1

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

1.2
MATHEMATICAL MODELS:
A CATALOG OF
ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS

In this section, we will learn about:

The purpose of mathematical models.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

A mathematical model is a mathematical

description—often by means of a function
or an equation—of a real-world phenomenon
such as:
 Size of a population
 Demand for a product
 Speed of a falling object
 Life expectancy of a person at birth
 Cost of emission reductions
PURPOSE

The purpose of the model is to

understand the phenomenon and,
perhaps, to make predictions about
future behavior.
PROCESS

The figure illustrates

the process of mathematical
modeling.
STAGE 1

Given a real-world problem, our first

task is to formulate a mathematical
model.
 We do this by identifying and naming the
independent and dependent variables and
making assumptions that simplify the phenomenon
enough to make it mathematically tractable.
STAGE 1

We use our knowledge of the physical

situation and our mathematical skills to
obtain equations that relate the variables.
 In situations where there is no physical law to
guide us, we may need to collect data—from a
library, the Internet, or by conducting our own
experiments—and examine the data in the form
of a table in order to discern patterns.
STAGE 1

From this numerical representation

of a function, we may wish to obtain
a graphical representation by plotting
the data.
 In some cases, the graph might even suggest
a suitable algebraic formula.
STAGE 2

The second stage is to apply the mathematics

that we know—such as the calculus that
will be developed throughout this book—to
the model that we have formulated in order to
derive mathematical conclusions.
STAGE 3

In the third stage, we take those conclusions

and interpret them as information about the
original real-world phenomenon—by way of
offering explanations or making predictions.
STAGE 4

The final step is to test our predictions

by checking against new real data.
 If the predictions don’t compare well with reality,
we need to refine our model or to formulate
a new model and start the cycle again.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

A mathematical model is never a

completely accurate representation of a
physical situation—it is an idealization.
 A good model simplifies reality enough to permit
mathematical calculations, but is accurate enough
to provide valuable conclusions.
 It is important to realize the limitations of the model.
 In the end, God has the final say.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS

There are many different types of

functions that can be used to model
relationships observed in the real world.
 In what follows, we discuss the behavior and
graphs of these functions and give examples
of situations appropriately modeled by such
functions.
LINEAR MODELS

When we say that y is a linear

function of x, we mean that the graph
of the function is a line.
 So, we can use the slope-intercept form of
the equation of a line to write a formula for
the function as
y  f ( x)  mx  b
where m is the slope of the line and b is
the y-intercept.
LINEAR MODELS

A characteristic feature of
linear functions is that they grow
at a constant rate.
LINEAR MODELS

For instance, the figure shows a graph

of the linear function f(x) = 3x - 2 and
a table of sample values.
 Notice that, whenever x increases by 0.1,
the value of f(x) increases by 0.3.
 So, f (x) increases three times as fast as x.
LINEAR MODELS

 Thus, the slope of the graph y = 3x - 2,

namely 3, can be interpreted as the rate
of change of y with respect to x.
LINEAR MODELS Example 1

As dry air moves upward, it expands

and cools.
 If the ground temperature is 20°C and the
temperature at a height of 1 km is 10°C,
express the temperature T (in °C) as a function
of the height h (in kilometers), assuming that
a linear model is appropriate.

 Draw the graph of the function in part (a).

What does the slope represent?

 What is the temperature at a height of 2.5 km?

LINEAR MODELS Example 1 a

As we are assuming that T is a linear

function of h, we can write T = mh + b.
 We are given that T = 20 when h = 0,
so 20 = m . 0 + b = b.
 In other words, the y-intercept is b = 20.
 We are also given that T = 10 when h = 1,
so 10 = m . 1 + 20
 Thus, the slope of the line is m = 10 – 20 = -10.
 The required linear function is T = -10h + 20.
LINEAR MODELS Example 1 b

The slope is m = -10°C/km.

This represents the rate of change of
temperature with respect to height.
LINEAR MODELS Example 1 c

At a height of h = 2.5 km,

the temperature is:
T = -10(2.5) + 20 = -5°C.
EMPIRICAL MODEL

If there is no physical law or principle to

help us formulate a model, we construct
an empirical model.
 This is based entirely on collected data.
 We seek a curve that ‘fits’ the data in the sense
that it captures the basic trend of the data points.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

The table lists the average carbon dioxide

(CO2) level in the atmosphere, measured in
parts per million at Mauna Loa Observatory
from 1980 to 2002.
Use the data to find a model for the CO2 level.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

We use the data in the table to make

the scatter plot shown in the figure.
 In the plot, t represents time (in years) and C
represents the CO2 level (in parts per million, ppm).
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

Notice that the data points appear

to lie close to a straight line.
 So, in this case, it’s natural to choose
a linear model.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

However, there are many possible

lines that approximate these data points.
 So, which one should we use?
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

One possibility is the line that

passes through the first and last
data points.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

The slope of this line is:

372.9  338.7 34.2
  1.5545
2002  1980 22
LINEAR MODELS E.g. 2—Equation 1

The equation of the line is:

C - 338.7 = 1.5545(t -1980)
or C = 1.5545t - 2739.21
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

This equation gives one possible linear

model for the CO2 level.
It is graphed in the figure.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

Although our model fits the data

reasonably well, it gives values higher
than most of the actual CO2 levels.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

A better linear model is obtained

by a procedure from statistics called
linear regression.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

If we use a graphing calculator, we enter

the data from the table into the data editor
and choose the linear regression command.
 With Maple, we use the fit[leastsquare] command
in the stats package.
 With Mathematica, we use the Fit command.
LINEAR MODELS E. g. 2—Equation 2

The machine gives the slope and y-intercept

of the regression line as:
m = 1.55192 b = -2734.55

So, our least squares model for the level

CO2 is:
C = 1.55192t - 2734.55
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

In the figure, we graph the

regression line as well as the
data points.
LINEAR MODELS Example 2

Comparing with the earlier figure,

we see that it gives a better fit than
our previous linear model.
POLYNOMIALS

A function P is called a polynomial if

P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and

the numbers a0, a1, a2, …, an are constants
called the coefficients of the polynomial.
POLYNOMIALS

The domain of any polynomial is °  (,).

If the leading coefficient an  0, then

the degree of the polynomial is n.
 For example, the function
2 3
P( x)  2 x  x  x  2
6 4

5
is a polynomial of degree 6.
DEGREE 1

A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form

P(x) = mx + b

So, it is a linear function.

DEGREE 2

A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form

P(x) = ax2 + bx + c

It is called a quadratic function.

DEGREE 2

Its graph is always a parabola obtained

by shifting the parabola y = x2.
 The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and
downward if a < 0.
DEGREE 3

A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form

P( x)  ax  bx  cx  d
3 2
(a  0)

It is called a cubic function.

DEGREES 4 AND 5

The figures show the graphs of

polynomials of degrees 4 and 5.
POLYNOMIALS

We will see later why these three graphs

have these shapes.
POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials are commonly used to

model various quantities that occur
in the natural and social sciences.
 For instance, in Section 3.7, we will explain
why economists often use a polynomial P(x)
to represent the cost of producing x units of
a commodity.
 In the following example, we use a quadratic
function to model the fall of a ball.
POLYNOMIALS Example 4

A ball is dropped from the upper observation

deck of the CN Tower—450 m above the
ground—and its height h above the ground is
recorded at 1-second intervals.
 Find a model to fit the data
and use the model to predict
the time at which the ball
hits the ground.
POLYNOMIALS Example 4

We draw a scatter plot of the data.

We observe that a linear model is
inappropriate.
POLYNOMIALS Example 4

However, it looks as if the data points

might lie on a parabola.
 So, we try a quadratic model instead.
POLYNOMIALS E. g. 4—Equation 3

Using a graphing calculator or computer

algebra system (which uses the least squares
method), we obtain the following quadratic
model:
h = 449.36 + 0.96t - 4.90t2
POLYNOMIALS Example 4

We plot the graph of Equation 3 together

with the data points.

We see that the quadratic model gives

a very good fit.
POLYNOMIALS Example 4

The ball hits the ground when h = 0.

So, we solve the quadratic equation

-4.90t2 + 0.96t + 449.36 = 0
POLYNOMIALS Example 4

The quadratic formula gives

0.96  (0.96) 2  4(4.90)(449.36)
t
2(4.90)

 The positive root is

t  9.67
 So, we predict the ball
will hit the ground after
about 9.7 seconds.
POWER FUNCTIONS

A function of the form f(x) = xa,

where a is constant, is called a
power function.

 We consider several cases.

CASE 1

a = n, where n is a positive integer

 The graphs of f(x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
are shown.
 These are polynomials with only one term.
CASE 1

 We already know the shape of the graphs

of y = x (a line through the origin with
slope 1) and y = x2 (a parabola).
CASE 1

The general shape of the graph

of f(x) = xn depends on whether n
is even or odd.
CASE 1

If n is even, then f(x) = xn is an even

function, and its graph is similar to
the parabola y = x2.
CASE 1

If n is odd, then f(x) = xn is an odd

function, and its graph is similar to
that of y = x3.
CASE 1

However, notice from the figure that, as n

increases, the graph of y = xn becomes flatter
near 0 and steeper when | x | 1 .
 If x is small, then x2 is smaller, x3 is even smaller,
x4 is smaller still, and so on.
CASE 2

a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer

 The function f ( x )  x  n x is a root function.

1/ n

 For n = 2, it is the square root function f ( x)  x ,

whose domain is [0, ) and whose graph is
the upper half of the parabola x = y2.
 For other even values
of n, the graph of
y  n x is similar to
that of y  x .
CASE 2

For n = 3, we have the cube root function

f ( x)  x whose domain is (recall that every
3

real number has a cube root) and whose

graph is shown.
 The graph of y  n x for n odd (n > 3) is similar
to that of y  3 x .
CASE 3

a = -1
 The graph of the reciprocal function f(x) = x-1 = 1/x
is shown.
 Its graph has the equation y = 1/x, or xy = 1.
 It is a hyperbola with
the coordinate axes as
its asymptotes.
CASE 3

This function arises in physics and chemistry

in connection with Boyle’s Law, which states
that, when the temperature is constant, the
volume V of a gas is inversely proportional
to the pressure P.
C
V 
P
where C is a constant.
CASE 3

So, the graph of V as a function of P

has the same general shape as the right
half of the previous figure.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A rational function f is a ratio of two

polynomials P( x)
f ( x) 
Q( x)
where P and Q are polynomials.
 The domain consists of all values of x
such that Q( x)  0 .
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A simple example of a rational function

is the function f(x) = 1/x, whose domain
is  x | x  0.
 This is the reciprocal function
graphed in the figure.
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

The function f ( x)  2 x  x  1
4 2

x 4
2

is a rational function with domain

x | x  2 .
 Its graph is shown here.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

A function f is called an algebraic function

if it can be constructed using algebraic
operations—such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and taking roots—
starting with polynomials.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

Any rational function is automatically

an algebraic function.

Here are two more examples:

f ( x)  x  12

x  16 x
4 2
g ( x)  ( x  2) 3 x  1
x x
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

When we sketch algebraic functions

in Chapter 4, we will see that their graphs
can assume a variety of shapes.
 The figure illustrates some of the possibilities.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

An example of an algebraic function

occurs in the theory of relativity.

 The mass of a particle with velocity v is

m0
m  f (v ) 
v2
1 2
c

where m0 is the rest mass of the particle and

c = 3.0 x 105 km/s is the speed of light in a vacuum.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In calculus, the convention is that radian

measure is always used (except when
otherwise indicated).
 For example, when we use the function f(x) = sin x,
it is understood that sin x means the sine of the
angle whose radian measure is x.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

 Thus, the graphs of the sine

and cosine functions are as shown
in the figure.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Notice that, for both the sine and cosine

functions, the domain is (, ) and the range
is the closed interval [-1, 1].
 Thus, for all values of x, we have:
1  sin x  1  1  cos x  1
 In terms of absolute values, it is: | sin x | 1 | cos x | 1
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Also, the zeros of the sine function

occur at the integer multiples of  .
That is, sin x = 0 when x = n  ,
n an integer.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

An important property of the sine and

cosine functions is that they are periodic
functions and have a period 2.
 This means that, for all values of x,
sin( x  2 )  sin x cos( x  2 )  cos x
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The periodic nature of these functions

makes them suitable for modeling
repetitive phenomena such as tides,
vibrating springs, and sound waves.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

For instance, in Example 4 in Section 1.3,

we will see that a reasonable model for
the number of hours of daylight in Philadelphia
t days after January 1 is given by the function:

 2 
L(t )  12  2.8sin  (t  80) 
 365 
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The tangent function is related to

the sine and cosine functions by
sin x
the equation tan x 
cos x

Its graph is shown.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The tangent function is undefined whenever


cos x = 0, that is, when x   ,  3
,   
2 2
Its range is (, ) .

 Notice that the tangent

function has period  :
tan( x   )  tan x for all x.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The remaining three trigonometric

functions—cosecant, secant, and
cotangent—are the reciprocals of
the sine, cosine, and tangent functions.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The exponential functions are the functions

of the form f ( x )  a , where the base a
x

is a positive constant.
 The graphs of y = 2x and y = (0.5)x are shown.
 In both cases, the domain is ( , ) and the range
is (0, ) .
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

We will study exponential functions

in detail in Section 1.5.
 We will see that they are useful for modeling many
natural phenomena—such as population growth
(if a > 1) and radioactive decay (if a < 1).
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The logarithmic functions f ( x)  log a x,

where the base a is a positive constant,
are the inverse functions of the
exponential functions.

 We will study them in Section 1.6.

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The figure shows the graphs of four

logarithmic functions with various bases.
 In each case, the domain is (0, ) , the range is ( , ) ,
and the function increases slowly when x > 1.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Transcendental functions are

those that are not algebraic.
 The set of transcendental functions includes the
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and
logarithmic functions.
 However, it also includes a vast number of other
functions that have never been named.
 In Chapter 11, we will study transcendental functions
that are defined as sums of infinite series.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Example 5

Classify the following functions as

one of the types of functions that
we have discussed.

a. f ( x)  5 x

b. g ( x)  x
5

1 x
c. h( x)  1  x
d. u (t )  1  t  5t 4
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Example 5 a

f(x) = 5x is an exponential
function.
 The x is the exponent.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Example 5 b

g(x) = x5 is a power function.

 The x is the base.

We could also consider it to be

a polynomial of degree 5.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Example 5 c

1 x
h( x ) 
1
x is
an algebraic function.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS Example 5 d

u(t) = 1 – t + 5t4 is
a polynomial of degree 4.