining these microbes with chemical
fertilizers has a lot of potential because it will reduce the amount of macronutrients
provided by chemical fertilizers, improve nutrient use efficiency, and increase crop
yields. The nitrogen level can be decreased by gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus.
However, chemical fertilizer-based P (phosphorus) solubilizes can be used to
supplement or substitute for up to 50% of the P requirement (Dagnaw et al., 2015).
Trichoderma likewise goes about as a development advertiser and, whenever
expanded with substance manure, expanded sugarcane yield and soil quality
parameters(Yadav et al., 2009). Additionally, a number of researchers have
documented the individual effects that these microbes have on crop growth and yield.
Trichoderma spp. containment as a pathogen has also been studied (Srivastava et al.,
2006). According to reports on P solubilizers, various Pseudomonas or Bacillus spp.'s
performance on P solubilizing capacity and its effect on reducing P levels in various
crops were also revealed (Suleman, 2018). The most important factor in optimizing
the rhizospheric environment for better plant growth is the interaction of various soil
microbes. The presentation of these microorganisms shifts in various ways. For
effective utilization of these microbes and evaluation of their effects on soil quality
parameters, crop growth, and yields, complementarities between Trichoderma,
Gluconacetobacter, and Pseudomonas spp. are essential. There is a lack of scientific
data on combining these microorganisms to reduce NPK. In the sugarcane-based
system, it holds great promise for maintaining crop productivity and soil fertility. The
India Institute of Sugarcane Research in Lucknow has also identified potential strains
of these microbes and observed variations in their effectiveness. Gene Bank has also
received these microbes, and accession numbers have also been provided. As a result,
a thorough investigation into the microbial consortium, its impact on soil quality
parameters, sugarcane growth and yields, and the possibility of lowering the NPK
level in sugarcane crops was deemed necessary. The current experiment was planned
with the following goals in mind. To ascertain how the chemical and biological
parameters of the soil are affected by the integrated application of NPK fertilizer and

22
microbial consortium (MC). To determine the effect of integrated application of MC
and NPK fertilizer on dry matter accumulation, the pattern of nutrients uptake, yield
characteristics, and sugar yield to determine the effect of integration on nutrients use
efficiencies (agronomic efficiencies of N, P, and K) to investigate the possibility of
reducing NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) doses applied.

2.3.1 Soil Quality Indicator

Indicators of soil quality vary greatly depending on the state of the land and how it is
managed.

They fall into three broad categories: biological, physical, and chemical properties or
processes of soil. However, indicators of soil quality ought to reflect the soil's ability
to cycle and retain nutrients in the soil before releasing them to the roots for efficient
plant production and to store carbon in the soil before releasing it to the atmosphere in
a dynamic balance that stabilizes the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere; supplying
plants with water, nutrients, and compounds that encourage plant growth;

 shielding water quality from supplement also, pathogenic pollution, giving

physical solidness and backing for vegetation, structures, and streets;
 facilitating animal habitat and acting as a reservoir for visible and microscopic
biodiversity;
 buffering against harmful aggregation and transport of normal and
manufactured compounds;
 elements used in filtration to shield the environment, plants, and animals from
harmful exposure (Magdoff & Weil, 2004).

In addition, these indicators ought to be:

 Simple to gauge
 Identify changes in soil capability
 Coordinate soil physical, synthetic, and natural properties and cycles
 Available to numerous clients and pertinent to field conditions
 Delicate to varieties in administration and environment
 Incorporate biological system processes and connect with process
situated.

23
Assortment of soil properties or cycles can be chosen to show soil useful abilities.
These indicators include the physical and chemical conditions of the soil, as well as
the structure and function of highly active soil microbial communitie. (Franzlubbers
& Haney, 2006).

2.4 Land Preparation

The primary goals of land preparation are as follows:

 to eradicate the prior crop;

 to eliminate roots and stones to further develop collecting conditions,
and volunteer re-development, which may communicate filth and
ratoon hindering infection (RSD) to the following yield;
 to disassemble already-existing plough pans;
 to set up drainage and field layouts that are right for the surface and
subsurface;
 to improve soil conditions by the expansion of gypsum, lime or factory
mud; and
 to provide an adequate tilth for the sugarcane crop's germination and
expansion(Elis & Merry, 2004).

A variety of actions are carried out to achieve these goals, the costs of which vary
depending on the circumstances of each farmer and the desired outcomes. It's
important when land preparation activities take place. When harvesting the replanted
fields early in the dry season, when rainfall is least anticipated and growth potential is
lowest, it is preferable to minimize cane loss. The neglected period ought to be all
around as short as could really be expected, predictable with the tasks that must be
completed despite the fact that, in the event that the past harvest had elevated degrees
of RSD, a more drawn out neglected period is alluring. In a perfect world, the field
would be replanted just in time for the germination and early tillering phases to be
finished by the potential for rapid growth in the early summer. Fields that are to be
fallowed for harvest time planting with a green fertilizer crop are an exemption, and
will regularly be reaped late in the collecting season.

24
The methods are often unique to each farmer, but the following description aims to
illustrate the most common ones. In addition, not all of the operations are carried out
at the same time or in the same order.

2.4.1 Environment Consideration.

The need for sugarcane farmers to take a more proactive approach to environmental
management is becoming increasingly apparent. This has brought about hesitance to
create new land. When new land is to be developed, it should be done with more care,
opening only land that can be cultivated profitably and excluding areas with poor soil,
riverine vegetation, rocky terrain, and archaeological sites. Environmental Impact
Assessments (EIAs) are becoming increasingly mandatory for farmers, and they must
adhere to their recommendations. This has a significant impact on the methods used to
prepare the land, both in terms of reducing the amount of developed land and
implementing practices that will make better use of the already-cultivated land.

2.4.2 Stool Destruction

This can be done with one-way or reversible moldboard ploughs that are set shallowly
to turn over the current stool and expose it to desiccation. Heavy disc harrows, which
break up the stool, are another option. These are compelling in dry circumstances in
any case, less so than moldboard furrows when the fields are wet. Plate furrows can
likewise be utilized be that as it may, they will more often than not turn in the old
stool, permitting it to re-develop. Before beginning the subsequent procedure, any
volunteer stools should be manually removed, particularly if the previous variety is
susceptible to smut or RSD.

• Ploughing

To mix the topsoil and break up any soil pans caused by compaction and cultivate the
soil to depth is the goal of this operation. It can be done with heavy Rome disc
ploughs or conventional or reversible ploughs.

2.4.3 Harrowing

By breaking up soil clods from other land preparation operations and incorporating
ameliorants, this is done to produce a good surface tilth or seed bed and permit the

25
subsequent operations to proceed on a smooth surface. Two harrowings might be
required, the last one to create the establishing tilth. With disc harrows, chisels, or
tines, the job is done.

2.4.4 Ripping

Shattering deep pans, breaking up compacted soil, and increasing rooting depth are
the goals of this procedure. Crawlers or powerful wheeled tractors with tined rippers
are typically used for this. Even though it costs a lot of money, it works very well,
especially in heavy clay or duplex soils.

2.4.5 Leveling

Graders or dump-scoop leveling may be required to fill in gaps, create terraces, and
create waterways in newly developed or uneven ratoon fields. This may only be
necessary in undesirable locations in replanted fields. Planning the land is crucial for
leveling out high and low points, especially in fields that are irrigated with furrows
and have very shallow slopes. In modern tasks, a laser instrument controls land
arranging.

2.4.6 Sub-surface drainage.

In order to lower salinity, sodicity, and water tables, subsurface drainage systems
should be installed during the land preparation process. Before deciding whether or
not to replant, investigations should have been conducted to anticipate this
requirement. These investigations determine the depth, size, and spacing of the drains.
Usually, drainage pipe is slotted PVC pipe, but mole drains can also work. Typically,
drainage pipe is installed by digging a trench in the ground and wrapping it in sand.
There are laser-controlled machines for installing drainage pipes and trenches, and
these machines are used in complex, large-scale operations. Investigation and
cleaning boxes should likewise be assembled.

2.4.7 Soil ameliorants.

In order to fully incorporate these into the soil, they should be added prior to the
ripping or final harrowing. Gypsum is used to lower the sodicity of the soil,
particularly in sodic soils. Additionally, lime should be included to lower the pH of

26
the soil. Spreaders that are pulled by tractors are used to apply these two materials.
Plant mud is utilized to work on the natural matter status of the endlessly soil
structure at paces of about 100 t/ha and, at lower rates, give a wellspring of phosphate
manure. On factory estates, it is frequently required to dispose of this material, which,
despite its bulk, is highly valuable, particularly in virgin soils that are frequently very
low in phosphorus. Spreaders pulled by tractors or graders spread dumps in the field
to apply mill mud. On estates with distilleries, the terms "stillage" and "dunder" can
be used to describe a mixture of potassium and nitrogen that is sufficient. It is applied
using boom-mounted nozzles on tractor-drawn bulk tankers or, later, the sprinkler or
furrow irrigation system.

2.4.8 Rock removal

If they are collected during harvest and end up going through the mill, rocks in fields
can be very destructive and impede mechanical operations. It is worth the effort to
remove them during replanting and after harvest. The volcanic island of Mauritius is
littered with basalt rocks, which have been piled high in the field in high heaps. At the
point when this land is replanted, subsoilers drawn by crawler work vehicles, go
through to uncover the stones. These are taken out either by bulldozers or by hand and
stacked in pyramids or as walls between cane rows.

Cover cropping and fallowing

Numerous nations employ this strategy:

 to provide a break between sugar cane crops due to time or machine

limitations that prevent replanting;
 to improve soil conditions, particularly the amount of organic matter; and to
prevent the growth of diseases and pests or control resistant weeds.

Legumes like cowpeas and velvet beans are frequently used as cover crops. After
the late-harvested cane has been removed and the preliminary land preparation
work has been completed, the cover crop is planted. It should be turned in when it
is producing the most vegetative material, during the early flowering stage, and
left to decompose before the final land preparation is done. Commercial crops like
cotton can sometimes take the place of legumes.

27
 2.4.9 Minimum tillage.

Currently, this method is quite well-established. Using fluazifop at a rate of 6

liters per hectare or glyphosate at a rate of 8 to 10 liters per hectare destroys
stools. To prevent poor germination, fluazifop should be applied at least eight
weeks before replanting. For optimal stool elimination, the chemicals should be
applied to actively growing cane greater than 400 mm in height. It's important to
cover the foliage well.

Between the old cane rows into which the cane setts are planted, a finite tilth band of
about 200 mm is created. In light soils, this can be accomplished with discs, while in
heavier soils, rotary hoes are used. The benefits of least culturing are a decrease in
soil disintegration on steep terrains in light of the fact that of the proceeded with
presence of the old, dead harvest, what's more, the little area of soil upset.
Preservation of soil structure, organic matter, moisture, and nutrients The number of
volunteers is decreasing generally, costs are lower. Additionally, light and medium-
textured soils should result in an increase in yield. The disadvantages include a delay
in planting as a result of the requirement for the previous crop to be actively growing
before the non-selective herbicide can be applied; It is impossible to implement new
layouts or land leveling, and it is challenging to incorporate ameliorants.

2.4.10 Planting furrows

The final step in land preparation is the preparation of these. The movement of V-
shaped double mold boards, tines, or discs creates them. Care is expected to guarantee
that they are a steady distance separated and of uniform profundity, for example
roughly 100 mm. The rows' spacing has already been discussed. Since a cloddy bed
will prevent the seed cane from coming into contact with the moist soil, a single
seedbed is essential for even germination.

28
2.4.11 Irrigation and Nitrogen fertilizer

With reasonable states of satisfactory temperature and daylight got in districts, for
example, Khuzestan, Iran, stick fills in direct extent to how much accessible water.
Recent research indicates that sugarcane in Khuzestan requires 3000-3500 mm of
total water (Khuzestan Sugar Council, 1985). One t/ha of cane is produced for every
10 mm of soil water the crop uses. a variety of instruments, including neutron
moisture meters, tension meters, and gypsum blocks. are utilized to determine the
amount of water present in the soil's root zone. (Balasubramaniyan and Palaniappan,
2001) these are not always appropriate for extensive field use. The Karun agro-
industry, with its diverse soil texture, agro climatic conditions, and varietal use, makes
it challenging to make use of indicator plants, tissue testing, crop logging, and soil
moisture determination (Khuzestan Sugar Council, 1985). Data on the weather from
an open pan evaporimeter (IW: CPE, where IW denotes the irrigation water depth in
millimeters or centimeters and CPE denotes cumulative pan evaporation, is a solar
energy function that helps determine the irrigation duration and depth. According to
lysimetric studies (Chang et al., 1968) there is a strong correlation between water
removal from a sugarcane field and evaporation from a U.S. Weather Bureau Class A
pan. 1968). For commercial vegetable production, water and fertilizer are crucial

29
factors or inputs. The most commonly used element in plant mineral nutrition is
nitrogen (N). It is necessary for plants to grow to their full potential, as well as to get
the most out of them in terms of yield and quality. Sugarcane responds well to the
application of N. During its rapid growth period, it can use between 4 and 7 kg N ha-1
per day (Gascho et al., 1986). With irrigation and N-fertilization, some previous
studies demonstrated an increase in biomass production, yield, and tissue nitrogen
concentrations (Wiedenfeld, 1995). Although all nutrients are necessary for growth,
nitrogen (N) is particularly significant due to its strong correlation with yield (Pandey
et all, 2001). (Ruschel & Vose 1982) the relationships between irrigation and nitrogen
fertilization in furrow-irrigated sugarcane demonstrated that, generally, yield
responses to applied nitrogen are greater at higher levels of applied water than at
lower levels. Any growth factor that boosts plant growth and yield, like fertilization,
increases water efficiency (Aydeniz 1985). Fertilization led to increased root growth
and vegetation, both of which increased water use. In Khuzestan, Iran, where
sugarcane is grown extensively, it is necessary to determine the crop's irrigation and
nitrogen needs without affecting cane and sugar yields due to rising costs of water for
irrigation and nitrogen fertilizers and potential environmental pollution (Viets,1962).
The goal of this study was to find out how these two factors affected yield, NUE, and
WUE of a sugarcane crop in Khuzestan, Iran, both on their own and in combination.

2.5 Pest and Disease Management

World trade, change in climate conditions, simplification and intensification of

agricultural systems has increased risks from pest and disease incursions and
outbreaks. As many other tropical crops, sugarcane hosts an important quantity of
insects and diseases, some of them being of economic importance for the sugarcane
farmers and the industries.

2.5.1 Pest of Sugarcane

A wide variety of insect pests attack the sugarcane crop (Saccharum officinarum)
throughout the plant's stages (Williams et al., 1969). Over 800 diseases and over 1500
species of insects associated with the sugarcane crop are listed in a catalog (Long and
Hensley, 1972). However most of these are minor vermin, a couple of significant bugs
exist and cause huge harm to all pieces of the harvest. For example root, stalks and

30
foliage (Hall, 1988). The following is a list of major damaging groups categorized
based on their nature of damage:

2.5.1.1 Leaf feeders

Locusts and armyworms (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) are the main insect pests that feed
directly on sugarcane leaves (Orthoptera: Acrididae). The nature of these pests'
populations is unpredictable, and some species may experience intermittent outbreaks
(Vreyssen et al., 2007). According to (Nikpay, 2016), the presence of trash blankets
used to control weeds and maintain soil humidity in sugarcane interrows—a haven for
armyworms—seems to be another factor in this infestation. Sugarcane can
occasionally be damaged by the locusts, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. The
grasshopper Nomadacris septemfasciata and the sugarcane-growing species Petamella
prosternalis are frequently mentioned in South Africa. Biocontrol with parasitoids and
entopathogens is being developed in addition to chemical control, which is typically
used to combat these insect pests.

2.5.1.2 Sap feeders

This class incorporates primarily Hemipteran species like aphids (Aphidoidea), scale
bugs (Coccoidea), whiteflies (Aleyrodidae), mealybugs (Pseudoccidae), planthoppers
(Fulgoroidea) and froghoppers (Cercopoidea), as well as straightforwardly benefiting
from the plant sap, a few animal groups are known infection vectors. Melanaphis
sacchari Zethntner, a sugarcane aphid, for instance, transmits two sugarcane viruses:
the Sugarcane Mosaic virus (SCMV) and the more recent Sugarcane Yellow Leaf
virus (Allister et al., 2008). Oligonychus sacchari (McGregor), also known as the
sugarcane yellow mite (Prostigmata: In Iranian sugarcane fields, Tetranychidae) is an
occasional sugarcane pest. Invasions by and large happen during late May-early
August, and the lower leaves of sugarcane are typically colonized first. However,
extensive damage to the middle and upper leaves of young plants is accompanied by
prolonged heavy infestations, which slows plant growth (Nikpay et al., 2013).

2.5.1.3 Stalk feeder: Moth borers (Lepidoptera), key pests of sugarcane

A wide variety of stalk-feeding insects target the sugarcane crop. Depending on the
time of the infestation and the portion of the stalk they feed on, these can be loosely

31
classified as top feeders, stem feeders, or shoot feeders, sometimes causing dead
hearts. The fundamental gathering of bugs in this class is the moth drills, which are by
a wide margin the most harming sugarcane bothers in all stick developing nations,
aside from Australia and Fiji (Sallam, 2006). According to (Long and Hensley, 1972),
there are approximately fifty species of moth borers that attack sugarcane worldwide
and belong to the genera Chilo, Eldana, Sesamia, Diatraea, Scirpophaga,
Elasmopalpus, Eoreuma, Telchin, Tetramoera, and Acigona. Many of these species
are polyphagous and can also attack several species of wild grasses in addition to
maize, rice mill 2002. According to (Goebel and Way, 2009), the larval stage of these
species burrows into the stalk, resulting in significant reductions in biomass and sugar
content. Due to their obscure biology, moth borers are difficult to eradicate.
subsequently organic control and varietal opposition are key parts of their the
executives.

Fig: Stemborer C.sacchariphagus damaging sugarcane stalk (right) and the adult (left)

A small number of coleopteran species belong to the families Cerambycidae and

Curculionidae in addition to the main group of stalk borers. The long-horn beetle's
larvae, Dorysthenes buqueti, burrow into cane stubble and attack the stalk's base. In
cases of severe infestation, crops fail to yield properly and eventually die (Sommartya
& Suasa-ard, 2006). This insect is a major sugarcane pest in Thailand and is
widespread in Southeast Asia. Entomopathogens can control it. Weevil borers
Metamasius hemipterus and Rhabdoscelus obscurus, which attack both sugarcane and
palm trees and are found in many countries that produce sugarcane, are another case
that merits mention. Last but not least, the Rats (Sigmodon hispidus, Rattus sp.) must
be mentioned. as sugarcane pests that are important to the economy of some Central
American nations, particularly Nicaragua (Goebel, 2015). When the cane stalks are

32
lodging, rats consume them directly. The rats consume the soft, juicy internodes by
eating through the cane stalk's rind. The impact to the stick tail resembles ringing a
tree. The stalk above the chewed portion typically dies after this attack, and
occasionally the lower portion as well. Can stalks that have suffered less damage may
continue to expand, but they will produce less sugar. In Nicaragua, control of rodents
is finished by applying an item called Brodifacoum, a strong anticoagulant raticide.

2.5.1.4 Root feeders: White grubs (Scarab beetles)

An underground pest that typically attacks the root system, drying out the plant and
making it susceptible to tipping. The most damaging genera are Hoplochelus,
Dermolepida, Lepidotia, Heteronychus, Adoretus, and Anomala, which are all
members of the families Dysnatinae, Rutelinae, and Melolonthinae. Most of the time,
chemical granules applied to the soil and entopathogenic fungi can control them
(Allsopp, 2010). Aeneolamia varia (Hemiptera:) and the sugarcane root spittlebug
Mahanarva Fimbriolata (Stl) are two additional pests. Cercopidae), which additionally
harm leaves. Termites (Isoptera) can likewise be obliterating in dry locales of Africa
and Asia. The species that for the most part cause harm in Africa have a place with
the genera Macrotermes.

Fig. : The grey back canegrub Dermolepida albohirtum (adult, larvae and damage).

Natural enemies of insect pests: parasitoids and predators

In the sugarcane agrosystem, there is also a myriad of beneficial insects that play a
major role in suppression of pests. Tiny wasps such as Cotesia flavipes
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Trichogramma spp. (Hymenoptera:

33
Trichogrammatidae) are among the most effective parasitoids of stemborers (Goebel
et al., 2010). Sugarcane fields are also home of a wide range of generalist predators
such as spiders, ants, and many others that play a major role in the regulation of pest
populations (Bonhof et al., 1997). Besides beneficial insects, bats are also known to
be good predators of sugarcane pests and can be employed directly in field by settling
bat houses next to the fields of farms. However, knowledge on these natural enemies
is still needed to better use them as part of the whole ecological services. Natural
enemies to control sugarcane pests shouldn’t be applied or released if agricultural
practices and other techniques have a negative interaction with them (i.e. chemical
treatments, cane burning, etc.).

2.6. How to manage these insect pests? Some results worldwide on stemborers
and white grubs, major pests of sugarcane.

It is demonstrated through numerous examples from Africa, Asia, South America,

Australia, and Reunion Island that managing sugarcane insect pests is a lengthy
process that requires an understanding of a variety of factors at the field to landscape
scale. There are external factors that cannot be controlled, such as the weather.
However, pest pressure can be reduced by controlling a number of agronomic and
ecological factors, including crop management in general and resource management.
Dealing with an editing framework, applying new strategies, or then again upsetting a
biological system for land snatching to settle new sugarcane regions can prompt
irritation issues and episodes (Goebel and Salam, 2011).

2.6.1. Agricultural practices and pest management

General considerations and recommendations (Goebel & Nikpay, 2017).

Social control is viewed as the initial step of safeguard against bugs including tail
drills, and incorporates strategies, for example, obliteration of harvest buildups, crop
revolution, control of establishing dates, early reaping, gathering dead shoots,
diminished composts use, field checking, staying away from "stand-ove" stick (stick
developing longer than the suggested time)(Leslie, 2004 ). Whenever the situation
allows; removing the cane at or below ground level to prevent the stools' larvae from
re-infesting the rats' crops; after cutting, remove any stalk or leaf material that
remains covering uncovered buildup of stick with soil (this kills eggs and youthful

34
hatchlings in the tail stumps) what's more, staying away from the utilization of wide
range or tenacious insect sprays (Kfir et al., 2002).

Sugarcane stemborers seem to do more damage to stressed plants than to plants that
are not stressed. It is unknown whether the loss of natural plant tolerance or higher
larval densities on stressed plants are the causes of this relationship. Agronomic
practices like great plant development the board through proper preparation and water
system plans are a self-evident advantage towards further developed stem drill the
board. Pre-trashing or removing dry cane leaves from the stem also reduces the
number of stalk borers by reducing the number of eggs already present in the field and
the locations where they prefer to oviposit (Leslie, 2004). Additionally, removing the
leaves exposes larvae to their natural enemies and slows down their time of
penetration. According to LSU AgCenter (2010), stubble in fallow fields should be
plowed out as quickly as possible in the United States to reduce the number of
overwintering larvae.

Another fundamentally recommended management strategy for reducing stalk borer

populations that overwinter is to plant sugarcane seed pieces that are free of stem
borer (Beuzelin, 2011) Pieces of sugarcane stalks called "seed cane" are inserted
horizontally into the soil in new plantations. These canes may contain eggs or larvae
of stalk borers, which could infest nearby crops again. These can be eradicated by
dipping the seed cane in pesticide mixtures or submerging it in 50°C water for two
hours (Carnegie, 1981).

Date planting and harvesting result in a variety of sugarcane phenological conditions

that have the potential to influence the dynamics of stem borer populations (Beuzelin
et al., 2011). For instance, the practice of "carrying over" cane that has been used for
more than a year in the south of Durban (South Africa) encourages borer growth and
damage. This was demonstrated by E. saccharina, whose damage began to
significantly rise after a year and continued to rise thereafter (Goebel, 2005). At this
stage, the loss of sugar is frequently critical, and carryover cane is a problem for the
industry.

Borer infestations in the field can be reduced with regular irrigation. According to
(Reay-Jones et al., 2005), irrigation significantly reduced the number of moth borer

35
exit holes/stalk and bored internodes by 2.5 times in two commercial sugarcane
cultivars. They said that irrigation made it less likely that moth borer exit holes and
bored internodes would occur. Sugarcane varieties may be more susceptible to
damage from stalk borers if drought stress is present. Sugarcane plants with drought
stress have more dry leaves and higher levels of several free amino acids (ReayJones
et al., 2005), which makes the plant more suitable for oviposition and the
development of the larva (Showler and Castro, 2010). Drought-stress cultivars have
higher protein and free amino acid content, making them more desirable for feeding,
growth, oviposition, and reproduction (White, 1984). In addition to drought, salinity
can have an impact on plant growth and vigor, which in turn can cause damage from
stalk borers. (Reay-Jones et al. 2003) found that Mexican rice borer infestations in
sugarcane were increased by high soil salinity, a stressor that also increases free
amino acid accumulation in plants.

Despite positive effects of agricultural practices if well applied, there are cases of
mismanagement of these practices and techniques that are normally supposed to
improve sugarcane yield and productivity. Some of them can lead to dramatic change
in pest pressure (Figure) as shown in the following examples:

Figure ; Main management practices and environmental constraints likely to change

pest pressure in sugarcane agroecosystems (Goebel and Sallam, 2011).

The impact of nitrogen on borer damage

36
Studies have shown that sugarcane production is positively correlated with the
availability of nutrients especially nitrogen, and this source of nutrient are used in the
form of fertigation which is mixed with water (Atkinson and Nuss, 1989). Application
of nitrogen fertilizers promote higher cane productivity but have resulted in elevated
pests and diseases outbreaks. Nitrogen fertilizers mostly influence fecundity,
longevity and damage caused by arthropod pests (Scriber, 1984). This phenomenon is
more obvious in the case of stalk borers which clearly documented by several
researchers. In South Africa, many commercial farmers and agricultural managers
from sugar estates apply too much fertilizers, this is particularly true for nitrogen
(more than 150 kg/ha). (Goebel et al., 2005) showed that, by increasing the level
nitrogen fertilizers, percent of stalk damaged increased in both small scale and
commercial growers . In a general survey, these authors found that, whatever the
sugarcane region, there was a significant difference of 50kg/ha of nitrogen applied
between the 2 types of farms, with an average of 134 kg/ha for commercial growers
versus 81 for small growers (Goebel et al., 2005). The elevated damage was
significant in commercial growers because they applied more than 150 kg/ha nitrogen
in their fields. A positive correlation between nitrogen input and pest infestation
levels was found with the borer E. saccharina and proved to be another factor leading
to lower pest prevalence in small scale farms (Goebel et al., 2005). A critical
threshold of 100 kg N per ha was found to agree with results obtained in Cuba for
D.Saccharalis (Lopez et al., 1983).

The impact of Cane burning in large sugarcane areas

The practice of burning before harvest has a significant impact on biodiversity,

disrupting the entire biological equilibrium (in fields and hedges). In Get-together, the
boycott of stick consuming in high plagued regions has diminished Drill harm by half.
(Goebel et al, 2010) Some studies have shown that borer larvae can live in the
internodes. This island stopped this practice at the beginning of the 2000s based on
these findings and out of concern for the environment (pollution from flying ashes).
Green harvesting and the decision to stop burning at harvest have also been made in
many producing nations. This has likewise been moved by the developing interest of
stick wastes to use for field covering or today for energy use and bioplastics.

37
However, cane burning is still practiced in some countries in Africa, Asia, and South
America, where it has a devastating impact on biodiversity.

Use of varietal resistance to sugarcane pests and GM sugarcane varieties

Utilization of regular (non-GM) nuisance or illness safe assortments is a significant

part of the IPM in sugarcane biological systems yet on the off chance that proposals
are not followed the gamble of raised bug tension will remain (Hensley et al., 1977).
Borer resistance, or the incorporation of particular genes or traits, is typically not the
focus of specific research in sugarcane breeding programs; however, when new
varieties are planned for commercialization, they are typically tested for their
susceptibility to borers (Meagher et al., 1996). In South Africa they utilize a drill
assessment framework (evaluations from 0 to 9) against Eldana saccharina permitting
positioning assortments from vulnerable, reasonably helpless, and moderate to safe .
According to SASRI's statistical analysis of pest data on various sugarcane varieties
collected in various areas of South Africa, the percentage of stalk damage was
significantly different between the varieties surveyed in the most infested areas. All
data were mixed when the PCA identified three distinct groups: susceptible,
intermediate, and resistant varieties. Again, it is important to apply recommendations
from sugarcane research institutes, particularly in high infested areas (“hot spots”).
The choice of varieties in a farm can really change the pest status and pressure. For
example, in the context of a high demand for biomass to produce energy and other
bioproduct new “high fiber” varieties containing higher proportion of cellulose,
hemicellulose and ligns are being developed in different breeding centers. However, it
is not known yet how these varieties will have an impact on pest infestation
particularly from stemborers. Similarly ‘high sucrose’ varieties also currently under
development are also likely to influence pest dynamics these types of sweet varieties
are preferably attacked by stemborers. Thus there is a need to directly consider the
pest consequences of any new varieties and whether pest resistance can be a key
component of variety development.

According to (Smeets et al.,2008) a potential future strategy for expanding sustainable

sugarcane production is the use of genetically modified (GM) sugarcane. Beyond all
of the risks that come with them (public concerns about GM-based sugar products,
impacts on the environment and biodiversity, and gene flow from GM seed cane to

38
wild species), it's important to think about the likely development of pest resistance to
transgenic crops, which could make it hard to use these cultivars on a large scale
(Tabashnik et al., 2008). Particularly, it will be necessary to comprehend the potential
direct and indirect effects of GM varieties on the dynamics of the pests and the natural
enemies they share. This is particularly significant for existing effective natural
control procedures where volatiles produced by the have plant following an irritation
assault assume a significant part. The research on new traits that can be added to
sugarcane varieties to make them resistant to pests, particularly stem borer, is not yet
finished (Craveiro et al., 2009). Since transgenic sugarcane varieties have not yet been
made available for sale, we must learn from other sectors in which GM varieties are
currently being produced, such as maize, cotton, soybeans, and canola.

Biocontrol and conservation biological control

Old style organic control, which is the presentation and foundation of colorful normal
foes against presented bug species, is a notable innovation and a fundamentalpart in
sugarcane bug the executives. It has been produced for over 50 years in most
sugarcane delivering nations, especially for controlling stemborers which are
challenging to reach once the hatchlings is inside the sugarcane tail. Furthermore
sugarcane is a very thick harvest which at times diminishes the adequacy of the
pesticide medicines when air splashed. In this context, sugarcane is treated for insect
control much less frequently than cotton or horticulture or other cropping systems. In
sugarcane, parasitoids and entomopathogenic fungi are utilized for biocontrol.
Entomopathogens are used to control coleopteran and heteropteran species, whereas
parasitoids are mostly used on Lepidoptera (Goebel & Nikpay, 2017).

2.7 Sugarcane Nutrition

Sugarcane essentially consists of water, organic material and minerals made up from a
wide range of elements as listed in the periodic table. However, only 16 elements are
required for good growth. The three structural elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
comprise about 95 % of the fresh mass of the plant and comes mainly from water and
the air. The remaining 5 % is the mineral component, of which at least 13 elements
are considered to be essential for good growth and for maintaining the reproductive
cycle of sugarcane(Meyer, 2013).

39
2.7.1 Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is the fourth most abundant element in sugarcane and together with carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, is essential for the production of amino acids, proteins,
enzymes, hormones, phytoalexins and phenolics. Nitrogen is involved in many
interactions with other nutrients. For example, K increases NO3, while P and Cl
decrease NO3 uptake and promote the uptake of NH4 (Huber and Graham 1999). N is
by far the most widely reported element affecting plant diseases, especially fungal
diseases, but in sugarcane unfortunately very little research has been conducted into
the impact of cane nutrition on disease susceptibility. There is anecdotal evidence
from an N treatment trial conducted in Swaziland that high N treatment increases the
susceptibility of sugarcane to smut.

2.7.2 Phosphorus (P)

Along with nitrogen and potassium, hosphorus is an essential component for

sugarcane growth and reproduction. P plays a crucial role in the cane plant's
metabolism and energy transfer, particularly in establishing a healthy root system.
Phosphorus can be found in both organic and inorganic forms. When the soil pH is
below 7.2, it is mostly absorbed by the roots as (H2PO4) 4 and when it is above 7.2,
as (HPO4) 2.

Phosphorus has been shown to increase crop yields in highly weathered acid soils
(Fageria and Baligar, 2001) particularly for sugarcane (Meyer and Wood, 1989). Due
primarily to their inherent capacity to strongly fix applied P, sugarcane growing on
red oxisol soils, which are prevalent throughout tropical and subtropical cane
producing regions, faces a particularly high risk of P deficiency.

2.7.3 Potassium (K)

In contrast to nitrogen and phosphorus, the majority of the soil's potassium or potash
(K) is found in the form of minerals like feldspars and micas. However, despite the
fact that these minerals may be abundant in a variety of soils and have a high total K
content, the low solubility of the K salts in these minerals may result in low plant-
available K levels.

40
Roots acquire potassium as the K+ ion from the soil solution. In the cytoplasm,
potassium is mostly found in water-soluble forms. Sugarcane will soon exhibit typical
symptoms of K deficiency in the older leaves as a result of the redistribution of
potassium to actively growing tissue when the exchangeable K reserves of the soil fall
below the respective threshold value. Lower leaves foster a profound yellow to orange
tone, with tips and edges becoming necrotic, while more youthful leaves might remain
green. In cutting edge lack burning of external edges of the leaf happens, as well as
red discoloration of the midrib(Meyer, 2013).

41
Chapter 3

Conclusion

Sugarcane is an important crop that is grown worldwide for its sugar content. In order
to maximize the yield and quality of the crop, farmers must employ various strategies
to ensure that the plants are healthy and productive. One such strategy is to plant the
sugarcane at the proper depth, which can help to ensure that the roots are well-
established and can access the necessary nutrients and water. Additionally, proper
irrigation and nutrient management can help to ensure that the plants have the
resources they need to grow and produce high-quality sugarcane. By employing these
physiological strategies, farmers can improve the establishment and yield of their
sugarcane crops, which can contribute to their overall profitability and success.
Overall, sugarcane is an important crop that requires careful management in order to
ensure its success, and physiological strategies are a key component of this
management process. In conclusion, physiological strategies such as proper planting
depth, irrigation, and nutrient management can greatly improve the establishment and
yield of sugarcane. By understanding the needs of the crop and providing optimal
growing conditions, farmers can increase their profits and contribute to the global
demand for sugarcane products.

42
 References

Balu, R. (1999) Sweet dreams. Sugar y Azucar, March. An introduction to sugarcane. In G.

James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp. 1).” 2004 by Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell
Publishing Company.”

Galloway, J.H. (1989) The Sugar Cane Industry. An Historical Geography from its Origins
to 1914. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. An introduction to sugarcane. In G.
James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp. 8).” 2004 by Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell
Publishing Company.

Mukherjee, S.K. (1957) Origin and distribution of Saccharum. Botanical Gazette, 119. An
introduction to sugarcane. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp. 4).” 2004 by Blackwell
Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.

Brandes, E.W. (1929) Into primeval Papua by seaplane. National Geographic Magazine. An
introduction to sugarcane. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp. 2).” 2004 by Blackwell
Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.

Artschwager, E. & E. W. Brandes (1958) Sugarcane (Saccharum offi cinarum L).

Agriculture Handbook No. 122. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Berding, N. & Roach, B.T. (1987) Germplasm collection, maintenance, and use. In:
Sugarcane Improvement through Breeding (ed. D. J. Heinz), pp. 143–210. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.

Simmonds, N.W. (1993) Introgression and incorporation: strategies for the use of crop
genetic resources. Biological Reviews, 68, 539–562.

R. D. Ellis and R. E. Merry (2004), Sugarcane Agriculture. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp.

101).” 2004 by Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.”

Irvine J. E. (2004).Sugarcane Agronomy. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp. 143).” 2004 by

Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.”

Ellis, R.D., J.H. Wilson, & P.M. Spies, (1985) Development of an irrigation policy to
optimize sugar production during seasons of water shortage. Proceedings of the
South African Sugar Technologists Association, 59, 142–147.

43
Brandes, E.W. (1956) Origin, dispersal and use in breeding of the Melanesian garden
sugarcanes and their derivative, Saccharum offi cinarum. L. Proceedings of the
International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, 9.

Deerr, N. (1911) Cane Sugar. Norman Roger, Manchester,

England.

Daniels, J. & B.T. Roach, (1987) Taxonomy and evolution. In: Sugarcane Improvement
through Breeding (ed. D. J. Heinz), pp. 7–84. Elsevier, Amsterdam

G.D. Thompson, Water use by sugarcane. From review paper No.8 of the South African
Sugar Industry Agronomists' Association, published in the South African Sugar
Journal of November 1976

R. D. Ellis and R. E. Merry (2004), Sugarcane Agriculture. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp.

101).” 2004 by Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.”

Weekes D. (2004). Harvest Management. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp. 160).” 2004 by

Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.”

Bakker, H. Sugar Cane Cultivation and Management © Kluwer Academic/Plenum

Publishers 1999 pp: 1

Dillewijn C. V. "Botany of Sugarcane". The Chronica Botanica Co.: Book Department,

Waltham, Mass., U.S.A. (1952).

Dillewijn C. V. "Botany of Sugarcane". The Chronica Botanica Co.: Book Department,

Waltham, Mass., U.S.A. (1952).

Clements F. "Sugarcane Crop Logging and Crop Control". Pitman Publishing Limited,
London p.121 (1980).

Clements F. "Sugarcane Crop Logging and Crop Control". Pitman Publishing Limited,
London p.121 (1980).

Zhao, D., & Li, Y. R. (2015). Climate change and sugarcane production: potential impact and
mitigation strategies. International Journal of Agronomy, 2015, 1-10.

44
Dillewijn C. V. "Botany of Sugarcane". The Chronica Botanica Co.: Book Department,
Waltham, Mass., U.S.A. (1952).

Stevenson C.G. and A.E.S. McIntosh, Investigations into the root development of the sugar
cane in Barbados, 1. Root development in several varieties under one environment.
Brit. West Indies Central Sugar Cane Breeding Station, Bulletin No.5

Nair, N. V., 2009. Sugarcane Agriculture and Sugar IndustryCurrent Scenario and Future
Prospect. International Training Course on Breeding Sugarcane for SugarIndustrial
Complex, Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimabtore. pp.12-16.

Jangpromma, N., Kitthaisong, S., Lomthaisong, K., Daduang, S., Jaisil, P., & Thammasirirak,
S. (2010). A proteomics analysis of drought stress-responsive proteins as biomarker
for drought-tolerant sugarcane cultivars. American Journal of Biochemistry and
Biotechnology, 6(2), 89-102.

Singh, A., Pant, D., Korres, N. E., Nizami, A. S., Prasad, S., Murphy, J. D., 2010. Key issues
in life cycle assessment of ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass:
challenges and perspectives. Bioresour. Technol. 101(13), 5003-5012.

Archimède, H., Xande, X., Gourdine, J. L., Fanchone, A., Alexandre, G., Boval, M., &
Renaudeau, D. (2011). Sugar cane and byproducts as animal feeds. http://www6. inra.
fr/ciag/Revue.

Bell, M. J., Halpin. N. V., Orange, D. N., Haines, M., 2001. Effect of compaction and trash
blanketing on rainfall infiltration in sugarcane soils. Proceedings of the Australian
Society of SugarCane Technologists. 23rd Mackay, Queensland, 1-4 May 2001.
pp.161-167.

Ekpelikpeze O., Loko L.Y, Dansi, A., 2016a. Diversities evaluation participative des variety
de la cane à saucer (Saccharum officinarum) cultivars au Benin. Int. J. Innov. Scient.
Res. 2(2), 25-36.

Ekpelikpeze O., Loko L.Y, Dansi, A., 2016a. Diversites evaluation participative des variétés
de la cane à saucer (Saccharum officinarum) cultivars au Benin. Int. J. Innov. Scient.
Res. 2(2), 25-36.

45
Ekpelikpeze, O. S., Dansi, A., Agbangla, C., Akoegninou, A., Sanni, A., 2016b. Biochemical
characterization of sugarcane varieties cultivated in Benin. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol.
Appl. Sci. 5(2), 368-379.

Pandey, A., Mishra, R. K., Mishra, S., Singh, Y. P., Pathak, S., 2011. Assessment of genetic
diversity among sugarcane cultivars (Saccharum officinarum L.) using simple
sequence repeats markers. J. Biol. Sci. 11(4), 105-111.

Sheela, M. S., and A. Gopalan, , 2006. Association studies for yield and its related traits of
fodder cowpea in F4 generation. J. Appl. Sci. Res. 2(9), 584-58.

Clements H. F. "Sugar Cane Crop Logging and Crop Control". Principles and Practices,
Pitman Publishing Limited, London, p. 209 (1980).

Clements H. F. "Sugarcane Crop Logging and Crop Control". Pitman Publishing Limited,
London, p.l62 (1980).

Thompson, G. D., & Halse, C. G. (1964). Some notes on sugarcane planting

procedures. SASTA Proc. 38, 154, 165.

Herdt R.W., Steiner R.A. (1995) Agricultural sustainability: concepts and conundrum, in:
Barnett V., Payne R., Steiner R. (Eds.), Agricultural Sustainability: Economic,
Environmental and Statistical Considerations, Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 3–13.

Lichtfouse E., Navarrete M., Debaeke P., Souchère V., Alberola C., Ménassieu J. (2009)
Agronomy for sustainable agriculture. A review, Agron. Sustain. Dev. 29, 1–6.

Reeves D.W. (1997) The role of soil organic matter in maintaining soil quality in continuous
cropping systems, Soil Tillage Res. 43, 131– 167.

Rasmussen P.E., Goulding K.W.T., Brown J.R., Grace P.R., Janzen H.H., Körschens M.
(1998) Agricultural sustainability and global change, Science 282, 893–896.

Richter D.D., Hofmockel M., Callaham M.A., Powlson D.S., Smith P. (2007) Long-term soil
experiments: keys to managing earth’s rapidly changing ecosystems, Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 71, 266–279.

Beheydt D., Boeckx P., Sleutel S., Li C.S., Van Cleemput O. (2007) Validation of DNDC for
22 long-term N2O field emission measurements, Atmos. Environ. 41, 6196–6211.

46
Baker, J. M., Ochsner, T. E., Venterea, R. T., & Griffis, T. J. (2007). Tillage and soil carbon
sequestration—What do we really know?. Agriculture, ecosystems &
environment, 118(1-4), 1-5.

Huang PM (2004). Soil mineral, organic matter, microorganisms’ interactions. Fundamentals

impacts. Adv. Agron. 82: 393-472

Bot A, Benites J (2005). The importance of soil organic matter. Food Agriculture
Organization. p. 95.

Bot A, Benites J (2005). The importance of soil organic matter. Food Agriculture
Organization. p. 95.

Chander K, Goyal S, Nandal DP, Kapoor KK (1998). Soil organic matter, microbial biomass
and enzyme activities in a tropical agroforestry system. Biol. Fert. Soils, 27: 168-172.

Bot A, Benites J (2005). The importance of soil organic matter. Food Agriculture
Organization. p. 95.

Nishio M, Kusano S (1980). Fluctuation patterns of microbial numbers in soil applied with
compost. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 26: 581-593

Mohammadi K (2011). Soil microbial activity and biomass as influenced by tillage and
fertilization in wheat production. Am-Eur. J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 10(3): 330-337

Lynch JM (1983). Soil Biotechnology. Blackwell, Oxford, p. 191.

Biederbeck VO, Zentner RP, Campbell CA (2005). Soil microbial populations and activities
as influenced by legume green fallow in a semiarid climate. Soil. Biol. Biochem. 37:
1775-1784.

Seybold, C. A., Mausbach, M. J., Karlen, D. L. and Rogers, H. H. 1998.

“Quantification of soil quality.”. In Soil processes and the carbon cycle. Edited
by: Lal, R., Kimble, J. M., Follett, R. F. and Stewart, B. A. 387–404. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Compton, J. E., Watrud, L. S., Porteous, L. A. & Degrood, S. Response of soil microbial
biomass and community composition to chronic nitrogen additions at Harvard forest.

47
 For. Ecol. Manage. 196, 143–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1127(04)00197-5
(2004).

Lei, L. et al. Tinning but not understory removal increased heterotrophic respiration and total
soil respiration in Pinus massoniana stands. Sci. Total Environ. 621, 1360–1369.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.092 (2018).

Hallmann J., A. Quadt-Hallmann, W. F. Mahafee, & J. W. Klopper Bacterial endophytes in

agricultural crops. Can. J. Microbiol. 43, 895–914 (1997).

Satyaprakash, M., Nikitha, T., Reddi, E. U. B., Sadhana, B. & Satyavani, S. A Review on
phosphorous and phosphate solubilising bacteria and their role in plant nutrition. Int.
J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 6, 2133–2144.
https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.604.251 (2017).

Sundara, B. Sugarcane Cultivation (Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India,
2000).

Harman, G. E. Overview of mechanism and uses of Trichoderma spp. Phytopathology 96,

190–194 (2006).

Vinale, F. et al. Major secondary metabolites produced by two commercial Trichoderma

strains active against diferent phytopathogens. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 43, 143–148
(2008).

Shukla, S. K., Yadav, R. L., Suman, A. & Singh, P. N. Improving rhizospheric environment
and sugarcane ratoon yield through bioagents amended farm yard manures in udic
ustochrept soil. Soil Tillage Res. 99, 158–168 (2008).

Dagnaw, F., Fassil, A., Gebrekidan, H. & Argaw, A. Characterization of plant growth
promoting bacteria from sugarcane (Saccharum ofcinarum L.) rhizosphere of Wonji-
Shoa Sugar Estate and farmers landraces of Ethiopia. Biotechnology 14, 58–64
(2015).

Yadav, R. L., Shukla, S. K., Suman, A. & Singh, P. N. Trichoderma inoculation and trash
management efects on soil microbial biomass, soil respiration, nutrient uptake and
yield of ratoon sugarcane under subtropical conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soils 45, 461–468
(2009).

48
Srivastava, S. N., Singh, V. & Awasthi, S. K. Trichoderma induced improvement in growth,
yield and quality of sugarcane. Sugar Technol. 8, 166–169 (2006).

Suleman, M. et al. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria with glucose dehydrogenase gene for
phosphorus uptake and benefcial efects on wheat. PLoS ONE 13, e0204408.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204408 (2018).

Magdoff, F., Weil, R.R. (2004), Soil Organic Matter in Sustainable Agriculture, Eds. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL. 398. pp.

Franzlubbers, A.J., Haney, R. L.(2006), Assessing soil quality in organic agriculture. Critical
issue report: soil quality, October 2006, USDA agriculture research services

R. D. Ellis and R. E. Merry (2004), Sugarcane Agriculture. In G. James(Ed.), Sugarcane(pp.

101).” 2004 by Blackwell Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing Company.”

Khuzestan Sugar Council (1985). Sugarcane and its requirements. Development

Researches Comity and Depending Industrials. Part 3. 227 pp. (In Persian).

Balasubramaniyan, P. and Palaniappan, S.P. (2001). Principles and practices in

agronomy. Agrobios Publisher. New Delhi. 586 pp.

Chang, H., Wang, J.S. and Ho, F.W. (1968). The effect of different pan ratios for
controlling irrigation of sugarcane in Taiwan. Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane
Technol., 13: 652-663.

Gascho, G. J., Anderson, D.L. and Ozaki. H.Y. (1986). Cultivar dependent sugarcane
response to nitrogen. Agron. J., 78: 1064-1069.

Wiedenfeld, R.P. (1995). Effects of irrigation and N fertilizer application on sugarcane

yield and quality. Field Crops Res., 43: 101-108.
Pandey, R.K., Maranville, J.W. and Admou, A. (2001). Tropical Wheat Response to
Irrigation and Nitrogen in Sahelian Environment. I. Grain Yield, Yieldn
Components and Water Use Efficiency. Europ. J. Agron., 15(2): 93-105.

49
 Ruschel, A.P. and Vose, P.B. (1982). Nitrogen cycling in sugarcane. Plant Soil, 67:
139-146.

Aydeniz, A. (1985). Toprak Amenajmanı. Ankara Univ. Yay, No: 928. (In Turkish).

Viets, F.G. (1962). Fertilizers and Efficient Use of Water. Advan. Agron., 14: 233-234.

Williams, JR, Metcalfe JR, Mungomery RW, Mathes R (Eds) (1969) Pests of Sugar Cane.
Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Long, W.H., Hensley, S.D. (1972) Insect pests of sugarcane. Annu Review of Entomology,
17:149-176.

Hall, D. (1988) Insects and mites associated with sugarcane in Florida. Florida Entomologist
1988, 71:138-150.

Vreyssen, M.J.B., Robinson, A.S., Hendrichs, J. (2007) Area-Wide Control of Insect Pests:
From Research to Field Implementation. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

Nikpay, A. (2016) In press. Damage assessment of sugarcane whitefly Neomaskellia

andropogonis Corbett and population dynamics on seven commercial varieties in
south west of Iran. Sugar Tech.

Mc Allister, C.D., Hoy, JW, Reagan, T.E. (2008). Temporal increase and spatial distribution
of Sugarcane Yellow Leaf and Infestations of the Aphid vector, Melanaphis sacchari.
Plant Disease, 92:607-615.

Nikpay, A., Arbabi, M., Sharafizadeh, P. (2013) Integrated management of Oligonychus

sacchari (Prostigmata: Tetranychidae) in sugarcane commercial fields, 2nd Global
Conference on Entomology, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, p. 332.

Sallam, M.N. (2006) A review of sugarcane stemborers and their natural enemies in Asia and
Indian Ocean Islands: an Australian perspective. Annales de la Société
Entomologique de France, 42:263-283.

Long, W.H., Hensley, S.D. (1972) Insect pests of sugarcane. Annu Review of Entomology,
17:149-176.

50
Goebel, F.R., Way, M. (2009) Crop losses due to two sugarcane stemborers in Reunion and
South Africa. Sugar Cane International 2009, 27:107-111.

Sommartya, P. and Suasa-ard, W. (2006) Sugarcane longhorn stem borer Dorysthenes

buqueti (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and its natural enemies in Thailand.
ISSCT Entomology workshop, 14-24 May 2006, Cairns, Australia .

Goebel, M. (2015). Anti-imperial metropolis. Cambridge University Press.

Allsopp, P. (2010) Integrated management of sugarcane whitegrubs in Australia: an

evolving success. Annual Review of Entomology, 55:329-349.

Goebel, F.R., Tabone, E., Do Thi Khanh, H., Roux, E., Marquier M. and Frandon, J.
(2010) Biocontrol of Chilo sacchariphagus (Lepidoptera: crambidae) a key
pest of sugarcane: lessons from the past andfuture prospects. Sugar Cane
International, 28:128-132.

Bonhof MJ, Overholt WA, Van Huis A, Polaszek A, 1997. Natural ennemies of cereal
stemborers in East Africa. Ins Sci Applic, 17:19-35.

Goebel F.R., N. Sallam, P.R. Samson, K. Chandler (2010) Quantifying spatial

movement of thegreyback cane beetle in the sugarcane landscape: Data
available and research needs. Proceeding of Australian Society of Sugar Cane
Technology 32: 71-83.

Goebel, F. R., & A. Nikpay(2017). Integrated pest management in sugarcane cropping

systems. In Integrated pest management in tropical regions (pp. 113-133).
Wallingford UK: CABI.

Leslie, G. (2004). Pests of sugarcane, In: Sugarcane, ed, James, G.. Blackwell
Science, Oxford, UK. Pp 78-100.

Kfir R.,W.A. Overholt, Z.R. Khan, A. Polaszek (2002) Biology and management of
economically important lepidopteran cereal stem borers in Africa. Annu Rev
Entomol, 47:701-731.

Carnegie, A.J.M. (1981). Combatting Eldana saccharina Walker, a progress report.

Proc. S. Afr.Sug. Technol. Ass., 55: 116–119.

51
Beuzelin J.M., A. Meszaros, W. Akbar , and T.E. Reagan 2011. Sugarcane planting
date impact on fall and spring sugarcane borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
infestations. Florida Entomologist, 94: 242-252.

Goebel, F. R., M.J. Way, & C.Gossard (2005). The status of Eldana saccharina
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the South African sugar industry based on regular
survey data. In Proc S Afr Sug Technol Ass (Vol. 79, pp. 337-346).

Reay-Jones, F. P. F., T.E. Reagan, M. O. Way, and B.L. Legendre (2005). Concepts
of areawide pest management of the Mexican rice borer (Lepidoptera:
Crambidae). Sugar Cane International 23(3): 20-24

Showler A. T. and Castro B. A. (2010) Influence of drought stress on Mexican rice

borer(Lepidoptera: Crambidae) oviposition preference in sugarcane. Crop
Protection. 29: 415-421.

Reay-Jones, F. P. F., M. O. Way, M. Sétamou , B.L. Legendre and T.E. Reagan

(2003) Resistance to the Mexican rice borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) among
Louisiana and Texas sugarcane cultivars. Journal of Economic Entomology
96: 1929-1934.

Goebel, F.R. and N. Sallam (2011) New pest threats for sugarcane in the new
bioeconomy and how to manage them. Current Opinion in Environmental
Sustainability, 3: 81-89

Atkinson P.R.and K.J. Nuss (1989). Associations between host-plant nitrogen and
infestation of the sugarcane borer, Eldana saccharina Walker (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae). Bulletin of entomological Research 79: 489-506.

Goebel R.and E.Tabone (2005) Un nouveau développement de la lutte biologique

contre le foreur de la canne à sucre. INRA mensuel, 122: 12-15.

Lopez, E.,C. Fernandez,O. Lopez (1983) Effect of nitrogen fertilization on Diatraea

saccharalis (Fbr.) incidence on sugarcane. Proceedings of the International
Society of Sugar Cane Technololists 18:910-914.

Goebel F.R., E. Tabone, H. Do Thi Khanh, E.Roux, M. Marquier and J. Frandon

(2010) Biocontrol of Chilo sacchariphagus (Lepidoptera: crambidae) a key

52
 pest of sugarcane: lessons from the past andfuture prospects. Sugar Cane
International, 28:128-132.

Hensley S.D., Fanguy H.P., Giamalva M.J. (1977). The role of varietal resistance in
control of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.) in Louisiana.
Proceedings of the International Society of Sugarcane Technologists 16:517-
552.

Meagher, R.L., J.E. Irvine,R.G. Breene,R.S. Pfannenstiel, M.Gallo-Meagher (1996)

Resistance mechanisms of sugarcane to mexican rice borer (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 89:536-543.

Smeets E., Junginger A., Faaij A., Walter, P. Dolzan, and W. Turkenburg (2008)
The sustainability of Brazilian ethanol—an assessment of the possibilities of
certified production. Biomass and Bioenergy 32:781-813

Tabashnik, B.E., Gassmann, A.J., Crowder, D.W. and Carrière Y. (2008) Insect
resistance to Bt crops: evidence versus theory. Nature Biotechnology, 26:199-
202 doi: 10.1038/nbt1382.

Craveiro, K.I., Gomes Junior, J.E, Silva M.C., Macedo, L.L., Lucena, W.A., Silva,
M.S., de Souza Junior, J.D.,G.R. Oliveira, M.T. Magalhaes, A.D. Santiago,
(2009) Variant Cry1Ia toxins generated by DNA shuffling are active against
sugarcane giant borer. Journal of Biotechnology, 145:215-221.

Meyer, J. (2013). Sugarcane nutrition and fertilization. Good management practices

for the cane industry edition, 1st edn. Bartens, Berlin, 133-180.

Huber D.M.and Graham R.D. (1999). The role of nutrition in crop resistance and
tolerance to diseases. Mineral and Nutrition of Crops. Food Products Press,
New York, 169-204.

Baligar, V. C., Fageria, N. K., & He, Z. L. (2001). Nutrient use efficiency in
plants. Communications in soil science and plant analysis, 32(7-8), 921-950.

Meyer, J. (2013). Sugarcane nutrition and fertilization. Good management practices

for the cane industry edition, 1st edn. Bartens, Berlin, 133-180.

53
54