It is highly desirable to find the simplest circuit implementation
(logic) with the smallest number of gates or wires.
We can use Boolean minimization process to reduce a Boolean
function (expression) to its simplest form: The result is an expression with the fewest literals and thus less wires in the final gate implementation.
1 Boolean Algebra (continued)
▪ George Boole (1815-1864), a mathematician introduced a
systematic treatment of logic. ▪ He developed a consistent set of postulates (assumptions) that were sufficient to define a new type of algebra: Boolean Algebra (similar to Linear Algebra) ▪ Many of the rules are the same as the ones in Linear Algebra. ▪ Boolean Algebra is defined by a set of elements, B, together with two binary operators + and . ▪ Boolean Functions can represent electrical circuits. 2 Difference between Postulates & Theorems
Postulate – A basic assumption that is accepted without proof – Accepted as true in order to provide a basis for logical reasoning
Boolean Postulates proposed by George Boole (1815-1864) are
assumptions that serve as basis for the Boolean Algebra
Theorem – A statement which has been proved or can be proved to be true using logical (deductive) reasoning – A proposition deducible from basic postulates 3 Two Valued Boolean Algebra
• Set of two Elements B={0,1}
• Two Binary Operators + and . • Two Valued Boolean Algebra having a set of two elements {0,1}, two binary operators has operation rules similar to AND and OR operations and Complement Operator equivalent to NOT operator. • Use Boolean Algebra to represent Binary Logic • Boolean Function F1 = x + y ' z
4 Two Valued Boolean Algebra
• Closure➔ x + y is in B and x . y=is in B
– Obvious as result either 0 or 1 • Identity➔ (1.x=x) and (0+x=x) • Commutative ➔x + y = y + x and x . y = y . x – Can be proved from the Truth Table • Distributive ➔ x + (y.z) = (x + y)(x + z) and x.(y + z) = (x.y) + (x.z) – Can be proved from the Truth Table • Associative ➔(x + y) + z = x + (y + z) = x + y + z and (xy)z = x(yz) = xyz – Can be proved from the Truth Table • Complement➔ x + x’ = 1 and x.x’=0 – X+X’=1➔ 0 +0’=0+1=1 and 1+1’=1+0=1 – X.X’=0 ➔ 0.0’ = 0.1 =1 and 1.1’ =1+0=1
5 Postulates & Theorems of Boolean Algebra ▪ Postulate 2 - Identity a) X + 0 = X b) X . 1 = X ▪ Postulate 3 – Commutative a) X + Y = Y + X b) X . Y = Y.X ▪ Postulate 4- Distributive a) X . (Y + Z) = (X .Y) + (X . Z) b) X + (Y . Z) = (X+Y) . (X+Z) ▪ Postulate 5 – Associative a) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) = x + y + z b) (xy)z = x(yz) = xyz ▪ Postulate 6 – Complement a) X + X’ = 1 b) X . X’ = 0
▪ Theorem 1 a) X+X = X b) X.X=X
▪ Theorem 2 a)X+1=1 b) X.0=0 ▪ Theorem 3 (X’)’=X ▪ Theorem 4 a) X+(Y+Z)=(X+Y)+Z b) X(YZ)= (XY)Z ▪ Theorem 5 a) (X+Y)’ = X’Y’ b) (XY)’=X’+Y’ ▪ Theorem 6 a) X+ XY=X b) X(X+Y)=X 6 Duality principal
• Every algebraic expression deducible from
postulates of Boolean Algebra remain valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged – In postulates part (a) if binary operators are interchanged then we get postulate part (b)
• If dual of an Algebraic Expression is desired,
we simply interchange OR and AND 7 Laws of Boolean Algebra
• There are 6 fundamental laws, or axioms, used to formulate
various algebraic structures:
1. Closure: Boolean algebra operates over a field of numbers, B = {0,1}
For every x, y in B: ▪ Closure with respect to + x + y is in B (1,0) (1,0) (1,0) ▪ Closure with respect to . x . y is in B (1,0) (1,0) (1,0) 8 Laws of Boolean Algebra (continued) 2. Identity laws: ▪ A set B is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary operation {.} on B if there exists an element designated by 1 in B with the property: 1 . x = x Example: AND operation
▪ A set B is said to have an identity element with respect
to a binary operation {+} on B if there exists an element designated by 0 in B with the property: 0 + x = x Example: OR operation
» Similar to Linear Algebra 9
Laws of Boolean Algebra (continued)
3. Commutative laws: For every x, y in B,
▪ Commutative with respect to + x+y=y+x » Similar to Linear Algebra ▪ Commutative with respect to . x.y=y.x
x x F=x+y F = x.y y y y y F = y.x F=y+x x x
10 Laws of Boolean Algebra (continued)
4. Distributive laws: For every x, y, z in B,
• x + (y.z) = (x + y)(x + z) [+ is distributive over .] » NOT Similar to Linear Algebra
• x.(y + z) = (x.y) + (x.z) [. is distributive over +]
» Similar to Linear Algebra
11 Laws of Boolean Algebra (continued)
5. Associative laws: For every x, y, z in B,
▪ (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) = x + y + z ▪ (xy)z = x(yz) = xyz » Similar to Linear Algebra
x F = xyz y z
z F = xyz y x 12 Laws of Boolean Algebra (continued)
6. Complement For each x in B, there exists an element x’ in B (the complement of x) such that: • x + x’ = 1 • x . x’ = 0
We can also use x to represent complement.
13 Laws of Boolean Algebra (continued)
14 Implementation of Boolean Functions
Draw the logic diagram for the following function: F = (a.b)+(b.c)
a b F
15 Implementation of Boolean Functions
F1 = x + y ' z Boolean Function expresses logical relationship between binary variables F1 is 1 if X=1 or if Y=0 and Z=1 Boolean Function can be represented by Truth Table (2n rows)
x F1
y 16 z Implementation of Boolean Functions
Example 2: F2 = x' y ' z + x' yz + xy '
F2 z
17 Implementation of Boolean Functions ▪ Try another implementation using a simplified F2: F2 = x' y ' z + x ' yz + xy' = x' z ( y '+ y ) + xy' Distributive Pos
= x' z (1) + xy' Complement Pos
= x ' z + xy' x y F2
•This implementation has fewer gates and fewer inputs
to the gates (or wires) than the previous one. 18 Simplifying Boolean Functions ▪ Simplify the following Boolean function to a minimum number of terms: F3 = xy + x' z + yz = xy + x' z + yz( x + x' ) Identity .1 is same & Complement Pos (x.x’)=1
= xy + x' z + xyz + x' yz Distributed Pos
= xy + xyz + x' z + x' yz Rearrange order
= xy(1 + z ) + x' z (1 + y ) Distributed Pos
= xy + x' z Theorem 2 (X+1 =1)
x y F3
z 19 20 Complement of a Function ▪Theorem 5 (X+Y)’ = X’Y’ (XY)’=X’+Y’
The complement of a Function F is F’ is obtained by taking dual of
the function and complement each literal F1=X’YZ’ +X’Y’Z Dual of F1 is = (X’+Y+Z’)(X’+Y’+Z) - Interchange AND and OR in function Complement each literal (X+Y’+Z)(X+Y+Z’) = F1’
21 More on complements (DeMorgan) Theorem 5, DeMorgan (X+Y)’ = X’Y’ and (XY)’=X’+Y’
▪ Find the complement of: ▪ Show that the complement of x( x + y ) = x'
F = ( AB '+C ) D '+ E [ x ( x + y )]' = x'+ ( x + y )' F ' = [( AB '+C ) D '+ E ]' = x'+ x ' y ' = [( AB '+C ) D ' ]' E ' = x ' (1 + y ' ) Distributed Pos = [( AB '+C )'+ D ' ' ]E ' = x ' (1) = x' Theorem 2 (X+1 =1) = [( AB ' )' C '+ D ]E ' = ( A'+ B )C ' E '+ DE '
22 23 Minterms and Maxterms
n binary variables can be combined to form 2n terms (AND terms),
called Minterms or standard products. x’y’(00),x’y(01),xy’(10),xy(11)
In a similar fashion, n binary variables can be combined to form
2n terms (OR terms), called Maxterms or standard sums.
Boolean Functions expressed in Sum of MinTerms or Product of
MaxTerms are said to be in Canonical Form
* Note that each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding minterm and vice versa.
24 Minterms and Maxterms (continued)
Each Minterm is obtained from an AND term. Variable primed if corresponding bit 0, vice versa Each Maxterm is obtained from an OR term. Variable primed if corresponding bit 1, vice versa
25 Sum of Minterms ▪ Given the truth table, express F1 in sum of minterms x y z F1 F2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
F1 ( x, y, z ) = (1,4,7) = m1 + m4 + m7 = ( x' y ' z ) + ( xy ' z ' ) + ( xyz ) ▪ Find F2 26 Product of Maxterms ▪ Given the truth table, express F1 in Product of Maxterms
x y z F1 F2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 F1 ( x, y, z ) = (0,2,3) = M 0 M 2 M 3 = ( x + y + z )( x + y '+ z )( x + y '+ z ' ) 27 ▪ Find F2 Sum of Min Terms Express the Boolean function F = x + y ' z in a sum of minterms. AIM: Convert it to 3 variable AND Terms and take their SUM x = x( y + y ' ) = xy + xy' xy = xy( z + z ' ) = xyz + xyz' xy' = xy' ( z + z ' ) = xy' z + xy' z ' y ' z = y ' z ( x + x' ) = xy' z + x' y ' z Adding all terms and excluding recurring terms: F ( x, y, z ) = x' y ' z + xy' z '+ xy' z + xyz'+ xyz F ( x, y, z ) = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7 = (1,4,5,6,7) 28 Sum of Min Terms Express the Boolean function F = x + y ' z in a sum of
29 Product of Max Terms Express the Boolean function F = xy + x ' z in a Product of Maxterms. AIM: Convert it to 3 variable OR Terms and take their Product Tip: Postulate 4b (Distributed) F = xy + x' z = ( xy + x' )( xy + z ) ( xy + x' ) = ( x + x' )( y + x' ) ( xy + z ) = ( x + z )( y + z ) F = 1.( y + x' )( x + z )( y + z ) All Term missing one variable X+X’=1
x'+ y + zz ' = ( x'+ y + z )( x'+ y + z ' )
x + z + yy' = ( x + z + y )( x + z + y ' ) y + z + xx' = ( y + z + x)( y + z + x' ) Remove any recurring terms F = ( x + y + z )( x + y '+ z )( x'+ y + z )( x'+ y + z ' ) 30 M0M2M4M5 = F(x,y,z)=Π(0,2,4,5) Using Truth Table
• Find Sum of Minterms and Product of MaxTerms of F=
xy+x’z (Same as before) – Truth Table
Find Sum of Minterms & Product of Maxterms from truth table
– F(x,y,z)= ∑(1,3,6,7) – F(x,y,z)= П (0,2,4,5) 31 Conversion between Canonical Forms
• Complement of a function expressed as sum of
minterms equals sum of minterms missing from the original function • F(A,B,C,D) = ∑(1,4,5,6,7)= m1+m4+m5+ m6+m7 • Complement is F’(A,B,C,D)= ∑(0,2,3) = m0+m2+m3 • Complement of F’ is F that is different F = (m0+m2+m3)’ = = m’0. m’2 . m’3 = = M0.M2.M3= П(0,2,3) 32 Standard Form to represent Boolean Function
• Sum of Minterms and Product of Maxterm may
not be most efficient way to draw a circuit as all variables must be used. • Standard Functions have one two or three terms and Two Levels. (AIM: Minimum Gates) • SUM OF PRODUCT – F= y’ + xy+ x’yz’ – Sum denotes OR of these terms – Two Levels • PRODUCT OF SUM – F= x(y’+z)(x+’y+z’) – Product denotes AND of these terms – Two Levels 33 SUM OF PRODUCT
SUM OF PRODUCT F= y’ + xy+ x’yz’ Sum denotes OR of these terms Draw the circuit (2 Level) x’ y z’ y’ F x y
34 PRODUCT of SUM PRODUCT OF SUM F= x(y’+z)(x’+y+z’) Product denotes AND of these terms Draw the circuit (2 Level)
x’ y z’ x F y’ z
35 Non Standard Boolean Function
• Boolean Expression in non standard form
F=AB+C(D+E) . – Neither SOP or POS – Implemented in 3 levels
A B C F D E – Convert to Standard Form by distributive law – F=AB+C(D+E) = AB+CD+CE – Draw 2 Level Standard Sum of Product Circuit 36 Truth Table and Boolean Expression for 16 functions of two variables • F0=0 Constant 0 or Null • F1= x.y➔ AND (x and y) • F2 = xy’➔ x but not y • F3 = x • F4 = x’y➔ y but not x • F5 = y • F6 = xy’ + x’y ➔Exclusive OR ( x or y but not both • F7= x+y ➔OR (x or y) • F8 = (x+y)’ ➔ NOR (Not OR) • F9 = xy + x’y’➔ Equivalence (x equals y) • F10 = y’ ➔Not y • F11 = x+y’➔ If y then x • F12 = x’ (Not x) • F13 = x’ + y If x then y • F14 = (xy)’ ➔ NAND • F15 = 1 Binary constant 1 37 NOR Logic gate
2-input NOR logic gate:
F = ( X + Y )' X Y F 0 0 1 x 0 1 0 F y 1 0 0 1 1 0
38 NAND Logic gate
2-input NAND logic gate:
F = ( X .Y )' X Y F 0 0 1 x 0 1 1 F y 1 0 1 1 1 0
39 Exclusive OR Logic gate
2-input exclusive-OR (XOR) logic gate:
F = X Y X Y F 0 0 0 x 0 1 1 F y 1 0 1 1 1 0
40 Exclusive NOR Logic gate
2-input exclusive-NOR logic gate:
F = ( X Y )' X Y F 0 0 1 x 0 1 0 F y 1 0 0 1 1 1
41 More Digital Logic Gates
• AND F=xy • OR F=x+y • Inverter F=x’ • Buffer F=x • NAND F=(xy)’ • NOR F=(x+y)’ • Exclusive OR- XOR • Exclusive NOR 42 Multiple Input GATES
3-input exclusive-OR (XOR) logic gate:
F = X Y Z X Y Z F 0 0 0 0 x 0 0 1 1 y F z 0 1 0 1 Implemented by 3 Input Gates 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 x y F 1 1 1 1 z Implemented by 2 Input Gates 43 Implementation of Boolean Functions ▪ Using only OR and NOT gates, draw a schematic for the following function: F = xy + x' y '+ y ' z ( F ' )' = (( xy + x' y '+ y ' z )' )' = [( xy)'.( x' y ' )'.( y ' z )' ]' = [( x'+ y ' ).( x + y ).( y + z ' )]' = ( x'+ y ' )'+ ( x + y )'+ ( y + z ' )'
