DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN UPGRADED HYBRID ROCKET

Bachelor Thesis
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN UPGRADED

HYBRID ROCKET
Author:
Sara Esteban Corchado
Director:
Mario Merino Martı́nez
February 2016
Abstract
Hybrid rockets are a type of chemical space propulsion that is nowadays still in an exper-
imental phase, but that can become one of the most important propulsion technologies
due to its advantages with respect to the existing ones.
The present work consist on developing an upgraded hybrid rocket model which has been
modified with respect to the existing one in order to obtain better performances and re-
sults. The aim of this project is to create a safer model with a safer ignition system as
well as a fully redesigned gas-injection and thrust measurement system.
Also, a mathematical one-dimensional model has been implemented in order to predict

and study the behavior of the hybrid rocket model to achieve a better comprehension of
this topic.
The ultimate purpose of the project is to acquire a deep understanding concerning the
space propulsion, concretely the one associated with hybrid rocket propulsion.
ii
Acknowledgments
I would like to take advantage of the following lines to express my gratitude to all the
people who has contributed to the success in finishing the present project and who has
helped me during these months.
My first mention and special tanks to my director, Mario Merino, for allowing my partic-
ipation in this project, guiding me in every obstacle that I may have found and for being
there at every moment to help me.
Thanks also to my professor Andrea Ianiro for his participation in the project and to Car-
los Cobos, without your help and willingness this project would not have been possible.
Final mentions, the last but not the least, for my family, for supporting me always.
To my parents, people to who I owe everything. Thank you for all the sacrifices that you
have done with which you have help to bring me where I am now. Thank you for giving me
the opportunity to study abroad and four always believing in me and making me realize
that I am capable of everything when I thought I couldn’t.
I would also like to thank my friends, Raquel, Alba, David, Claudia and specially Irene,
for supporting me and always being capable to see the best of me.
iii
Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgments iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of Tables ix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The hybrid rocket at UC3M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Objectives of this project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Structure of this report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Hybrid rockets generalities 7

2.1 Applications of hybrid rockets and propellants used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Main advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Fuel grain configuration and performance analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Definitions and fundamentals of space propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Hybrid rocket design and construction 21

3.1 Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Description and schematics of parts and components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Machining of the Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Rocket assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Thrust measurement system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 Experimental characterization and discussion 40

4.1 Combustion reaction in the propellant block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2 First firing and preliminary characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
iv
4.3 Test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5 Mathematical model 48
5.1 Theoretical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.1.1 Gas flow in a channel with changing area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Gas flow in constant area channels with friction . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1.3 Flow in a channel with heat addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1.4 Generalized one-dimensional flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2 Assumptions and hypotheses for the hybrid rocket model . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3 Model equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.4 Matlab code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5 Hybrid rocket simulation and performance prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.5.1 Change in Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.5.2 Change in Area and Frictional Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.5.3 Change in Area and Mass Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.5.4 General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.6 Discussion of the mathematical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6 Conclusions and future work 78
7 Cost analysis of work done 80
References 81
Annex I: Part 1 - Plan 86
Annex II: Part 2 - Plan 87
Annex III: Part 3 - Plan 88
Annex IV: Part 4 - Plan 89
Annex V: Part 5 - Plan 90
Annex VI: Part 6 - Plan 91
v
Annex VII: Graphite Mouthpiece - Plan 92
Annex VIII: Graphite Nozzle - Plan 93
Annex IX: Load Cell User Guide 94
Annex X: Combustion of PMMA 98
vi
List of Figures
1 Rocket launching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 General scheme of a Hybrid Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Cross section of a typical high-thrust hybrid fuel grain with multiple com-
bustion ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Scheme of the combustion process and heat transfer at the combustion port
wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Scheme of an isentropic nozzle. Notation: 0 - Stagnation conditions, 1 -
Chamber conditions, t - Throat conditions, 2 - Exit conditions, 3 - Ambient
conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Computer-Aided Design CAD of the Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7 Scheme of the Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8 Cold Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9 Stainless Piece 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
10 Stainless Piece 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11 Plexiglas tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
12 First graphite mouthpiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
13 Stainless Piece 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
14 Stainless Piece 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
15 Stainless Piece 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
16 Stainless Piece 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
17 Graphite Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
18 Machining of the pieces in the lathe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
19 Machining of the pieces in the lathe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
20 Wing nuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
21 Assembly of the Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
22 Assembly of the Rocket Exploded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
23 Rods and Graphite joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
vii
24 Aluminum profile and basic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
25 Final Rocket Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
26 Load Cell FC22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
27 PMMA Monomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
28 Firing of the rocket in the laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
29 Effects of the change of area in the Mach number, pressure and temperature. 49
30 Fanno Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
31 Distribution of κ, cp , cv and R along the combustion duct . . . . . . . . . . 60
32 Model of the distribution of the molecular weight along the duct . . . . . . 63
33 Radius distribution of the duct for the mathematical one-dimensional model 63
34 Distribution of the variables V , ρ, p, T and Mach Number over the position
considering only the change in Area when the flow enters at 298 K. . . . . . 68
considering only the change in Area when the flow enters at 500 K. . . . . . 69
considering the change in Area and the frictional effects when the flow enters
at 298 K and 24.65 m/s, showing that the iterative procedure is necessary. 70
considering the change in Area and the frictional effects when the flow enters
at 298 K and 12.885 m/s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
38 Distribution of the variables V , ρ, p and T over the position considering the
change in Area and the mass addition from the walls when the flow enters
at 298 K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
39 Distribution of the variables V , ρ, p and T over the position for a general
case where all the effects are considered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
viii
List of Tables
1 Dimensions of Combustion Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2 Chemical Properties of PMMA [14, 40] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Molecular Weight of each species in the reaction of combustion of PMMA[38]. 42
4 Oxygen mass flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5 Mean flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6 Total mass flow rate and Regression rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7 Frictional Effects in a 1D Flow [8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8 Heating and Cooling Effects in a 1D Flow [8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9 Effect of Independent Parameters in Mach Number[8] . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10 Effect of Independent Parameters in Stagnation Pressure [8] . . . . . . . . . 55
11 Properties of the combustion gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12 Properties of PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
13 Budget of the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
14 Budget of the Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
ix
Bachelor’s Thesis Sara Esteban Corchado
1 Introduction
The Aerospace Engineering department at Universidad Carlos III de Madrid has a labora-
tory model of an hybrid rocket engine, which is mainly used for the better understanding
of the space propulsion systems during the laboratory sessions of the last year BSc course
’Rocket Motors’ which belongs to Aerospace Engineering Degree.
The aim of this project was to upgrade and improve the existing hybrid rocket to make
it easier to control and to obtain more accurate results, as well as establishing a one-
dimensional mathematical model with which the behavior of the rocket can be studied.
In order to do so, some modifications were expected:
• Install an upgraded system to remotely control the gases flowing into the rocket’s
combustion chamber.
• To provide a safer and simpler method to ignite the hybrid propulsion system.
• To obtain more accurate results when measuring the thrust provided by the rocket.
To reach the desired objectives of the project, some modifications of the existing model
had to be made:
• It was necessary to redesign and build some existing parts and to create new ones.
• A completely new gas installation in the laboratory.
• Completely new ignition system using a glow plug instead of a match, which made
the experiment safer.
• Improved thrust measurement system by introducing a load cell in the model.
The main purpose of upgrading the previous model was to make a new design more ac-
cessible and safer, as well as providing a model that allows a wide range of combinations
and results by means of varying the proportion in which gases are mixed for combustion.
1
Apart from the experimental measurements, it is interesting to develop a mathematical

model to predict the behavior of the combustion process under different conditions. It
consists of a one-dimensional model that analyzes the equations of continuity, momentum
and energy so that the variation of several properties such as the velocity, the pressure,
the density and the temperature can be established along the axial direction as the flow
passes through the duct and the nozzle.
The variation of these magnitudes is about to be analyzed for several cases: taking into
account only the variation of the area and considering the effects of the friction forces, the
addition of mass from the walls and the addition of heat.
The tool that is going to be used to determine the performance of the model is Matlab.
2
1.1 The hybrid rocket at UC3M
A prototype of an hybrid rocket was designed and built at University Carlos III Madrid
with the purpose of complementing and upgrading the teaching methods for the Degree
in Aerospace Engineering. The main objective was to create an experiment with which
the principles and theories of space propulsion could be explained to the students.
The first design was based on the model developed by the Aeronautics and Aerospace De-
partment at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it was carried out by the professor
Manuel Martinez Seisdedos together with some of the Aerospace Engineering department
professors, students and technicians.
All the parts of the propulsion system were designed with Solid Edge according to some
previously defined parameters such as:
• The thrust was limited to around 20 N and a convergent nozzle was going to be
used.
• The solid fuel used was poly (methyl methacrylate) and the gaseous oxidizer was
oxygen.
• The design had to be easily accessible, safe and open to changes in the design.
As it was mentioned before, the new model comprises an upgraded ignition system, a new
thrust measurement system and a new movable structure in which the rocket is placed,
that allows to obtain better measures from the load cell.
With this new model, further experiments can be carried out by varying some conditions
like the amount of gases injected or its proportion and therefore it will let us to acquire a
better knowledge concerning its behavior.
3
1.2 Objectives of this project
The aim of this project is to redesign the existing prototype in order to improve its
performance and to eliminate the existing weaknesses.
The main objective is to improve the safety when igniting the rocket by creating a system
in which three different gases could be remotely injected and ignition is achieved by means
of applying voltage to a small glow-plug installed in the upstream part of the rocket. To
do so, it is necessary to design some new parts of the rocket and to modify the existing
ones to adapt the model to our new necessities.
Thanks to this, the previous method in which the rocket was ignited by introducing
a match through the exit orifice is eliminated. This way was much simpler but also
dangerous, since it was necessary a person standing in the ignition room, with risk of a
fire or explosion that could cause several injuries.
Apart from changing the ignition method, as it was mentioned before, a new gas instal-
lation is needed in the laboratory with which the proportion of gases can be controlled
more accurately from a remote system outside the essays room.
The last important improvement is related to the thrust measurement system. In this new
model it will be made with a load cell installed in the front part of the rocket that will
provide a value of the thrust achieved when the rocket is ignited and it presses the cell
due to the action-reaction principle.
The new model is supposed to allow us to measure a wider range of magnitudes and
to operate in different conditions depending on the mass flow of the injected gases, the
proportion in which they can be injected or the length of the propellant tube.
As it was aforementioned in the introduction, apart from the experimental part, a one-
dimensional mathematical model studying the behavior of the rocket under different con-
ditions will be implemented in Matlab. This part of the project is interesting since the
behavior of the rocket can be in some way anticipated and it will make possible to compare
the experimental results with the theoretical ones obtained with the model.
4
However, the model is not going to predict completely the real performance of the thruster
since the theoretical model is going to be assumed as one-dimensional to simplify the cal-
culations. Nevertheless, it is going to give us feasible predictions and it will allow us to
get a better understanding of the combustion process and how the flow behaves under
different conditions and assumptions.
5
1.3 Structure of this report
The structure of this report will include several parts. Section 2 will comprise the theoret-
ical background of the space propulsion, with the explanation of the main characteristics,
configurations, advantages and disadvantages, as well as some important definitions re-
lated to it such as the thrust, the specific and total impulse, the effective exhaust velocity
and the characteristic velocity.
Right after this, in Section 3 all the process related to the design of the experimental
rocket will be explained in detail. This part will comprise the design requirements, the
geometry of the pieces and its machining, the rocket assembly and the explanation of the
current thrust measurement system.
This part will be immediately followed by a description of the combustion reaction that
takes place inside the rocket when it is fired, the description of the first firing and the test
results along with the problems and possible solutions found in the experiment.
Straightaway, Section 5 will comprise everything regarding the mathematical model. First
of all, a theoretical background explaining the different cases that can be found for a one-
dimensional flow is going to be exposed, and it is going to be followed by the assumptions,
hypotheses and procedures made in order to develop the model associated to this project.
The results of the analytic part are going to be shown at the end of this section.
The last part will consist of a study of the future work and modifications that can be done
to the hybrid rocket, an analysis of the work done and a preview of the future work that
can be done concerning this project.
Furthermore, the project includes some Annexes that comprise the combustion reaction
of PMMA explained in detail, the plans of all the parts of the rocket and a user guide of
the load cell used in the project.
6
2 Hybrid rockets generalities
Rocket propulsion can be divided into two main sub-categories: chemical propulsion rock-
ets and nuclear propulsion rockets. While the chemical ones obtain their thrust from the
reaction of chemical propellants at high pressure, nuclear systems work by transferring
heat from the reactor to the working fluid, which is expanded through the nozzle. Among
the nuclear propulsion systems, we can mainly differentiate between rockets working with
fission or fusion reactors.
Chemical rocket propulsion systems can be classified depending on the method by which
they produce thrust, by the type of vehicle, the size, the type of propellant or by the kind
of source of energy that they use, among others.
Figure 1: Rocket launching.
7
By observing the kind of propellant that is used, we can differentiate between liquid pro-
pellant rockets, solid propellant rockets and hybrid propellant rockets. This last one is
going to be the one studied in detail for the present project.
Rocket propulsion systems, in general, obtain the thrust by means of ejecting the pro-
pellant at high speeds. To reach supersonic velocities, the flow is made to pass through
a convergent-divergent nozzle that accelerates the fluid. As the flow passes through the
nozzle, there is an important drop in pressure and temperature and its thermal energy is
converted into kinetic energy.
Figure 2: General scheme of a Hybrid Rocket
The rocket motor is one the most powerful motors ever built, and its relation weight-to-
thrust is also the biggest one up to date. It is the most suitable for space vehicles since
these missions require large amounts of thrust in order to reach the necessary velocity to
exit the atmosphere.
Hybrid motors are propulsion systems in which one component of the propellant is in
liquid phase, which is typically the oxidizer, while the other one, the reducer or fuel, is
stored in solid phase. In hybrid motors, the way in which the liquid propellant -oxidizer-
is pressurized is not a critical element, so that there is no need for a very complex injection
system, which is traduced in less valves and plumbing.
8
In hybrid motors, the liquid oxidizer can be directly injected in the combustion chamber,
where it mixes directly with fuel, or in a pre-combustion or vaporization chamber upstream
of the solid fuel grain. To ensure that the solid and liquid propellant components react
completely, usually a post-combustion chamber is placed downstream, right before the
nozzle exit. In order to accomplish the reaction, the fuel grain is made with a high
number of axial combustion ports that evaporate more easily to react with the liquid
oxidizer injected.
9
2.1 Applications of hybrid rockets and propellants used
Hybrid propulsion is very suitable for missions that require throttling or shut-down and
restart commands, like long duration missions requiring nontoxic propellants or infrastruc-
ture operations needing non-self-deflagrating systems. The technology of hybrid rockets
takes advantage from the development and improvements achieves for solid and liquid
rockets: they avoid the difficulty of dealing with the fuel configuration in solid rockets and
the mechanical complexity of liquid propellant rockets.
Some examples of applications of hybrid rockets are:
• Target missiles and low-cost tactical missile applications.[37]
• Space motors. The characteristics of hybrid rockets make them suitable for for
satellite maneuvering or to adjust the exact velocity of a space vehicle.
• Reinforcement for the main thrust in the space vehicles launching.
Early hybrid rockets were made for tactical missile applications [37]. Some other develop-
ments were focused on upper-stage motors that required high-energy systems. Recently,
all the efforts have been focused on booster prototypes for space launching applications.
Nevertheless, hybrid rockets are still in an experimental phase, and up to date this kind
of propulsion system has not been chosen for big production applications.
Regarding the propellant used, many investigations have been made using a wide range
of oxidizers and fuels:
• High-energy combinations include the use of oxidizers such as fluorine/liquid oxygen

mixtures [37] or chlorine/fluorine compounds used together with high energy fuels
like lithium, aluminum or beryllium mixed with a suitable polymeric binder [26].
These high-energy propellants deliver specific impulses in the range from 350 to 380
seconds and combustion efficiencies around 95%.
• A lower energy propellant system, but more practical, is the one using a combination
of a 90% of hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer with hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiente
(HTPB) fuel (this component is used in solid propulsion systems as the binder to
make firm the propellant matrix) [37]. These combination is quite advantageous,
10
since the hydrogen peroxide is relatively inexpensive and can be stored for long peri-
ods of time and the HTPB processes easily, is low cost and does not self-deflagrate.
• For large hybrid booster applications HTPB is used again as the fuel while the
oxidizer is liquid oxygen. This combination provides a nontoxic and almost smoke-
free exhaust gases.
For some applications powdered aluminum was added to the fuel, provided that an smoke
exhaust is not a drawback.The aluminum rises the combustion temperature while decreas-
ing the stoichiometric mixture ratio and increasing the density of the fuel.
Up-to-date, all the work developed in hybrid propulsion systems has been towards achiev-
ing motors with a thrust level around 1,112,000 N.
The procedure to ignite the rocket is the following: the hybrid fuel grain is ignited with a
source of heat. The heat provided starts the evaporation of the solid propellant that turns
into a flame once the liquid oxidizer is injected. Ignition is usually completed by injecting
an hypergolic fluid that spreads the flame through the motor[1].
Small models of hybrid motors like the ones used for laboratory experiments are usually
ignited electrically, making a current pass through a resistor located in the combustion
port or using a propane or hydrogen ignition system. The last mentioned is the one to be
used in the upgraded hybrid rocket at UC3M.
11
2.2 Main advantages and disadvantages
In first place, the advantages of this kind of motors will be exposed:
• The main advantage of these motors is their safety compared to solid or liquid
propellant rockets. Unlike the others, in hybrid rockets the reaction only takes place
once the two propellant are brought together, so that the rocket can be stopped or
restarted when necessary[2].
• The propellant is inert, so that the risk of self-ignition due to vibrations or collisions
during fabrication, storage or operation is minimized[3].
• The main characteristic of these motors is their capability of working over a wide
range of conditions since many parameters can be changed on demand:
- The combination oxidizer-propellant. With a hybrid rocket we can access to

a wider range of combinations.
- The shut-down or restart capability: the hypergolic ignition can be achieved

too when there is an spontaneous ignition when both the fuel and the oxidizer are
brought together.
- The chamber pressure can be varied, which is determining in the nozzle actu-
ation and has a low influence in the evaporation-combustion process.
• A higher specific impulse is achieved with hybrid rockets[1].
• These motors are very resistant thanks to its simple configuration and low working
temperatures and due to the imperfections allowed by the solid propellant in its
construction, that barely affect to its functioning.
• They are not very sensible to the ambient pressure, just like liquid propellant rockets,
so that the change in ambient temperature has a very low impact in the chamber
pressure, so that the are more easily designed[37].
• Low environmental impact with a good propulsive efficiency (the best one in ther-
mochemistry).
12
• Low manufacturing cost due to the non-extremely exigent design conditions and the
wide range of propellants and oxidizers that can be used, which allows the possibility
of taking more economical materials as well as the avoidance of problems related to
delicate feeding systems or chamber pressure and temperature controlling. This is
probably the best advantage of hybrid propulsion systems[1].
However, this type of propulsion has noticeable disadvantages that delay their develop-
ment, so that up to date only some prototypes have been tested. The principal drawbacks
are:
• Low fuel vaporizing speed, which provokes the impossibility of the rocket of produc-
ing a constant thrust. This makes that the mixture ratio and, in consequence, the
specific impulse will change during steady-state operation and throttling.[4]
• Low volumetric density of the fuel. As a consequence of the low vaporizing speed,
a high fuel surface area is required to obtain the desired thrust. This is achieved
by means of the combustion ports, which leads to a lower density referred to the
volume that the fuel occupies in the motor.[2]
• Low fuel grain efficiency compared to other propulsion systems. This is due to the
fact that in hybrid rockets combustion is achieved by means of the diffusion flame
and not by the premixing conditions, such as in liquid or gaseous propellant rockets.
This reduces notably the combustion efficiency with a loss of approximately 1-2%
higher than in solid or liquid rockets.[5]
• Hybrid rockets deliver a relatively lower specific impulse compared to solid propellant
rockets.
• Some fuel is retained in the combustion chamber (slivers) and at the last part of the
rocket, at the end of burn, causing a decrease in the motor mass fraction.[1]
• Unproven propulsion system feasibility at large scale.
13
2.3 Fuel grain configuration and performance analysis
The performance of this type of propulsion system is highly dependent on the achieved de-
gree of mixing in the combustion chamber. Hybrid rocket’s fuel regression rate1 is usually
less than one-third that of solid propellant rockets. For this reason, multiple perforations,
called combustion ports are made in the solid propellant so that the fuel surface area is
increased.
These ports allow to rise the combustion efficiency of the rocket as a consequence of the
turbulent background in which unreacted fuel and oxidizer are mixed in the downstream
part of the rocket.
The number of combustion ports in the fuel grain is set depending on the desired thrust
level.
Figure 3: Cross section of a typical high-thrust hybrid fuel grain with multiple combustion
ports
1
The regression rate is the velocity at which the surface of the solid propellant is consumed because of its
vaporization due to the combustion process. It is largely dependent on the pressure and it is exponentially
proportional to the temperature. [1]
14
The characteristic velocity of the rocket is settled by determining an specific oxidizer-

to-fuel ratio. Consequently, the mass flow rate is established once the previous values
(characteristic velocity and mixture ratio) are known, together with the total surface area
and the regression rate of the fuel.
The performance of hybrid rockets can be considered as a combination of that of solid

and liquid propellant rockets, with the main difference being the mechanism by which the
solid propellant is ignited and the fuel regression rate.
The main problem associated with the combustion of the solid propellant are the slivers,
which are remains of unburned propellant. They appear at the periphery of the grain and
their main disadvantage associated to them is the decrease of the propellant mass fraction
and the mass ratio of the space vehicle. [1]
Since the solid component of a hybrid rocket does not include oxidizer in its composition,
the regression rate is quite different.
In a solid propellant rocket, the combustion of theis heterogeneous and it can be defined
by the following relation
ṙ = apn1 (1)
where a and n are empirical coefficients obtained experimentally.
The selection of the components conforming the fuel grain is critical to achieve a desired
regression rate, since it is a function of the heat of gasification of the fuel, which, in other
words is the energy required to evaporate the solid fuel grain.
Considering an energy balance at the surface, the subsequent expression is derived for the
regression rate in a hybrid rocket:
G0.8 µ 0.2 0.23

ṙ = K β (2)
ρf x
where K is a constant, G is the free stream propellant mass velocity at a given axial lo-
cation x, ρf is the density of the solid propellant, µ is the viscosity of the combustion
gas and β is the non-dimensional fuel mass flux. The last parameter, β is similar to the
15
Figure 4: Scheme of the combustion process and heat transfer at the combustion port wall
constant G but it takes into account the evaporation of the fuel and it is evaluated at the
fuel surface. [1]
As it can be deduced from the expression, the regression rate is highly dependent on the
value of G but not on the axial location. Since x is in the denominator it can be antic-
ipated that the regression rate will decrease as we move forward in the axial direction.
In a first approximation, it can be appreciated too that it is no longer dependent on the
chamber pressure.
However, this expression is usually simplified with the purpose of making an easier prelim-
inary design, taking into account the effects of β, x, ρf and µ into a parameter a, which
leads into the following expression
ṙ = aGn0 (3)
where G0 is the oxidizer mass flux per unit area. With this definition it is possible to
characterize in a simple and approximate manner the desired combination of fuel and ox-
idizer.
16
2.4 Definitions and fundamentals of space propulsion
As it was mentioned before, propulsion in space vehicles is achieved by accelerating the

body by means of applying a force to it. This force is a resultant of ejecting matter -
propellant- at high velocity.
However, rocket propulsion is not a fundamental subject, so that there are no scientific
laws and theories specially applied to it that can explain in detail its behavior. Its basic
principles and fundamentals are based on thermodynamic, chemistry and mechanic laws.
Thrust
It is the force produced by the propulsion system of a vehicle, or, in other words, the force
produced when the propellant is ejected at high velocity through the exhaust nozzle.
Because of the principle of action-reaction, the momentum of the exit gases has the same
modulus as the one received by the rocket.
The momentum is defined as the product of the mass by the velocity. In rocket motors
low quantities of gases are ejected at high velocity to obtain this effect. It can be defined
by the following relation:
F = ṁv2 + (p2 − p3 )A2 (4)
where ṁ is the mass flow rate, v2 is the velocity with which the gas exits the rocket, p2 is
the pressure at the exit of the nozzle, p3 is the atmospheric pressure and A2 is the area of
the cross-section at the exit of the nozzle. [24, 25]
As it can be seen in equation (4), the thrust is a result of two different contributions. The
first term of the expression is the so-called momentum thrust, which is the product of the
mass flow by the velocity. The second term is the pressure thrust, and it is the product
of the exit area of the nozzle and the pressure difference between the exhaust and the
ambient pressure.
17
The notation used is described in the following scheme:
Figure 5: Scheme of an isentropic nozzle. Notation: 0 - Stagnation conditions, 1 - Chamber

conditions, t - Throat conditions, 2 - Exit conditions, 3 - Ambient conditions.
Rockets are usually design to give an exit pressure equal or higher than the ambient
pressure to avoid a negative contribution to the thrust.
A nozzle is said to be working in optimum conditions or matched when the exit and am-
bient pressures have the same value, p2 = p3 .
Thrust Coefficient, CF
The thrust coefficient is a non- dimensional parameter and it can be described with the
following relations:
F
CF = (5)
At p 1
where At is the area of the throat section and p1 is the pressure inside the chamber.
s
2κ2 2 (κ+1)/(κ−1) p (κ−1)/κ p − p A
2 2 3 2
CF = 1− + (6)
κ−1 κ+1 p1 p 1 At
18
Total Impulse, It
The total impulse is the parameter that gives us the distance that the rocket can cover or
the maximum height that it can reach. It is defined as the integral of the thrust over the
burning time: Z t
It = F dt (7)
0
However, this value is not very useful in its own, since two rockets having the same total
impulse can present totally different performances.
Effective exhaust velocity, c
In a rocket nozzle the exhaust velocity is not uniform at the exit and it is difficult to
measure so, in a first approximation, for a one-dimensional analysis it is convenient to
estimate a uniform exit velocity, c. It is the so-called effective exhaust velocity, and it is
equivalent to the speed at which the propellant is ejected through the nozzle exit. It can
be defined as:
F
c= (8)
ṁ
Characteristic velocity, c∗
The characteristic velocity, represented as c∗ is given by the following expression:
p1 At
c∗ = (9)
ṁ
It is used to compare the relative efficiency between different designs of chemical rockets.
It is highly related to the combustion efficiency and it is independent from the nozzle
configuration.
19
Specific Impulse, Isp
The specific impulse is defined as the total impulse per unit mass of fuel. It is measured
in seconds and it is an important quantity to define the performance of a rocket. It can
be computed with the following expression:
F c
Isp = = (10)
ṁg0 g0
The biggest Isp , the better performance.
The specific impulse can also be used to predict the rocket motion with the Tsilkovsky
equation:
M
initial
∆V = g0 Isp ln (11)
Mf inal
With this equation, the performance that a rocket must fulfill to undertake any maneuver
can be known. However, it does not take into account neither the gravity field losses
nor the drag losses due to the atmosphere resistance. Also, it considers that the Isp is
constant.[1]
20
3 Hybrid rocket design and construction
3.1 Design requirements
Although it was not necessary, it was decided to rebuild again all the existing parts of the
rocket to ensure that the new parts would fit perfectly with the existing design.
As it was mentioned before, the project is based on an already existing hybrid rocket
which, in turn, is a model based on a prototype created by the Aeronautics and Aerospace
Department at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
However, the existing model needed some improvements with respect to the original design
to make it safer and more accessible.
The main requirements that the rocket has to accomplish are:
• It has to allow the injection of three different gases in the primary chamber: pure
oxygen, propane, and nitrogen. The oxygen is the responsible for accomplishing the
combustion process when it is brought in contact with the solid propellant. The
propane is mainly used to produce the spark that will ignite the gases and will lead
to the start of the combustion. The last one, nitrogen, is mainly needed to extinguish
the flame in the case of a fire and to clean the channel from the oxygen excesses.
• The rocket must be able of being remotely ignited by means of applying voltage to
a glow plug .
• It must offer a measurement of the thrust produced by the rocket.
• The architecture of the rocket must be done in a way that all the parts can be easily
re-designed and replaced by new parts according the needs of the experiment.
• The safety must be improved with respect to the previous model.
21
3.2 Description and schematics of parts and components
As it was already said, our design is modular, composed by many different small parts
that can be changed when needed to meet the desired requirements. In the picture below,
an schematic of the whole rocket is shown, in which the three different blocks are clearly
defined:
Figure 6: Computer-Aided Design CAD of the Rocket
In the following pages the design of each block and part of the rocket will be explained in
detail, as well as the reason for its geometry and its main function. The metallic pieces
are enumerated from 1 to 6 as it is shown below:
Figure 7: Scheme of the Rocket
22
In this hybrid rocket model three different parts can be clearly differentiated, two metal
block separated by the propellant block:
• Cold block
The original design consisted of a single metal block with a calibrated orifice2 in its
extreme by which the gaseous oxidizer is introduced.
This is the part that has been more dramatically changed with respect to the previ-
ous model. Instead of having just one solid part with an orifice in its end, the new
design will be composed of two parts forming a small combustion chamber in which
the gases are well mixed before the combustion.
Figure 8: Cold Block.
2
The calibrated orifice makes possible to measure the mass flow of oxygen that is flowing into the
system.
23
This block has four different orifices: three of them for the injection of the gases
(propane, oxygen and nitrogen) and the fourth will serve as the fastening of the
glow plug that will be used to start the combustion process.
To make the fastening of the glow plug, it was necessary to acquire the equivalent
thread to make the perforation in the inox piece. The glow plug is introduced in this
orifice until a tiny part of its surface stands out of the wall surface so that, when it
is ignited the gases can be in contact with it to make the ignition possible.
As it is shown in the picture, two cables are connected to the thruster. One of them
is connected to the glow plug terminal and the other to the rocket itself (the rocket
acts as ground). Both cables are also connected to a voltage source. Therefore, when
the source is powered on, the voltage is made to pass through the cables and the
glow plug is heated.
• Propellant block
It consists of two tubes of poly(methyl methacrylate) one placed inside the other
with a central hole to allow the flow of the oxidizer inside it.
When the internal surface of the inner bar is vaporized due to the high temperature
coming from the flame created in the pre-combustion chamber and it mixes with the
oxidizer the combustion process takes place, generating a plume.
• Hot block
It is the part in which the post-combustion takes place. It is made up of four metallic
pieces and two graphite parts. The last graphite piece acts as a convergent nozzle
by which the exhaust gases exit the rocket. The geometry and function of all the
pieces will be explained in detail right below.
The rocket is made up of several independent parts to allow different experiments changing
some parameters of the rocket such as the length of the post-combustion part, the length
of the propellant section (PMMA tubes) and to make it easier to change its geometry for
future improvements. Each part individually is going to be described here under:
24
Cold Block
Also denoted as the injector head. The upper part of the rocket model is made up of two
metallic parts.
This corresponds to the part by which the gases are introduced; the two parts, wen brought
together, create a small combustion chamber where gases are injected and ignited with
the glow plug.
In this block the main combustion process (the one that occurs when oxygen and PMMA
react) does not take place and it is not crossed by hot gases at any moment. It serves as
an ignition chamber where the initial flame is created.
The reason for building the pieces with stainless steel is because it is more resistant to
high temperatures and, since the rocket is in contact with oxygen, an oxidation-resistant
material was needed.
Therefore, this piece, as well as almost all the rest of the rocket pieces, are made of stain-
less steel.
Figure 9: Stainless Piece 1
25
The previous CAD picture shows the first part of the rocket. As it can be observed it
contains four different holes: the one in the axial direction of the flow is the orifice by
which the oxygen is injected into the combustion chamber, while the other three orifices
are for the propane, the nitrogen and the last one serves to hold the glow plug.
Oxygen is injected in an axial direction so that its injecting velocity helps in propagating
the combustion process to the rocket.
Propane is injected in a perpendicular way to oxygen so that both gases are well mixed
before igniting.
Nitrogen serves as a flame extinguisher at the end of the firing and cleans the rocket flow
path from residual oxygen and propane to avoid fires when the rocket is disassembled.
(a) Front view
(b) Back view
26
The second piece is coupled to the first one by means of introducing the annular protrusion
into the groove of the first part, creating the combustion chamber.
This part has a big orifice in its face by which the ignited gases exit the cold block to enter
into the propellant block.
As it can be appreciated in the back view of the part, it has two heights of different di-
ameters in which the propellant tubes are introduced.
Propellant Block
The propellant of the rocket consists of tho tubes of PMMA with different diameters
placed one inside the other but without contact between them.
The main reason for using two bars is the safety since, in the case of an explosion or
fragmentation of the inner tube, the external one will keep the pieces from harming its
surroundings.
The PMMA or poly methyl methacrylate, also called acrylic or most commonly Plexiglas
is a transparent thermoplastic often used as an alternative to glass.
Figure 11: Plexiglas tube
27
The reason for using it as a solid propellant is because of its favorable properties:
• Transparency
• High impact resistance
• Light material: its density is 1190Kg/m3
• Easy combustion
• Non-toxic exhaust gases
• Easily machined and shaping
The dimensions of the tubes used in the rocket are the following:
Tube Internal Diameter External Diameter Length

Inner 20 mm 30 mm 210 mm
Outer 40 mm 50 mm 200 mm
Table 1: Dimensions of Combustion Port
The dimensions of the tubes have been designed following the ones of the previous model.
However, the length of the tubes can be changed to see the relation between the propellant
length and the thrust produced by the rocket.
Its chemical properties are shown in the following table
Chemical Composition (C5 O2 H8 )n

Melting Point 433 K
Heat of Reaction 24.89 MJ/Kg
Adiabatic Flame Temperature 2200 ◦ C
Table 2: Chemical Properties of PMMA [14, 40]
28
Hot Block
The hot block is placed right after the propellant block and it consists of 6 different parts,
being four of them made of stainless steel and the other two made of graphite.
In first place, a graphite piece is found. It is a mouthpiece placed immediately after the
combustion port.
The reason for using graphite for the nozzle and for the piece that follows the combustion
port is because of it high melting point (around 3800 K), that is big enough to withstand
the working temperatures of the hybrid rocket model.
Another reason for using this material is that, apart from its excellent properties it is
relatively low cost.
Figure 12: First graphite mouthpiece
It is a disc with a central orifice with a smaller section than that of the propellant tube
and also than the one of the post-combustion chamber placed right after it.
This contraction helps to force the appearance of turbulence at the entrance of the afore-
mentioned chamber, which will improve the mixing of the flow gases.
Thanks to these consequences, the combustion is supposed to be completed and uniform
before reaching the rocket nozzle.
29
The graphite mouth piece is located inside a wide metallic piece (Part 3) that serves as
the propellant tubes holder.
This part is the wider stainless steel item and it has two functions: one side is responsible
for holding the graphite part while the other one holds the intermediate section that works
as the post-combustion chamber (Part 4).
The CAD picture shown above corresponds to the above-said intermediate section. This
metallic block that acts as a post-combustion chamber is a cylinder with constant section.
Although it is not essential, this part has the objective of completing the combustion after
the propellant port.
30
If we decided to remove it and place the nozzle immediately after the part 3, the fuel that
has been vaporized in the final part of the port would burn in the exhaust of the rocket,
causing efficiency losses and wasting some fuel.
(a) Front view (b) Back view
The fifth metallic piece acts as a union item between the post-combustion chamber and
the graphite nozzle.
Part 5, together with part 6, have the only function of fastening the rocket nozzle. Both
of them have a central orifice to allow the way of the gaseous flow to the exit of the hybrid
rocket model.
31
Figure 17: Graphite Nozzle
The graphite nozzle is probably one of the most important parts of the nozzle.
Its function is to accelerate the fluid in the exit part to achieve the desired thrust. It has
a convergent shape to ensure that the exit gases will leave in sonic conditions.
32
3.3 Machining of the Parts
All the parts were made from a 100 mm diameter bar of stainless steel AISI-1.4307 based
on the computer aided designs made with Solid Edge. The reason to choose as the material
for the rocket stainless steel is because its mechanical properties were the ones that fitted
the requirements of the project. This steel, also known as inox steel, does not corrode,
rust or stain when it is in contact with water or oxygen like other normal steels do. Since
the rocket has to be in contact with pure oxygen, a material capable of a high resistance
to corrosion was needed.
Another positive thing of this steel are its thermal properties, specifically its well conduc-
tion, specific heat and high melting point. Moreover, it is relatively easy and cheap to
machine it.
The parts come from a bar with a 10 cm diameter that was cut in small pieces with an
industrial hacksaw of a length 2 mm bigger than the final length of each cylinder.
Figure 18: Machining of the pieces in the lathe
The resulting piece of steel is placed in the lathe. Once the piece has been faced, a drill
is made in the central part in order to make the inner diameter of the piece. Finally, it
is necessary to chamfer the edges to avoid cuts when the piece is handled. This is the
procedure followed to make the most part of the pieces.
33
Figure 19: Machining of the pieces in the lathe
To join together all the parts of the rocket, the inox cylinders have four holes at an equidis-
tant radius of the center by which metallic rods are passed and pieces are pressed one to
another by putting wing nuts in the extremes.
Figure 20: Wing nuts.
Also, graphite annular joints are placed at the contact points of the parts to ensure that
all of them are well fixed and that there won’t be gaseous leakages that could provoke an
explosion in the laboratory.
34
3.4 Rocket assembly
All the pieces were made so that they could fit perfectly in the hole of the next part.
However, to ensure that they are perfectly joined, some annular graphite pieces were
placed between the parts.
In this way, we ensure that there will be no leakages when the oxygen is passing through
the rocket.
The resultant assembly is shown in the following CAD pictures.
(a) Front view (b) Back view
Figure 21: Assembly of the Rocket
Figure 22: Assembly of the Rocket Exploded
35
To ensure that the system will be completely joined, some toric joints made of graphite
will be placed between the different parts. They will be placed between each couple of
pieces. The force necessary to seal the joint will come from tightening the screws of the
rods that joint together the whole system.
Figure 23: Rods and Graphite joints
The tightening should not be too strong, since there is risk of harming the propellant
block. Therefore, it is recommendable to do it manually until the assembly is solid.
Furthermore, while the firing is taking place, the pieces in contact with the voltage will
expand due to the increase in temperature, but not the rods. The seal will be better then.
Figure 24: Aluminum profile and basic structure
36
The rocket is placed in a platform made of aluminum profiles. An aluminum movable

plate serves as the immediate support of the rocket, that is attached to it by means of a
screw placed in the upper part of the rocket.
The platform where the rocket is placed is movable to allow a small displacement so that
the thrust generated by the rocket could be measured. To do the movable part it was
decided to use a pair of drawer rails because of their low cost and since they could fit
all the requirements: although some friction appears when the rocket is fired, it can be
neglected in a first approximation, since the rocket only displaces a small distance with
respect to its original position.
Using aluminum profiles for the structure permits future improvements and variations ac-
cording to the new necessities.
The final result of the rocket is shown in the picture below.
Figure 25: Final Rocket Model
37
3.5 Thrust measurement system
Improving the thrust measurement systems was one of the main objectives of this project,
so that more accurate results could be obtained.
It was decided to use a load cell for this purpose. A load cell is a transducer whose function
is to create an electrical signal directly proportional to the force that is being applied to
it.
The chosen cell is the model FC223 , which is a compression load cell. It is perfect for our
project since it can measure a range of forces between 4.5 Kg and 45 kg or up to almost
450 N4 . This cell offers normalized zero and wide range for interchangeability, as well as
being able to work independently of the temperature.
Figure 26: Load Cell FC22
It is also able to measure direct force and it is not subjected to leddie fatigue failure.
The load cell operates at very low strains and provides an essentially unlimited cycle life
expectancy, superior resolution and a high over-range capabilities.
The cell offers normalized zero and span for interchangeability and it is thermally com-
pensated for changes in zero and span with respect to temperature.
It is small, does not produce noise, robust, highly reliable and has a fast response time.
3
User guide of the load cell in Annexes.
4
User guide of the load cell in Annexes.
38
To measure the thrust produced by the rocket the cell is placed in the upper part of the
rocket, slightly touching the external face of the part 1. The device is connected to a
battery of 5 V, which is the power source, and to a voltmeter that measures the output
coming from the load cell.
At the point where the cell is in contact with the rocket, the voltage given by the load cell
is established as the value of zero thrust.
When the rocket is fired, the thrust will produce a small axial displacement and, in con-
sequence, the thruster will press the load cell, giving a change in the output voltage. By
applying a simple rule of three, the thrust produced by the hybrid rocket can be obtained.
In the future, it is planned to implement a new system for the data acquisition from the
system. This could be done by means of programming a DAQ that immediately converts
the voltage into a force, so that the thrust produced by the rocket can be obtained more
easily.
39
4 Experimental characterization and discussion
In this section, the experiments performed with the rocket will be analyzed. First, the
section will start with an explanation of the combustion reaction that takes place into the
combustion port, when the PMMA is in contact with the flow of oxygen. Right after,
the first firing and the way in which it was achieved is going to be analyzed and then the
results obtained are going to be showed.
4.1 Combustion reaction in the propellant block
As it is already known, our model is an hybrid rocket that uses PMMA as the solid
propellant while pure oxygen is used as the oxidizer. Poly(methyl methacrylate), C5 H8 O2
is a widely used polymer due to its low cost and good transparency and wheatening
resistance.
The PMMA, also known as poly(methyl methacry-

late) comes from the acetone or propanone, or-
ganic compound with the formula (CH3 )2 CO,
when it reacts with hydrogen cyanide, HCN , sul-
furic acid, H2 SO4 , and methanol. This compound
polymerizes very fast, and this process is usually
done without oxygen to avoid the formation of per-
oxides. It is not thermally stable and it will start
Figure 27: PMMA Monomer
decomposing at 493 K approximately.[14]
The combustion process of a polymer includes the subsequent steps:
- Thermal decomposition.
- Thermal oxidative decomposition.
- Decomposition of monomer MMA.
40
The three steps with all the intermediate reactions in each one are explained in detail in
the Annexes.
In the end, from the decomposition of the MMA monomers, small products arise. The
reaction of combustion of these products can be modeled with the following reaction:
X + O2 −−→ CO + CO2 + H2 O
Where X corresponds to methane, formaldehyde, methanol, propylene, acetone, etc.
Combustion of Small Molecules
The combustion of these small molecules leads to the creation of the ultimate products
(carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide and some toxic gases) and to the production of
heat.
• Methane combustion: It involves 26 specis and 77 elementary reactions.
• Methanol combustion: It involves 7 elementary reactions.
• Formaldehyde combustion: It involves 13 elementary reactions.
• Acetylene combustion: It is the most complex one, since it is the combination of

more than 100 elementary reactions.
Kinetics of PMMA Decomposition
Polymers decomposition usually means more complex kinetics. The covalent bonds of
these compounds will rotate and vibrate, creating numerous free radicals and small prod-
ucts that can react again between them, either creating new products or decomposing
again into smaller particles.
41
Heat of Combustion
The heat released by the reaction is the most important parameter, since it can determine
the behavior of the material when it is burned, so that thermal hazard can be estimated.
The overall reaction of incomplete burning of poly(methyl methacrylate) is:
−(C5 H8 O2 )− n + aO2 −−→ bCO(g) + cCO2 (g) + dH2 O(l)
However, in this project it will be considered that the mixture is lean, so that all the
PMMA is burned completely. This reaction can be written as:
−(C5 H8 O2 )− n + 6 nO2 −−→ 5 nCO2 (g) + 4 nH2 O(l)
According to reference [35], the heat of combustion of poly(methyl methacrylate) burning

completely is 24.89 MJ/Kg.
The molecular weight of each species of the reactants and products is shown in the table
below:
Species Molecular Weight
PMMA (C5 O2 H8 )n 100.1158 g/mol

Oxygen O2 31.9988 g/mol
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.0095 g/mol
Water H2 O 18.0153 g/mol
Table 3: Molecular Weight of each species in the reaction of combustion of PMMA[38].
42
4.2 First firing and preliminary characterization
Once all the parts of the rocket have been correctly assembled by means of adjusting the
bars and the wing nuts, the ports of the gases are properly joined to the holes of the first
piece and the glow plug has been connected to a voltage source5 , it is possible to proceed
to the ignition of the rocket.
The steps that must be followed are:
1. Open the oxygen valve until the gas flows through the tube abundantly.
2. Set the input current of the glow plug to 3 A and increase the voltage to a value
around 3.2 V.
3. Open slightly the propane valve until ignition occurs.
4. Once the gas has ignited, close the propane valve and let the oxygen flow until the
plume has consumed the poly(methyl methacrylate).
Since the valves or the gases can not be easily controlled, it is not possible to estimate the
exact mass flow rate of oxygen and propane that should be given to the rocket to make
the ignition possible. However, since the exhaust of the gases is a calibrated orifice6 , by
knowing the pressure at which the gases are injected and its area, assuming that the flow
exits the tube and enters the rocket with Mach number equal to 1, the mass flow rate of
the gas can be known:
ṁ = ρAinjector V (12)
Where ρ can be defined with the equation of state, knowing the pressure:
p
ρ= (13)
Rg T
5
A voltage source is a device that can produce a continuous force o move the electrons through the
cables that are connected to its terminals.[39]
6
The diameter of the orifice is 2.5mm.
43
And the velocity can be calculated using the equation of the Mach Number and assuming
that it is equal to 1:
V p
M =p = 1 → V = κRg T (14)
κRg T
In some of the essays, small explosions have happened when the flow of oxygen was low,
possibly due to the remaining gases trapped in the pre-combustion chamber and/or at the
beginning of the propellant block. In some cases, the explosion has been that big that the
inner tube of PMMA has cracked.
Because of unknown reasons, it has not been possible to measure the thrust, since the
voltage given by the load cell remains almost constant during the firing and equal to the
calibrated value.
Due to the lack of time, it was not possible to solve this problem, and it will remain as an
objective for future improvements of the project.
44
4.3 Test results
Despite the problems associated with the firing of the rocket and the lack of time for
solving them, it was still possible to make some experiments and to take measurements
from them, like the final and initial mass of the propellant tube, which gives us the mass
flow rate of the gasses passing through it.
However, as it was said before, it was impossible to obtain reasonable measurements of the
thrust produced by the hybrid rocket. Even after the installation of an upgraded system
to measure it, some problems have appeared: for some reason, the voltage that the load
cell measures while the rocket is being fired is almost the same than the one measured
before the fire and that was calibrated as the zero thrust. This problems can be associated
to the installation of the load cell in the structure where the rocket is placed or due to
some error in the cell.
Therefore, obtaining measurements of the thrust force will continue to be an important
objective for future projects concerning the rocket.
Figure 28: Firing of the rocket in the laboratory 7
7
The picture shows the moment in which the firing of the rocket is taking place. As it can be observed,
a plume of igniting gases at high velocity exit the nozzle orifice.
45
Despite all that, it was possible to make some measurements of the regression rate of the
rocket that, together with the measurements taken in previous experiments allow us to
obtain a fitting for the mass flow rate so that parameters a and n of the following formula
can be obtained:
r = aGn (15)
where r is the regression rate and G is the mass flow rate per unit area.
The first thing to do is to calculate the mass flow rate of oxygen going through the
calibrated orifice. This is done with the equations of section 4.2. The experiment will
be done for different pressures so that a fitting of the curve can be done to obtain the
parameters a and n.
p p
m˙O = ρV Ainj = M κRg T Ainj (16)
Rg T
where Rg is 287 J/KgK, T is the ambient temperature, 293.15 K, the Mach number is
equal to 1, since it is considered that the gas flow is choked, and the area of the injector
is equal to πR2 , with a radius of 1mm.
Experiment Pressure Oxygen Mass flow rate
A 4 bars 0.0052 Kg/s

B 3 bars 0.0039 Kg/s
C 2 bars 0.0026 Kg/s
D 3 bars 0.0039 Kg/s
E 2 bars 0.0026 Kg/s
Table 4: Oxygen mass flow rate
The mean fuel flow rate can be obtained by weighting the poly(methyl methacrylate)
before and after the experiment and dividing the difference between the firing time:
|ṁf inal − ṁinitial |

ṁ = (17)
tf iring
46
In the table below, the results of several experiments are shown:
Experiment Initial mass Final mass Firing time Mass flow rate
A 91.4 g 78.3 g 6s 0.002183 Kg/s

B 81.2 g 55.1 g 10 s 0.002610 Kg/s
C 88.3 g 71.3 g 8s 0.002125 Kg/s
D 92.8 g 81.8 g 7s 0.001571 Kg/s
E 77.1 g 60.2 g 9s 0.001878 Kg/s
Table 5: Mean flow rate
The total mass flow rate is the sum of the two previously described. Once this is known,
the regression rate can be computed with the following formula:
ṁ = 2πRρr Lr (18)
where ρr is the density of the material, L is the length of the tube, and r is the regression
rate.
Experiment Total Mass Flow Regression Rate
A 0.007383 Kg/s 0.4937 × 10−3 m/s

B 0.00621 Kg/s 0.4153 × 10−3 m/s
C 0.004725 Kg/s 0.3159 × 10−3 m/s
D 0.005471 Kg/s 0.3659 × 10−3 m/s
E 0.004478 Kg/s 0.2994 × 10−3 m/s
Table 6: Total mass flow rate and Regression rate
Doing the fitting of the parameters the following values are obtained:
a = 0.06696403
n = 1.000234
47
5 Mathematical model
Apart from the experimental tests done with the rocket, and since there have been prob-
lems associated to them, it is interesting to develop a mathematical model that can predict
the behavior of the hybrid rocket under many conditions and variables.
Therefore, in this section of the project, a mathematical one-dimensional model of the

combustion process will be implemented in MATLAB in order to model analytically the
firing of the rocket8 . This model will take into account the addition of heat and mass from
the walls, as well as the effects of friction that arise when the gases are flowing through
the propellant tube.
However, before implementing the final model, it is necessary to explain some important
concepts and the different cases that can be found when analyzing a flowing compressible
gas.
5.1 Theoretical background
A fluid flow can be always modeled by using three important relations: the equation of
conservation of mass, the momentum equation, and the energy equation. Additionally, the
equation of state can be introduced. In the following cases it is interesting to study these
equations in pairs of two depending on the situation. Hence, if we consider a flow where
no frictional effects appear, only continuity and momentum equations will be studied.
Nevertheless, for the final modeling made in Matlab, the contribution of the three relations
will be taken analyzed.
In this section all the effects are going to be explained and right after the general case
including all the possibilities is going to be analyzed.
8
It was expected to compare the experimental results with the ones obtained analytically but, since
there have been some problems when obtaining measurements this will be no longer possible and it will
be set as an objective for future improvements of the project.
48
5.1.1 Gas flow in a channel with changing area
To study this case, some assumptions are needed:

- The flow is one-dimensional: this assumption means that the fluid properties remain
uniform in every cross-section of the channel9 .
- No frictional effects are considered: the friction forces are negligibly small and in a
first approximation the fluid is considered as isentropic.
- There is no heat exchange between the fluid and the surroundings and neither is
work.
For this case, the equation of continuity is to be analyzed:
dρ dA dV
+ + =0 (19)
ρ A V
From this equation it can be predicted that at Mach number equal to unity the area
goes through a minimum for any kind of fluid (liquid or gaseous).
Figure 29: Effects of the change of area in the Mach number, pressure and temperature.
9
The approximation of a one-dimensional fluid provides a high simplicity and rapid and easy calculation
methods. Furthermore, the results obtained are reliable and very useful.
49
5.1.2 Gas flow in constant area channels with friction
To study the behavior of a gas stream flowing through a duct with constant area under
the effects of friction, the following assumptions will be made:
- The flow is one-dimensional.
- There is no heat exchange between the fluid and the surroundings and neither is
work.
- The flow is steady.
- The cross-sectional area is constant.
- The effects due to elevation will be neglected.
In this case, the equations of continuity and energy can be written as:
w
= ρV ≡ G (20)
A
V2
h+ = h0 (21)
2
where, G is the mass velocity, V is the flow velocity, and h and h0 are the enthalpy and
stagnation enthalpy respectively.
Combining both equations it is possible to obtain the equation of the Fanno Line:
G2
h = h0 − (22)
2ρ2
These lines can be represented in a h − v or a h − s diagram, as it is shown below:
Figure 30: Fanno Line
50
Analyzing them it can be observed that, due to the effects of friction, the flow will always
tend to reach sonic conditions both in the subsonic and supersonic branches, even if the
area does not change. Therefore, if the flow is subsonic at some point, the effects of friction
will be to increase its velocity and to decrease the pressure and enthalpy. On the other
hand, if the flow is supersonic, friction will produce a decrease in Mach Number and an
increase in pressure and enthalpy.
A summary of the frictional effects in a gas-stream flowing through a pipe of constant area
is:
Subsonic Supersonic
Pressure p decreases increases

Temperature T decreases increases
Velocity V increases decreases
Density ρ decreases increases
Mach Number M increases decreases
Stagnation Pressure p0 decreases decreases
Impulse function, F decreases decreases
Table 7: Frictional Effects in a 1D Flow [8]
The Mach number always tends to reach unity. Hence, the flow will be choked most of
the times due to frictional effects.
5.1.3 Flow in a channel with heat addition
When heat is added to a flow, the process that takes place is that comprising variations
in stagnation temperature and stagnation enthalpy. It will be assumed that this changes
occur in an ideal gas stream flowing through a duct with constant cross-sectional area and
with no friction.
In the reality these conditions are difficult to achieve since a change in stagnation tem-
perature by means of an external source of heat ensure that friction will appear due to
the dependence between the friction mechanisms and heat transfer. In a similar way, the
51
chemical composition and the mass rate of the gas stream will change if the stagnation
temperature is increased or decreased.
This simplified modelling is known as the process of Simple T0 -Change.
In this case, the equations of continuity and the momentum equation can be written as:
w
ρV = = G = constant (23)
A
F
p − ρV 2 = (24)
A
Combining both equations, the Rayleigh Line relation is obtained:
G2 F
p+ = (25)
ρ A
As it can be observed in the graph, the part of the line above the point where the entropy is
maximum corresponds to subsonic flow while the other part corresponds to the supersonic
flow.
Since the process of simple heating that is being taken into account is thermodynami-
cally reversible, the addition of heat produces an increase of entropy and heat extraction
corresponds to a decrease of entropy.
Therefore, at supersonic speeds (lower branch), Mach Number is decreased by the addition
of heat, while cooling increases the Mach Number. In subsonic flow (upper branch), the
effect is the opposite: Mach Number will increase when the flow is heated and it will
52
decrease if the flow is cooled.

In other words, heating the fluid always produces a change towards the point where the
Mach Number is unity. This effect always causes a reduction in the stagnation pressure
and an increase in the stream temperature.
The effects of changes in the stagnation temperature T0 are shown in the table below:
Heating Heating Cooling Cooling

M<1 M>1 M<1 M>1
Pressure, p decreases increases increases decreases

Temperature, T Note (1) increases Note (2) decreases
Velocity V increases decreases decreases increases
Mach Number M increases decreases decreases increases
Stagnation Pressure p0 decreases decreases increases increases
Stagnation Temperature, T0 increases increases decreases decreases
√ √
Note (1): increases for M < 1/ k, and decreases for M > 1/ k
√ √
Note (2): decreases for M < 1/ k, and increases for M > 1/ k
Table 8: Heating and Cooling Effects in a 1D Flow [8]
Choking Effects in Simple T0 -Change
• Increase in Stagnation Pressure: If the stagnation pressure is increased, there is a

maximum stagnation temperatures ratio is possible for each initial Mach Number.
Also, for a fixed initial stagnation temperature, there is a maximum permitted initial
Mach Number.
• Decrease in Stagnation Temperature: When the fluid is cooled, it does not exist a
limit in the stagnation temperature ratio, since the initial Mach Number is lower
than unity. Nevertheless, for initial supersonic flows, there is a maximum allowed
reduction in stagnation-temperature ratio for any initial Mach Number. [8]
53
5.1.4 Generalized one-dimensional flow
Now, the case in which all the effects previously stated occur simultaneously will be ana-
lyzed.
The effects taken into account are:

- Change in area.
- Frictional effects.
- Heat exchange with the surroundings.
- Change in the chemical composition.
- Changes in molecular weight, chemical reaction and change of phase.
Also, some hypotheses are needed:

- The flow is steady and one-dimensional.
- The changes in the flow properties are continuous.
- The gas used is almost perfect.
Taking into account all that has been previously stated, we end up with the following
equations [8]:
Equation of State:
dp dρ dT dW
= + − (26)
p ρ T W
Mach Number:
dM 2 dV 2 dW dκ dT
2
= 2
+ − − (27)
M V W κ T
Continuity Equation:
dw dρ dA dV
= + + (28)
w ρ A V
Energy Equation:
dQ − dWx + dH dT κ − 1 2 dV 2
= + M (29)
cp T T 2 V2
54
Momentum Equation:
dp κM 2 dV 2 κM 2 dx dX dw
+ + 4f + I 2
+ κM 2 (1 − y) =0 (30)
p 2 V 2 D 2 κpAM
w
If all these equations are combined a solved as a system of differential equations, the entire
flow pattern can be modeled, and the behavior of the gas-stream can be known at any
point.
Analyzing the effects of increasing independent parameters in the Mach Number and
Stagnation Pressure it is obtained that:
Subsonic (M < 1) Supersonic (M > 1)
Area Increased decreases increases

Heating increases decreases
Effect of Friction increases decreases
Mass Flow Increased increases decreases
Molecular Weight Increased decreases decreases
k Increased decreases decreases
Table 9: Effect of Independent Parameters in Mach Number[8]
Stagnation Pressure, p0
Change in Area -
Stagnation Temperature Increased decreases
Effect of Friction decreases
Gas injection (y < 1) decreases
Molecular Weight Increased decreases
k Increased decreases
Table 10: Effect of Independent Parameters in Stagnation Pressure [8]
55
5.2 Assumptions and hypotheses for the hybrid rocket model
• One-dimensional model: all the fluid properties remain uniform in every cross-section
of the duct.
• It is assumed that the changes in the flow properties are continuous, which means
that the variation is the same in each differential of the position.
• It will be considered that there is change of area, heat addition and mass addition.
• The specific heats at constant volume, cv and at constant pressure, cp , and therefore
the adiabatic gas constant κ and R change in a prescribed way.
5.3 Model equations
Since for our particular model all the possibilities are being considered, all the equations
for mass conservation, momentum equation and energy equation have to be integrated
together, opposite to the previous models described in section 4.1, where one of these
equations could be neglected.
Therefore, we end-up with the following relations:
Continuity Equation:
dw dρ dA dV
= + + (31)
w ρ A V
Momentum Equation:
dp κM 2 d(V 2 ) 2 dx
V
in
dw
+ 2
= −2κM f + − 1 κM 2 (32)
p 2 V D V w
Energy Equation:
V 2 V 2 − V 2
w cp dT + d = hin − h + in dw + wdhreac + dQ̇ (33)
2 2
56
The previous three equation are written taking logarithmic differentials to facilitate the
integration.
They have to be solved in order to obtain the variation of the temperature, T , the pressure,
p, the density, ρ and the velocity, V , over the distance x.
Since there are three equations for four unknowns, another equation is needed: the equa-
tion of state:
p = ρRT (34)
that, written in logarithmic form is:
dp dρ dT dW
= + − (35)
p ρ T W
The four equations have to be implemented in a Matlab code, and they are solved using
the function ode45.
However, Matlab need the equations to be solved for the differential of the four unknown.
In consequence, they must be combined so that we end-up with a system of four equations
for dV, dT, dρ and dp.
This system is obtained by dividing all the formulas by dx and solving the continuity,
momentum and energy equations for dρ, dp and dT respectively and introducing them in
the equation of state:
dw dρ dA dV h dw dA dV i
= + + =⇒ dρ = ρ − − (36)
w ρ A V w A V
dp κM 2 d(V 2 ) 2 dx
V
in
dw
+ 2
= −2κM f + − 1 κM 2 =⇒
p 2 V D V w
(37)
h V
in
dw 2κM 2 f κM 2 i
dp = p − 1 κM 2 − − dV
V w D V
V 2 V 2 − V 2
w cp dT + d = hin − h + in dw + wdhreac + dQ̇ =⇒
2 h 2
2 2 (38)
i
hin − h + Vin −V2 dw + wdh reac + dQ̇ V dV
dT = −
wcp cp
57
dp dρ dT dW V
in
dw 2κM 2 f κM 2
= + − =⇒ − 1 κM 2 − − dV =
p ρ T W V w D V
h
V 2 −V 2
i (39)
dw dA dV hin − h + in 2 dw + wdhreac + dQ̇ V dV dW
− − + − −
w A V wcp T cp T W
Finally, the resulting system of equations is:

h 2 −V 2
i
Vin
hin −h+ dw+wdhreac +dQ̇
Vin 2κM 2 f 2
V − 1 κM 2 dw
w − D − dw
w + dA
A − wcp T + dW
W
dV = 1 V
κM 2 − V − cp T
(40)
h dw dA dV i
dρ = ρ − − (41)
w A V
h V
in
dw 2κM 2 f κM 2 i
dp = p − 1 κM 2 − − dV (42)
V w D V
2 −V 2
h i
Vin
hin − h + 2 dw + wdhreac + dQ̇ V dV
dT = − (43)
wcp cp
To obtain the solution from the integration of this equation, there are many variables that
have to be determined, either by giving them a fixed value or by stating them as a function
of the position of the flow:
• The terms Vin describes the velocity with with the mass flow is injected from the
walls to the fluid. In a first approximation this term is going to be considered equal
to zero.
58
• The change of enthalpy will be constant along the duct, making the term hin − h = 0
at any point of the duct. This is because we assume that the wall is at the same
temperature that the flow going through the central axis. Since the enthalpy can be
described as:
h = cp ∆T (44)
if the change in temperature is zero, so is the change in enthalpy.
• The gas properties, such as κ, cp , cv and R will be obtained as a function of the

position, and the following hypothesis will be made: It will be considered that the
gas properties upstream are those corresponding to the properties of pure oxygen,
while downstream, the exhaust gases will be a mixture between carbon dioxide and
water. Also, it will be assumed that the variation along the duct is linear. Therefore,
the gas properties change in the following way:
Gas κ cp [J/molK] cv [J/molK] R [J/molK]
O2 (g) @ 298 K 1.4 29.4 21 8.4
CO2 (g) @ 4000 K 1.16 63.23 54.28 8.95
H2 O(g) @ 4000 K 1.33 57.9 43.53 14.37
Data obtained from references [27, 29, 30]
Table 11: Properties of the combustion gases.
The specific heat at constant volume and the gas constant R are computed from the
following equations, while the values of cp and κ are obtained from the literature:
cp
κ= (45)
cv
R = cp − cv (46)
59
Finally, the relation obtained for the gas properties as a function of the position x
is the following:
– Initial composition: O2
– Final composition: 5 moles of CO2 per 4 moles of H2 O
The graphical distribution of the flow properties can be described as:
Figure 31: Distribution of κ, cp , cv and R along the combustion duct
• To make the integration easier, the Mach number will be written as a function of
the velocity at that point.
60
• The mass flow rate w is written also as a function of the position and it is determined
with equation (20).
• The mass flow differential is characterized with the following relation:
aGn
dw = (47)
Alateral
where G is the mass flow per unit area, and a and n are constants obtained experi-
mentally. The reason to use this expression is because it corresponds to the model
for the fuel mass flow in a hybrid rocket channel. [31, 32, 33]
To simplify the model it will be assumed that G is equal to the product of the initial
density times the initial velocity:
G = ρ0 V0 (48)
The value of the constants a and n was calculated in section 4.2 by fitting the curve
from the experimental results obtained for the regression rate and the mass flow rate.
Therefore, it is assumed that the parameters a and n have the following values:
a= 6.69 × 10−2
n=1.000234
61
• The friction factor is estimated from the literature. It was found that for smooth
PMMA it is equal to 0.54. However, since as the combustion takes place, the
poly(methyl methacrylate) undergoes erosion, and the surface is seen to be not
smooth, the friction factor will be multiplied by a reasonable factor of 3.
• The term dhreac corresponds to the change in enthalpy due to the combustion of the
PMMA multiplied by the differential of mass flow rate. This value is obtained from
the literature and it is equal to 24.89M J/Kg [10].
• In the first and last equations it can be seen that the term dQ̇ appears. This
corresponds to the addition and rejection of heat from the walls. It is computed per
differential of the position x and it is a function of the differential of the mass flow
rate per unit area and a constant:
dQ̇ = Cdw = −(∆Hsub + ∆T cp )dw (49)
The constant C, in turn, is a function of the specific heat capacity at constant

pressure of PMMA, its enthalpy of sublimation and of the change in temperature to
which it is subjected:
∆Hsub 600.7 kJ/Kg
cp 1500.2 J/KgK
Data obtained from references [14]
Table 12: Properties of PMMA
• The terms W and dW correspond to the molecular weight of the flowing gases and
to its derivative with respect to the axial position in the duct.
From the relation of the ideal gases, the molecular weight can be written as:
ρRT
W = (50)
p
62
As it was previously stated, the four parameters change as the flow moves forward,
so it has to be defined at every point, and the same for its derivative dW .
Figure 32: Model of the distribution of the molecular weight along the duct
• The last term needed to described is the area by which the flow passes and its
derivative. For the one-dimensional model, two main sections are considered: first a
long duct with constant radius (which corresponds to the PMMA tubes) and then
a convergent nozzle by which the exhaust gases exit the port.
The shape given to it is the following:
Figure 33: Radius distribution of the duct for the mathematical one-dimensional model
63
5.4 Matlab code
The Matlab Code created to solve the one-dimensional model has the following structure:
It is composed of several functions:
• One including the equations that need to be integrated and that gives as an output
the derivative of the four properties, V , ρ, p, T .
• Another function that gives the flow properties (the distribution of κ, the specific
heat at constant pressure and at constant volume, R and the molecular weight.
• A third function gives as an output the differential of mass flow rate.
• There is another function that provides the distribution of heat and enthalpy.
• The last function is the one that states the distribution of the area and its differential
along the duct.
The problem is solved in the following way: the first function obtains the results from the
rest of functions and uses these outputs as inputs to solve the equations.
This main function is solved using ode45, which integrates the function over all the length
of the duct, which includes the PMMA tube and the nozzle, giving the final distribution
of the four variables: velocity, density, pressure and temperature.
However, the process is more complex since the solution does not converge when the Mach
number reaches unity, creating instabilities. For this reason it was decided to make a
three-steps integration method:
64
First, the equations are integrated until the Mach number is close to unity, for example
0.95. When this happens, the integration stops and some integration steps are done ”by
hand”, considering that the derivatives of the variables remain constant in this interval.
This step is done until the Mach number is somewhere above unity, for example 1.05.
When this happens, the equations are integrated again with ode45 until the end of the
duct.
The variables that consider the addition of heat, mass and the effects of friction acting on
the flow are only considered in the tube of PMMA. The nozzle only considers the effects
due to the change in area.
Apart from this, since the code must look after the configuration for which the Mach
Number is equal to unity at the exit section, the results are iterated until the initial
conditions that fulfill this requirement are found.
65
5.5 Hybrid rocket simulation and performance prediction
In this section, the results obtained from the Matlab Code are going to be explained.
Several cases have been studied:
1. The case in which only the change in area is taken into account, at both ambient
temperature 298 K and when the flow enters with higher temperature.
2. The case in which the friction effects are considered together with the change in
area, at 298 K.
3. The case in which the mass flow rate coming from the walls is considered together
with the change in area, at 298 K.
4. The general case in which all the effects are considered: heat and mass addition from
the walls, friction forces and change in area, at 298 K.
The results are going to be discussed and compared between them in order to obtain a
reasonable conclusion concerning the behavior of the flow under several conditions.
5.5.1 Change in Area
As it has been already seen in the theoretical background, this is the simplest effect to
which a flow can be subjected. It only considers the variation of the radius of the duct,
neglecting any other effect such as heat or mass addition. The objective was to analyze
the flow in order to obtain sonic conditions in the nozzle exhaust.
As it was explained in section 4.3, the mass flow rate entering the rocket can be calculated,
since it is going through a calibrated orifice of 2mm diameter and it is assumed that the
Mach number in the hole is equal to one. The total pressure is the same after the hole,
298 K, but the total pressure is not conserved.
66
Knowing that the mass flow is conserved from one point to another, it can be stated that
the product ρV is constant. However, it is necessary to iterate to find the initial conditions
of the flow at the entrance of the tube that give sonic conditions at the exit of the nozzle.
In this case, where only the change in area is being considered, the initial conditions
are the following: the flow enters the rocket with a temperature of 298K, a density of
1.331Kg/m310 and a pressure of 3bar. Therefore, V = 24.65m/s.
As it can be observed in the plots below, all the properties remain constant along the pro-
pellant block and when they reach the nozzle the variation is exponential. The velocity
increases while the density, pressure and temperature decrease during the contraction of
the tube.
The fifth plot shows that the Mach number remains low along the propellant tube and
then it increases until reaching unity at the exit of the nozzle.
These conditions (M = 1) where found for an initial velocity of 24.65 m/s when the initial
temperature is equal to the ambient temperature, as it was previously stated.
10
Density of pure oxygen at ambient temperature. [30]
67
Figure 34: Distribution of the variables V , ρ, p, T and Mach Number over the position
considering only the change in Area when the flow enters at 298 K.
If now the flow is introduced at a higher temperature, for example 500 K, the effects are
the following:
68
considering only the change in Area when the flow enters at 500 K.
It can be observed that the behavior of the variables is almost the same. However, it can
be noticed that the Mach number at the exit is now reduced more or less to the half, 0.52.
From this results, it can be stated that increasing the temperature of the flow at the en-
trance is going to decrease its velocity and as a consequence the flow will be subsonic all
along the duct, moving the sonic region downstream. Although in our experiment there
is little or no control over the temperature at the entrance, it is interesting to analyze the
effect that raising the temperature would have in the flow.
69
5.5.2 Change in Area and Frictional Effects
In this section the friction effects are going to be added to the previous case in which
only the change in area was considered. The results for the same entrance velocity and
ambient temperature at the inlet showing that the iterative procedure is necessary are
shown below:
considering the change in Area and the frictional effects when the flow enters at 298 K
and 24.65 m/s, showing that the iterative procedure is necessary.
70
As it can be observed, introducing this effect creates an instability in the behavior of the
properties. As the theory predicted, the friction forces move the sonic section upstream,
provoking a shock in the middle of the nozzle that Matlab traduces as a non-convergence.
Besides, it can be appreciated that now the properties are not constant along the propel-
lant tube, and they increase or decrease linearly.
Since the objective is to find the initial conditions with which the flow will reach mach
number equal to unity at the exit section, a manual iterative procedure is followed:
The initial velocity of the flow is lowered until the sonic region is displaced to the outlet
section. However, since the continuity equation must be constant at any time, the density
must be varied according to the change of velocity to keep the mass flow constant:
ṁ = ρAV (51)
Since the Area is the same for all the cases, it can be written that:
ρV = constant (52)
Apart from changing the density, it is also necessary to adjust the rest of properties of the
flow. To calculate the pressure, the static temperature is computed at the entrance with
the following formula:
κ − 1 2
Tt = T 1 + M (53)
2
Once the temperature is known, the injection pressure can be computed with the equation
of state:
p = ρRT (54)
71
Therefore, for this case it was found that the necessary inlet conditions were:
V = 12.885m/s
p = 2.613bar
considering the change in Area and the frictional effects when the flow enters at 298 K
and 12.885 m/s.
72
The previous graphs show the result of applying the iteration to obtain the suitable con-
ditions for reaching sonic conditions at the exit of the nozzle. As it can be observed, the
pressure and the density decrease linearly as the flow goes through the propellant block.
Still, the temperature remains constant in this section since any effect considering the
addition of heat is included in this part.
5.5.3 Change in Area and Mass Addition
Immediately, the case in which only the changes in area and the addition of mass from
the walls is going to be analyzed. The procedure is going to be the same: the calculations
are going to be performed in the same conditions as in the first case (only area affects,
inlet temperature of 298 K, inlet pressure of 3 bar and inlet velocity of 24.65 m/s), and
then the procedure will be iterated until the desired initial conditions that gives us sonic
conditions at the exit are found.
In this case the solution is:
V = 0.00828m/s
p = 1.874bar
As it can be noticed, the velocity has to be decreased much more than in the previous
case. This is because the contribution of the mass flow in the equations that are being
integrated is much higher than the one offered by the friction forces, which appear only
in a single term in two of the equations.
Due to this high contribution, the sonic region is significantly displaced to the inlet part,
so a higher variation in the initial conditions must be done to compensate this effects and
to finally obtain the desired performance.
the flow is going to be performed in the same conditions as the first case (only area effects,
inlet temperature of 298 K, inlet velocity of 26 m/s) and the changes with respect to it
are going to be interpreted.
73
Figure 38: Distribution of the variables V , ρ, p and T over the position considering the
change in Area and the mass addition from the walls when the flow enters at 298 K.
As in the previous case, the variation of the properties is weak along the propellant tube
and it increases or decreases exponentially in the nozzle part. The temperature is still
constant in the propellant tube since the addition of heat is not being considered yet.
74
5.5.4 General Case
In this last case all the effects are considered: change in area, heat and mass addition ans
rejection from and to the walls and frictional effects.
As it could be expected, the addition of all the effects causes a further displacement of
the sonic area upstream. This is traduced in a higher necessity in compensating this
consequence by changing even more the inlet conditions.
After several iterations, it was obtained that the required initial velocity and pressure to
reach sonic conditions in the final section would be:
V = 0.001788m/s
p = 1.628bar
The distribution of all the properties for this case is shown below:
75
Figure 39: Distribution of the variables V , ρ, p and T over the position for a general case
where all the effects are considered.
As it can be observed in the graphs, the variation of all the properties in this general case
is higher than in the previous cases:
The velocity increases slightly as the flow passes through the propellant tube and at the
point where the contraction of the nozzle starts it increases rapidly until a value that
equals M=1.
On the other hand, the density decreases rapidly in the first part of the duct and then it
remains almost constant until the end of the nozzle.
The pressure, however, decreases slowly in the propellant tube until, in the nozzle part, it
suffers from an abrupt decrease.
Finally, the temperature is the one that changes the most compared to the previous cases,
since in this last general case the addition and rejection of heat from and to the walls is
being considered. As it can be observed, it increases exponentially during the first part
and then it continues rising slowly until it reaches a maximum that corresponds approxi-
mately with the adiabatic flame temperature of the PMMA (2470 K).
76
5.6 Discussion of the mathematical model
From the cases analyzed above it can be conclude that considering effects such as the
heat and mass addition or the frictional effects provokes a significant displacement of the
sonic section towards the entrance of the duct. In order to compensate it, it is necessary
to iterate the calculations until the initial conditions are adjusted to those that give exit
Mach number equal to unity. To do it, the velocity is changed to the desired value and
then the rest of the properties are calculated from this result.
Also, it has been observed that the more effects being considered, the higher is the shift
of the sonic region upstream and the higher changes in the inlet conditions are needed.
Even though the model could have been used to compute the thrust given by the rocket,
since all the data necessary to do it is known, it has not been done since the interest
of making these calculations would be comparing them to the results obtained from the
experimental tests. Nevertheless, at it was already said, due to the problems associated
to the load cell it was not possible to obtain feasible results of the thrust provided by
the rocket, so there is no possibility of comparing the analytic and experimental results
anymore.
77
6 Conclusions and future work
The present work describes the construction of an upgraded hybrid rocket and the devel-
opment of a one-dimensional mathematical model that describes its behavior.
As it has been explained, the whole rocket has been redesigned in order to provide a new
injection system to make it safer and a renewed thrust measurement system.
Concerning the injection system, further improvements have been made, since now three
different gases can be introduced on the rocket. This allows a wider range of experiments
that can be achieved by changing the proportion in which the gases are combined or even
the gases that we want to use for the experiment.
However, the current gas installation does not allow a good control of the pressure at
which the gases are injected, so that it is difficult to predict the mass flow rate of gases
going into the hybrid rocket model. This is one of the parts that is going to remain as an
objective for further improvements in the project since this improvement would lead to
better measurements and calculations of the performance of the rocket.
Also, a new ignition system which consists of a glow plug installed in the upper part of
the rocket was made. The glow plug is powered by applying some voltage to it, and when
its igniting head gets in contact with the gases, the combustion starts. Thanks to this
new system, the previous method used to ignited the rocket (a person had to stand in the
ignition room and the combustion started when a match was introduced through the exit
orifice of the model) has been eliminated, making the model safer.
The last main objective of the project concerning the geometry of the rocket model was
the installation of a new thrust measurement system which consists on a load cell placed
upstream, in contact with the external face of the thruster. However, it was not possible
to obtain feasible measurements from this system since the outputs coming from the cell
would not give any information (the output voltage during the ignition was almost the
same as the one given when the rocket is at rest).
78
For this reason, the improving of this system is going to remain as an important objective
for the future work. Also, a new acquisition data can be created by programming a
DAQ system that automatically traduces the output voltage into a force so that the
thrust produced by the rocket can be known immediately without needing intermediate
computations.
The second part of the project consisted on the implementation of a one-dimensional

mathematical model to predict the behavior of the rocket. The four equations that give us
the characteristics of the flow (mass conservation equation, momentum equation, energy
equation and the equation of state) were integrated with Matlab, so that the properties
of the flow (temperature, velocity, pressure and density) could be known at any point of
the duct.
Reasonable results have been obtained from it, and thanks to the model, the performance
of the rocket can be known. However, the model can still be improved by making a
two-dimensional model that simulates better the real performance of the rocket.
Also the hypotheses that have been made to establish the inputs of the model can be
further developed to obtain more realistic results, so that the analytic results are as similar
to the real behavior of the rocket as possible.
In future projects, combining the improvements related to the mechanical part and the
ones concerning the mathematical model, the measurements taken from both methods can
be compared and studied.
79
7 Cost analysis of work done
The budget for this project is the following:
Equipment Cost
Product Description Unitary Cost Number of Units Total Cost
Grooving Tool 39.93 e 2 79.86 e
Annular Broach for Steel 119.55 e 1 119.55 e
Inox Bar 1.4307 3.612 e/Kg + 45.254 e 62.6 271.35 e
Glow Plug Tap 70.66 e 1 70.66 e
Glow Plugs 6e 5 30 e
Load Cell 84.87 e 1 84.87 e
Subtotal 656.29 e
Table 13: Budget of the Equipment
Personnel Cost
Approximate cost per hour Days of work Work-hours Total Cost
41 e/h 11 days 3 hrs/day 1353 e
Table 14: Budget of the Personnel
The total budget for the project is 2009.29 e
80
References
[1] George P. Sutton, Oscar Biblarz Rocket Propulsion Elements, 8th Edition. John Wiley
and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2010.
[2] Space Propulsion Group, Inc.

http://www.spg-corp.com/space-propulsion-group-resources.html
[3] Walter E. Hammond. Design Methodologies for Space Transportation System. Amer-
ican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics AIAA Education Series, Reston, Vir-
ginia, 1947.
[4] A. Karabeyoglu. Advanced Rocket Propulsion Course Lecture 10: Hybrid Rocket
Propulsion Design Issues. Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford Uni-
versity, 2012.
[5] B. Geneviève, Michael J. Brooks, Jean-François P. Pitot de la Beaujardiere, Lance

W. Roberts. Performance Modeling of a Paraffin Wax / Nitrous Oxide Hybrid Rocket
Motor. 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum
and Aerospace Exposition, Orlando, Florida, 2011.
[6] Pierre-Jean Bristeau, Nicolas Petit. Trajectory estimation for a hybrid rocket. Cen-
tre Automatique et Systèmes, Unité Mathématiques et Systèmes, Mines ParisTech,
Paris, France. AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, 10-13 August
2009, Chicago, Illinois.
[7] Stephen R. Turns An introduction to combustion : concepts and applications, 3rd

Edition. McGraw Hill, New York, 2011.
[8] Ascher H. Shapiro The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
Vol I. The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1953.
[9] Ascher H. Shapiro The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
Vol II. The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1954.
81
[10] W. R. Zeng, S.F. Li, W.K. Chow Review on Chemical Reactions of Burning
Poly(methyl methacrylate) PMMA. Journal of Fire Sciences, Vol 20, September 2002.
[11] V. Mittal. Functional Polymer Blends: Synthesis, Properties, and Performance, 0th
Edition CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2012.
[12] Matbase:
http://www.matbase.com/material-categories/natural-and-synthetic
-polymers/commodity-polymers/material-properties-of-polymethyl-
methacrylate-extruded-acrylic-pmma.html#manufacturing-properties
[13] Brian T. Rhodes. Burning Rate and Flame Heat Flux for PMMA in the Cone
Calorimeter. University of Maryland, May 1994.
[14] National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST.

http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Source=1952ERD%2FJGE770&Units=
&Mask=28F
[15] Pedro P. de Oliveira Alcarria Guerreiro. Preliminary Study of a Hybrid Rocket. Master
of Science Degree in Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico Lisboa, May
2013.
[16] Mohamad Khattab. Innovative Solid Fuels for Hybrid Rocket Propulsion. Corso di
Laurea Specialistica in Ingegneria Aeronautica, Facoltà di Ingegneria Industriale, Po-
litecnico Di Milano, 2010-2011.
[17] G. J. Van Wylen, R. E. Sonntag. Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 2nd

Edition. John Wiley and Sons, 1978.
[18] Christopher E. Brennen. Fundamentals of Multiphase Flows. California Institute of

Technology Pasadena, Cambridge University Press, California, 2005.
82
[19] Francesco Barato. Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Hybrid Rocket Motors
Transient Behavior. Scuola di Dottorato di Ricerca in Scienze Tecnologie e Misure
Spaziali Indirizzo di Astronautica e Scienze da Satellite, Universita Degli Studi di
Padova, January 2013.
[20] Tomasso Astarita. Corso di Complimenti di Gasdinamica. Università degli Studi di

Napoli Federico II, Napoli, 2014.
www.docenti.unina.it
[21] Maurice J. Zucrow, Joe D. Hoffman. Gas Dynamics, Vol I. John Wiley and Sons,
1976.
[22] Maurice J. Zucrow, Joe D. Hoffman. Gas Dynamics, Vol II. John Wiley and Sons,
1976.
[23] Altman, D., A. Holzman, Overview and History of Hybrid Rocket Propulsion, Fun-
damentals of Hybrid Rocket Combustion and Propulsion, Vol. 218, Edited by M. J.
Chiaverini, and K. K. Kuo. Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, AIAA, Reston,
VA, 2007.
[24] American National Standards Letter Symbols for Rocket Propulsion. ASME Publica-
tions, 1959.
[25] P. G. Hill, C. R. Peterson, Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion. Addison-

Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1992.
[26] H. R. Lips. Experimental Investigation of Hybrid Rocket Engines Using Highly Alu-
minized Fuels. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 12, No. 9, 1999.
[27] Delft University of Technology:

http://www.lr.tudelft.nl/en/organisation/departments/space-engineering/
space-systems-engineering/expertise-areas/space-propulsion/design-of-
elements/rocket-propellants/thermal/
83
[28] Greg Zilliac. Hybrid Rocket Propulsion: Past, Present, and Future.Presentation,
November 2010.
[29] Air Liquide:

http://encyclopedia.airliquide.com/encyclopedia.asp?GasID=26&LanguageID=9
&CountryID=19
[30] The Engineering Toolbox:

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
[31] M. A. Karabeyoglu, D. Altman, D. Bershader. Transient Combustion in Hybris Rock-

ets 31st AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference, San Diego, California, 1995.
[32] B. Greiner, R. Federick. Results of Labscale Hybrid Rocket Motor Investigation, Paper
92-3301. 28th AIAA Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Nashville, Tennessee, 1992.
[33] G. Zilliac, M. A. Karabeyoglu. Hybrid Rocket Fuel Regression Rate Data and Mod-
eling. 42nd AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Sacramento, California,
2006.
[34] R. C. Reid, J. M. Prausnitz, T. K. Sherwood. The Properties of Gases and Liquids,

3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977.
[35] C. Huggett. Estimation of Rate of Heat Release by Means of Oxygen Consumption

Measurements. Fire and Materials, 4(2): 61-65, 1980.
[36] Richard Nakka’s Experimental Rocketry Web Site:

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/burnrate.html
[37] Altman, A. Holzman. Fundamentals of Hybrid Rocket Combustion and Propulsion,

Vol. 218, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics. AIAA, Reston, Virginia, 2001.
84
[38] Web QC, Chemical Portal

http://www.webqc.org/mmcalc.php
[39] Electronics
https://electronicspani.com/voltage-source-and-current-source/
[40] Isaac T. Leventon, Evolution of Flame to Surface Heat Flux During Upward Flame
Spread on Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA). Graduate School of the University of
Maryland, Master of Science, 2011.
85
Annex I: Part 1 - Plan
86
Annex II: Part 2 - Plan
87
Annex III: Part 3 - Plan
88
Annex IV: Part 4 - Plan
89
Annex V: Part 5 - Plan
90
Annex VI: Part 6 - Plan
91
Annex VII: Graphite Mouthpiece - Plan
92
Annex VIII: Graphite Nozzle - Plan
93
Annex IX: Load Cell User Guide
94
95
96
97
Annex X: Combustion of PMMA
First of all, the temperature is increased by an external heat source to the point where
the chemical bonds begin to break, generating monomers[10]. After this, the resulting
products undergo combustion. This is the gas-phase oxidation.
Thermal Decomposition
PMMA can be synthesized in two different ways. Depending on this, it can be obtained
radically polymerized PMMA of anionically polymerized PMMA.[10]
Radically polymerized PMMA decomposes at a lower temperature, approximately 493 K,

since it has unsaturated groups at its ends, which make it more unstable. [14]
On the other side, anionically polymerized PMMA is thermally more stable. It decom-
poses at 573 K approximately.[10]
Thermally Oxidative Decomposition
The reaction between oxygen and poly(methyl methacrylate) is very complex. Its dy-
namics and mechanisms depend on many other variables apart from the nature of the
components, like the physical characteristics of the surroundings, the heating source and
the position and size of the particles.
In contact with oxygen, PMMA goes through a thermal oxidative decomposition that is
a consequence of the reaction of the oxygen with macro-radicals, forming hydro-peroxides
which are very unstable and decompose quickly into free radicals. However, the main
product of this decomposition is MMA, the monomer of PMMA. [10]
This decomposition occurs at approximately 533 K and involves the following steps:
98
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
R + C CH2 C CH2 −→ RH + C CH C CH2
COOCH3 COOCH3 COOCH3 COOCH3

(R1 )
Where R is a free radical that acts as an initiator.
R1 + O2 −→ ROO
ROOH −→ RO + OH
2RO + O2
H3 C O CH3 H3 C O CH3
C CH C CH2 −→ C CH + C CH2

(R2 ) (R3 )
The next step is the decomposition of radical R3 :
H3 C CH3 H3 C O CH3
C CH2 C CHO −→ C CH + C CH2

(R3 ) (R4 )
By rearrangement of the radical 4 with H, 2-methyl-oxirane carbonic acid methyl ester is

generated:
99
O O
O O
R4 + H2 C C C OCH3 + RH −→ HC C C OCH3 + R
CH3 CH3
(I)
The next steps consist on the generation of methyl piruvate (II):
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
C CH2 C CH2 −→ C CH2 + C CH2

(R5 ) (R6 )
CH3 CH3 CH3
O2 + R6 −→ O O C CH2 C CH2 −→ O C CH2
COOCH3 COOCH3 COOCH3

(R7 ) (R8 )
CH3 CH3
R8 −→ C O + CH2 C CH2
COOCH3 COOCH3
(II)
CH3
CH2 C C CH2 COOCH3 −→ CH2 C CH2 COOCH3
COOCH3 COOCH3
(III)
100
Te stabilizing effect of the oxygen is shown in the following reaction:
CH3 CH3
R CH2 C + O2 −→ R CH2 C O O
COOCH3 CO2 CH3

R’ R”
The radical R”, due to its thermally stability, inhibits the decomposition of PMMA.
As it can be observed in the reactions above, the decomposition of the radical R4 will lead
to the formation of 2-Methyl-oxirane carbonic acid methyl ester. In the following step,
methyl piruvate will be produced, while the radical R8 will generate methyl pyruvate[10].
At a low temperature, oxygen will act as an stabilizer in the reaction. Nevertheless, it

will intensify random scissions and it will increase the rate of decomposition at higher
temperatures.
101
Decomposition of Monomer MMA
As it was already said, MMA is the main product of the decomposition of poly(methyl
methacrylate). This monomer, as the reaction continues, will decompose into smaller
products that can undergo combustion.
This gas-phase process involves two rupture paths: one of them consists of the C-O bond
breaking reaction, and the other one corresponds to decarboxylations.
The decomposition process of MMA combined with oxygen leads to the formation of
CH3 OH, CH4 , 2-methyl propylene, propylene, formaldehyde, methyl pyruvate and ace-
tone. The reaction mechanisms are the following:
First, the monomer MMA decomposes into the radicals R1 and R2
CH3 O
CH2 C −→ CH2 C CH3 + C OCH3
COOCH3
R1 R2
Then R2 continues to break to give carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide:
C OCH3 −→ CO + OCH3
C OCH3 −→ CO2 + CH3
OCH3 + H −→ CH3 OH
102
CH3 + H −→ CH4
On the other hand, R1 will react with H and methyl to produce propylene and 2-methyl
propylene respectively:
CH2 C CH3 + H −→ CH2 CH CH3
CH3
CH2 C CH3 + CH3 −→ CH2 C CH3
Right after, propylene is combined with oxygen to produce acetone:
O
O
CH2 CH CH3 + O2 −→ H2 C CH CH3 −→ CH3 C CH3
CH2 CH CH3 + H2 O −→ CH2 CH CH3 −→ CH3 C CH3
OH OH
In the last part of the process, methyl pyruvate and formaldehyde will be produced. First,
MMA reacts with oxygen to produce the radicals R3 and R4 , and then these radicals will
dehydrate to generate methyl pyruvate and formaldehyde:
CH3 OH
CH2 C −→ HO CH2 OH + HO C CH3
COOCH3 COOCH3
R3 R4
103
C
HO CH2 OH −→ H C H + H2 O
OH O
HO C CH3 −→ C CH3 + H2 O
COOCH3 COOCH3
O O
C CH3 −→ CH3 C CH3 + CO2
COOCH3
Finally, the reaction of combustion of the small products can be written as:
X + O2 −−→ CO + CO2 + H2 O
Where X corresponds to methane, formaldehyde, methanol, propylene, acetone, etc.
104

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN UPGRADED HYBRID ROCKET

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Bachelor Thesis

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN UPGRADED

Also, a mathematical one-dimensional model has been implemented in order to predict

List of Figures vii

2 Hybrid rockets generalities 7

3 Hybrid rocket design and construction 21

4 Experimental characterization and discussion 40

6 Conclusions and future work 78

7 Cost analysis of work done 80

Annex I: Part 1 - Plan 86

Annex II: Part 2 - Plan 87

Annex III: Part 3 - Plan 88

Annex IV: Part 4 - Plan 89

Annex V: Part 5 - Plan 90

Annex VI: Part 6 - Plan 91

Annex VIII: Graphite Nozzle - Plan 93

Annex IX: Load Cell User Guide 94

Annex X: Combustion of PMMA 98

1 Dimensions of Combustion Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

• A completely new gas installation in the laboratory.

• Improved thrust measurement system by introducing a load cell in the model.

Apart from the experimental measurements, it is interesting to develop a mathematical

1.1 The hybrid rocket at UC3M

1.2 Objectives of this project

1.3 Structure of this report

2 Hybrid rockets generalities

Figure 1: Rocket launching.

Figure 2: General scheme of a Hybrid Rocket

2.1 Applications of hybrid rockets and propellants used

Some examples of applications of hybrid rockets are:

• Target missiles and low-cost tactical missile applications.[37]

• Reinforcement for the main thrust in the space vehicles launching.

• High-energy combinations include the use of oxidizers such as fluorine/liquid oxygen

2.2 Main advantages and disadvantages

In first place, the advantages of this kind of motors will be exposed:

- The combination oxidizer-propellant. With a hybrid rocket we can access to

- The shut-down or restart capability: the hypergolic ignition can be achieved

• A higher specific impulse is achieved with hybrid rockets[1].

• Unproven propulsion system feasibility at large scale.

2.3 Fuel grain configuration and performance analysis

The characteristic velocity of the rocket is settled by determining an specific oxidizer-

The performance of hybrid rockets can be considered as a combination of that of solid

where a and n are empirical coefficients obtained experimentally.

G0.8  µ 0.2 0.23

2.4 Definitions and fundamentals of space propulsion

As it was mentioned before, propulsion in space vehicles is achieved by accelerating the

F = ṁv2 + (p2 − p3 )A2 (4)

The notation used is described in the following scheme:

Figure 5: Scheme of an isentropic nozzle. Notation: 0 - Stagnation conditions, 1 - Chamber

Effective exhaust velocity, c

The characteristic velocity, represented as c∗ is given by the following expression:

Specific Impulse, Isp

3 Hybrid rocket design and construction

3.1 Design requirements

The main requirements that the rocket has to accomplish are:

• It must offer a measurement of the thrust produced by the rocket.

• The safety must be improved with respect to the previous model.

3.2 Description and schematics of parts and components

Figure 6: Computer-Aided Design CAD of the Rocket

Figure 7: Scheme of the Rocket

G0.8 µ 0.2 0.23