MODULE 2:

CHARACTERISTICS OF
ATMOSPHERE AND ITS EFFECTS
Physical and chemical characteristics of atmosphere,
Biogeochemistry
Atmospheric stability, Temperature profile of the atmosphere,
Temperature inversion effects–Isobaric heating and cooling–
Adiabatic lapse rates
Radiation, convection and advections
Sun & solar radiation–Energy balance–Terrestrial radiation and
the atmosphere.
 ATMOSPHERE

Ancient Greek name “atmos” meaning Vapor, steam etc. “Sphere” means a layer of
The layer of gas or layers of gases envelopes a planet or a celestial body and is held in
place by the gravity of the planetary body.
A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great, and the temperature of the
atmosphere is low
The current composition of the atmosphere of the Earth is the product of billions of years of
biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms
Evolution of the Atmosphere
Atmosphere - Envelope of gases that surrounds the Earth.

Used by life as a reservoir of chemical compounds used in living systems.

Atmosphere has no outer boundary, just fades into space.

Dense part of atmosphere (97% of mass) lies within 30 km of the Earth (so about same

thickness as continental crust).

Chemical Composition Today - Nitrogen (N2)- 78%, Oxygen (O2)- 21%,

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - 0.03 %, plus other miscellaneous gases (H2O for
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
First Atmosphere
Composition - Probably H2, He, (CH4 and NH3)

These gases are relatively rare on Earth compared to other places in the
universe and were probably lost to space early in Earth's history because
Earth's gravity is not strong enough to hold lighter gases
Earth still did not have a differentiated core (solid inner/liquid outer core)
which creates Earth's magnetic field (magnetosphere = Van Allen Belt)
which deflects solar winds.

Once the core differentiated the heavier gases could be retained

Second Atmosphere
Produced by volcanic out gassing.

Gases produced were probably similar to those created by modern volcanoes

(H2O, CO2, SO2, CO, S2, Cl2, N2, H2) and NH3 (ammonia) and CH4 (methane)

No free O2 at this time (not found in volcanic gases).

Ocean Formation - As the Earth cooled, H2O produced by out gassing could
exist as liquid in the Early Archean, allowing oceans to form.

Evidence - pillow basalts, deep marine sediments in greenstone belts.

Addition of O2 to the Atmosphere
Today, the atmosphere is ~21% free oxygen. How did oxygen reach these levels
in the atmosphere?

Oxygen Production
Photochemical dissociation - breakup of water molecules by ultraviolet
Produced O2 levels approx. 1-2% current levels
At these levels O3 (Ozone) can form to shield Earth surface from UV
Photosynthesis - CO2 + H2O + sunlight = organic compounds + O2 -
produced by cyanobacteria, and eventually higher plants - supplied the rest of
O2 to atmosphere. Thus plant populations
Oxygen Consumers

Chemical Weathering - through oxidation of surface

materials (early consumer)

Animal Respiration (much later)

Burning of Fossil Fuels (much, much later)

Oxygen Consumers

Throughout the Archean there was little to no free oxygen in the atmosphere (<1% of

presence levels).

What little was produced by cyanobacteria, was probably consumed by the

weathering process. Once rocks at the surface were sufficiently oxidized, more

oxygen could remain free in the atmosphere.

During the Proterozoic the amount of free O 2 in the atmosphere rose from 1 - 10 %.

Most of this was released by cyanobacteria, which increase in abundance in the

fossil record 2.3 Ga. Present levels of O2 were probably not achieved until ~400 Ma.
Evidence from the Rock Record

Iron (Fe) is extremely reactive with oxygen. If we look at the oxidation

state of Fe in the rock record, we can infer a great deal about atmospheric
evolution.

Archean - Find occurrence of minerals that only form in non-oxidizing

environments in Archean sediments: Pyrite (Fools gold; FeS 2), Uraninite
(UO2). These minerals are easily dissolved out of rocks under present
atmospheric conditions.
Evidence from the Rock Record….

Banded Iron Formation (BIF) - Deep water deposits in which layers of

iron-rich minerals alternate with iron-poor layers, primarily chert.

Iron minerals include iron oxide, iron carbonate, iron silicate, iron sulfide. BIF's
are a major source of iron ore, b/c they contain magnetite (Fe3O4) which has a
higher iron-to-oxygen ratio than hematite.

These are common in rocks 2.0 - 2.8 B.y. old, but do not form today.
Evidence from the Rock Record

Red beds (continental siliciclastic deposits) are never found in

rocks older than 2.3 B. y., but are common during Phanerozoic time.

Red beds are red because of the highly oxidized mineral hematite
(Fe2O3), that probably forms secondarily by oxidation of other Fe
minerals that have accumulated in the sediment.

Conclusion - amount of O2 in the atmosphere has

increased with time.
Biological Evidence

Chemical building blocks of life could not have formed in the presence of

atmospheric oxygen. Chemical reactions that yield amino acids are inhibited by

presence of very small amounts of oxygen.

Oxygen prevents growth of the most primitive living bacteria such as

photosynthetic bacteria, methane-producing bacteria and bacteria that derive

energy from fermentation.

Biological Evidence

Conclusion - Since today's most primitive life forms are anaerobic,

the first forms of cellular life probably had similar metabolisms.

Today these anaerobic life forms are restricted to anoxic (low

oxygen) habitats such as swamps, ponds, and lagoons.

 Making an Atmosphere: Gases and
Gravity

The gravitational attraction between 2 objects depends upon the mass of both objects.
Jupiter has large mass and can hold much lighter gases (H, He)
Earth has less mass than Jupiter and so lost most of its lighter gases, but kept heavier gases
(CO2, O2)
The Moon has too little mass to hold any gases and has no atmosphere.
Permanent vs. Variable Gases :
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
Mass of Earth’s atmosphere : 5.6 *
10 4 tonnes
The constituents that make up this
load is classified into three:
Gases
Water Vapour
Aerosols
Proportions of gases are nearly
uniform over Earth’s surface up to an
altitude of about 80 km
The proportions of water vapours
varies from place to place and time to
time.
The global average of water vapour is
less than 1% and about 90% of
atmospheric moisture lies below an
altitude of 5 km
Aerosols or suspended particles
concentration is as high as 105
particle/cm3
They act as cloud condensation nuclei
WHAT DETERMINES ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION?

Composition of gases on a planet is determined largely by how

easily gases can escape to space
Also depends on the existence of life or geologic processes

For a gas to escape to space, it must reach its “escape

velocity.”
Escape velocity is the speed required to overcome the
gravitational pull of the planet
Molecular velocity is determined by the gas
temperature (or average kinetic energy)
 ESCAPE VELOCITY

Gas is made up of free molecules in constant motion.

Speed of the gas molecules is determined by the
temperature
Temperature determined largely by proximity to the Sun
Escape velocity depends on the gases’ molecular weight
and the planets size
Lighter molecules require less speed to escape
Larger planets have stronger gravitational pull
 RELATIVE PLANET SIZE AND DISTANCE
FROM SUN
Size comparison of planets – larger planets have stronger
gravitational pull
Planets closer to the Sun receive more radiant energy
The required “escape velocity” is
determined planet size
Temperature of gas determined by
distance from sun.
Molecular speed determined by
molecular weight and temperature
Gas lines above the planet will escape
to space.
Gas lines below the planet will remain
in the atmosphere.
i.e. Earth will lose hydrogen but hold
water. Mars will lose water but hold
carbon dioxide.
Layers of the Atmosphere
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
 THE TROPOSPHERE
The layer of greatest interest in pollution control as most
living things exist in this layer
The surface layer up to about 16-18 km at the equator and 8km at the
poles
Heated from below, by ground having absorbed solar energy
Temperature highest near the ground, and falls all the way up to about
30,000 ft
This means the possibility of convection, and therefore weather, as clouds
form from rising air which cools by pressure drop, and clouds dissipate as
air falls and heats.
The rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in Earth's
atmosphere, falls with altitude. Lapse rate arises from the word lapse, in the
sense of a gradual fall.
In dry air, the adiabatic lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km. The decrease in
temperature is called normal environmental lapse rate
 THE STRATOSPHERE
Extends from 16 km to 56 km above sea level
Heated mostly by absorbing UV light from the sun by O3
(ozone), breaking it apart into O2 + O. When they recombine
to make ozone, you get energy release and heating
Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation,
warming it up in the mid-upper parts of the layer. The reason
for the increase in temperatures in the stratosphere with
height relates to the wavelength of the incoming solar energy.
Therefore is hottest at the highest layers, cooler down where
it contacts the cold upper troposphere
At the bottom of the stratosphere, most UV has already been
absorbed higher up, so further heating is very reduced,
hence the temperature vs height is the opposite from the
Troposphere
 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Stability
Several factors influence the stability of the atmosphere:
o Temperature
o How quickly temperature decreases with height determines stability. A slower lapse rate results in a stable
atmosphere. A faster lapse rate makes the atmosphere unstable.
o Wind Speed and Direction
o Winds that change quickly with height cause unstable conditions. Strong vertical wind shear also promotes
instability.
o Moisture
o Higher moisture levels in the lower atmosphere promote instability by enabling convection. Dry air stabilizes
the atmosphere.
o Altitude
o The atmosphere is generally more stable at higher altitudes. This is due to reduced convection and mixing.
The boundary layer near the surface is often unstable.
o Environmental Lapse Rate
o This refers to the actual rate at which the temperature changes with altitude in the atmosphere. When the
environmental lapse rate is steeper than the adiabatic rate, instability is likely to occur.
o Air Mass Characteristics
o The properties of the air mass, such as its temperature and moisture content, influence atmospheric stability.
For instance, a warm and moist air mass is more prone to instability than a cool and dry one.
 Vertical Pressure Profile

Atmospheric pressure
decreases rapidly with
height. Climbing to an
altitude of only 5.5 km
where the pressure is 500
mb, would put you above
one-half of the
atmosphere’s molecules.
 AIR PRESSURE
The weight of the atmosphere pushes down upon
the earth’s surface. The pressure exerted by the
column of air is known as the atmospheric
pressure.

This pressure is commonly measured in terms of

pounds per square inch (psi) or milli meters/inches
of mercury (mm Hg/in Hg).

At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, or

760 mm/Hg.
 THE EQUATION OF STATE (IDEAL GAS LAW)
Pressure = density x temperature x 287 J kg-
1
K-1
[ p = ρTR]

Describes relationships between pressure, temperature,

and density
Pressure proportional to rate of collisions between
molecules and walls

At constant temperatures, an increase in air density will cause a

pressure increase
Add more molecules 🡪 increase density 🡪 increase rate of
collisions 🡪 raise pressure

Under constant density, an increase in temperature will lead to an

increase in pressure
Raise temperature 🡪 increase speed of molecules 🡪 increase rate
of collisions 🡪 raise pressure
 ZONES WITHIN ATMOSPHERE
There are three physiologic subdivisions or “zones” within the physical
divisions of the atmosphere.
These physiologic zones are most closely linked to concerns about
patient care.
The Physiological Zone is between sea level and 10,000 feet above
sea level.

Oxygen levels are sufficient to keep a normal, healthy person fit without the aid
of special protective equipment, despite the fact that barometric pressure drops
by about a third (760 mm/Hg to 523 mm/Hg) at 10,000 feet.

Changes in pressure encountered during ascents or descents in this zone may

produce middle ear or sinus problems.

Exertion, lack of time to adapt and many acute medical problems may cause
additional difficulty at the upper portions of this zone. At the upper region of this
zone, respiration and heart rate increase and vessels dilate in the
attempt to adapt to the decreased atmospheric pressure and
concentration of oxygen.
The Physiologically Deficient Zone is found between
10,000 and 50,000 feet above sea level.
Atmospheric pressure decreases to 10% of sea level (at
50,000 feet pressure equals 87 mm/Hg).

The partial pressure of oxygen is also decreased. This

results in noticeable physical (e.g. trapped bowel gas) and
physiological (e.g. hypoxic) problems.

Supplemental oxygen may be indicated at the lower levels

of this zone, and is definitely indicated as the altitude
increases.
The Space Equivalent Zone lies between 50,000 feet
and the limits of the atmosphere.

This zone is hostile to human life. Exposure at these

altitudes rapidly leads to death in the absence of an
artificial environment.

At 63,000 feet (Armstrong’s Line), pressure decreases to

5% of that at sea level and the boiling point of body
fluids drops to 98.6º F. Above this altitude blood will
“boil” as the gases in it come out of solution.
 TEMPERATURE INVERSION
At times, in troposphere, over specific pockets, the temperature may
increase with elevation in the lower layers of the troposphere. This is called
temperature inversion.
Inversion is of two types: Static and Dynamic
Static temperature inversion occurs when the earth’s surface
becomes colder than the air above and in turn chills the lower layers of the
air.
Common in mid latitudes, especially during winters
Dynamic temperature inversion occurs when two large bodies of
air at different temperatures collide and the colder, denser layer slides below
the warmer, lighter layer.
Commonly occurs in industrial towns located in valleys. The collision
between hot air from chimney stacks and cold mountainous air are quite
common
Temperature inversion is considered as an environmental hazard
NORMAL SITUATION TEMPERATURE INVERSION
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Based on Global Environmental Monitoring systems (GEMS)
those in charge of air pollution control must often compare
measurements of air-contaminants emissions and ambient air
contaminant concentrations with the standards put forth in the
air pollution control regulations.
EPA suggested Particulate fallout or dustfall to be expressed as
mg/cm2
In particulate counting : No of particles/ m3
For suspended particulates and gaseous contaminants :
mass/unit volume eg: μg/m3
μg/m3 = ppm*g mol mass *103/ L/mol
 FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES UNITS
Basic Quantities
Quantity Symbol SI Unit Equivalent Units
Length L Meter (m) 1 m ≈ 3.28 ft
Mass m Kilogram (kg) 1 kg ≈ 2.205 lb
Time t Second (s) 60 s = 1 min
Temperature T Kelvin (K) 273.15K ≈ 0°C = 32°F

Derived Quantities
Area A = L2 Sq meter (m2) 1 m2 ≈ 10.76 ft2
Volume V = L3 Cu meter (m3) 1 m3 ≈ 35.3 ft3
Density r = m/V Kg/m3 1 kg/m3 ≈ 0.06 lb/ft3
Velocity V = L/t m/s 1 m/s ≈ 2.24 mph ≈ 1.94 kt
Acceleration a = V/t m/s2
Force F = m·a Newton (N) 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2
Weight Wt = m·go Newton (N) 1 N ≈ 0.225 lb; go ≈ 9.8 m/s2
 FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Derived Quantities (cont.)
Quantity Symbol SI Unit Equivalent Units
Pressure p = F/a Pascal (Pa)* 1Pa = 10-2 mb = 100 N/m2
1hPa = 1 mb
1013 hPa ≈ 29.92 in Hg
Energy/Heat/ E = F· L Joule (J) 1 J = 1 N-m
Work 1 cal ≈ 4.184 J
(note: 1 cal is the amount of heat needed to raise 1 g of water 1 K)

Power P = E/t Watt (W) 1 W = 1 J/s

Meteorologists tend to use milli-bars (mb ), which are identical equivalent to hecto-Pascals (hPa).

Some Useful Conversions

1 knot (kt) ≈ 1.15 mph ≈ 0.514 m/s
1 inch Mercury (in Hg) ≈ 33.865 mb
Centigrade (Celsius) to Kelvin: Add 273.15 to deg C
Centigrade to Fahrenheit: Multiply by 1.8, then add 32
Fahrenheit to Centigrade: Subtract 32, then multiply by 5/9
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 REVISION FOR CAT 1
1. Elaborate on the reasons causing the effect:
London Smog
Enormous UV radiation on to Earth’s surface through Antartica poles
Noctilucent clouds or Aurora visible in the poles
Ozone hole observed in the Antartica
Ocean acidification
Submerged continents
Fatality at Armstrong line
Earth losing hydrogen and holding water
 REVISION FOR CAT 1
2. Compare and contrast

Vienna convention and Montreal protocol

Montreal and Kyoto protocol
Climate and weather
Troposphere and stratosphere

3. Differentiate between

Atmospheric stability and atmospheric instability.

Global warming and climate change
Atmosphere of Mercury, Venus and Mars
Tropospheric ozone and stratospheric ozone

4. Justify the statement

Greenhouse gases boon or bane

Improper Waste management affects emission of greenhouse gas emission.
Presence of Aerosols: Boon or Bane
Planet size and its magnetic field and gravitational pull decides the composition of its
RADIATION, CONVECTION AND ADVECTIONS
SUN & SOLAR RADIATION–ENERGY
BALANCE–TERRESTRIAL RADIATION AND
THE ATMOSPHERE
 Energy Transfer in the
Atmosphere
Energy from the
Sun
The Sun provides most of Earth's energy.

When Earth receives energy from the Sun, three

different things can happen to that energy.
 Energy Transfer in the
Atmosphere
Energy from the
Sun
Some energy is reflected back
into space by clouds, particles,
and Earth's surface.

Some is absorbed by the

atmosphere or by land and
water on Earth's surface.
 Energy Transfer in the
Atmosphere
Heat
Heat is energy that flows from an object with a higher
temperature to an object with a lower
temperature.

Energy from the Sun reaches Earth's surface and heats it.

Heat then is transferred through the atmosphere in three

ways - radiation, conduction, and convection.
 EARTH’S ENERGY BALANCE
Energy entering top of atmosphere
= Energy leaving top of
atmosphere
Energy entering the Earth’s surface

= Energy leaving Earth’s

surface

Conservation of
Energy
 Energy transmission
THERE ARE THREE MODES OF ENERGY
TRANSMISSION IN THE ATMOSPHERE.
Conduction: the transfer of energy in a substance by means
of molecular excitation without any net external motion.

Convection: the transfer of energy by mass motions within a

fluid or gas, resulting in actual transport of energy.

Radiation: the propagation of electromagnetic waves through

space.
 Energy Transfer in the
Atmosphere
Radiation
Energy from the Sun reaches Earth in the form
of radiant energy, or radiation.

Radiation is energy that is transferred in the

form of rays or waves.

Earth radiates some of the energy it absorbs

from the Sun back toward space.
 Energy Transfer in the
Atmosphere
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy that occurs when molecules bump into
one another.

Molecules in warmer objects move faster than molecules in cooler objects.

When objects are in contact, energy is transferred from warmer objects to

cooler objects.
Conducti
on
 Conduction

Earth’s surface conducts energy directly to the

atmosphere.

As air moves over warm land or water, molecules in

air are heated by direct contact.
Energy Transfer in the
Atmosphere
Convection
Convection is the transfer
of heat by the flow of material.

How does this happen?

Convection circulates heat

throughout the atmosphere.
 Convection

When air is warmed, the molecules in it move apart

and the air becomes less dense.

Air pressure decreases because fewer molecules are

in the same space.

In cold air, molecules move closer together.

 Convection

The air becomes more dense and air pressure

increases.

Cooler, denser air sinks while warmer, less dense

air rises, forming a convection current.
Convection
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Radiation is the transfer of energy by rapid oscillations of electromagnetic

fields.

The most important general characteristic is its wavelength (λ),

Radiation travels through space at the speed of light
(3 x 108 m s-1).
 RADIATION
What emits radiation?
All objects with a temperature greater than 0°K emit some type of radiation
(energy)

Examples:

Radiation laws:
Warmer objects emit more intensely than cold objects. (Stefan-
Boltzmann Law)
Warmer objects emit a higher proportion of their energy at short wavelengths
than cold objects. (Wien’s Law)
Wien’s Law: λ = w / T
λ = maximum wavelength (μm)
w = constant = 0.2897 (μm K)
T= temperature of the object (K)
Stefan-Boltzmann Law: E = σT4

E = radiation emitted (W m-2)

σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.67 x 10-8 (W m-2 K-4)
T= temperature of the object (K)
 SOLAR RADIATION (SUNLIGHT)

Unit: 1 μm =0.000001 m
Sunlight is primarily made up of the
following:
Visible Light (44%)
Infrared Radiation (48%)
Ultraviolet Radiation (7%)
There is a simple relationship between the wavelength (λ), frequency (ν),
and velocity (c). If you know any 2 of them then you can compute the 3rd
using
c=λν
or, velocity (c) equals wavelength (λ) times frequency (ν).
TERRESTRIAL OR LONGWAVE RADIATION

Planets mainly emit Terrestrial

Solar
Radiation
infrared radiation Radiation
(“Longwave”)
(“Shortwave”)
Radiation emitted by
planets occurs mainly at
wavelengths longe
r
than those contained in
solar radiation
SOLAR VS. TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

The sun is much hotter

than planets; therefore,
sunlight consists of
shorter wavelengths than
planetary radiation;

Thus …
 SOLAR ALTITUDE

Intensity of solar radiation varies with latitude

Intensity of solar radiation varies with time of day
Intensity of solar radiation varies with path through
atmosphere gases
 TEMPERA
TE

TROPI POL
C AR
EARTH’S MOTIONS IN SPACE AND THE
SEASONS

Rotation on its axis every 24hrs (day)

Revolution around the sun every 365.2422 days elliptical orbit (year)
Closest 3 January (perihelion) farthest 4 July (aphelion), Earth receives
6.7% more radiation at perihelion than aphelion
Earth’s tilt at 23.5o
Summer & Winter Solstice
Tropic of Cancer & Tropic of Capricorn
Equinoxes (March & September)
EARTH’S MOTIONS IN SPACE AND
THE SEASONS
 SOLAR RADIATION & THE ATMOSPHERE
Solar radiation interacts with gases and aerosols

Scattering & reflection (albedo), absorption (absorptivity) or transmissivity (amount

that reaches earth’s surface) of solar radiation must equal 100%

In scattering a particle disperses solar radiation in all directions

Scattering by molecules is wavelength dependent and preferential scattering of blue-

violet light by N2 and O2 is the reason for the daytime sky

Water and ice scatter visible light equally at all wavelengths so that clouds appear
white
 ALBEDO

Fraction of total radiation reflected by an object (surface).

Varies according to:

Cloud cover.
Particles in air.
Angle of sun’s rays.
Types of surface.
 ENERGY FROM THE SUN

Obviously, the Sun provides the Earth with it’s energy. The question is, how much of the Sun’s
energy does the Earth get?
Sun’s energy is either
Scattered (reflected away) or
Absorbed
Scattering happens by bouncing off
Particles in the atmosphere
Earth’s surface
Absorption happens when certain gases absorb the energy
The reality is the only certain gases absorb certain wavelengths.
 ABSORPTION OF RADIATION

Absorption of shortwave radiation by atmospheric gas molecules is

fairly weak;
most absorption of shortwave radiation occurs at the Earth’s
surface.

Most gases do not interact strongly with longwave radiation, however

Greenhouse gas molecules absorb certain wavelengths of
longwave radiation.
Absorption of Radiation in
the Earth’s Atmosphere
 INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION
Each ‘beam’ of incoming sunlight can be either:
Reflected back to space:
Clouds
Albe
Atmosphere do
Surface
Or absorbed; either by atmosphere (e.g. clouds or
ozone) or Earth’s surface.
Earth –Atmosphere energy
balance