Chapter2

Modeling of Complex Circuits and Mechanical Systems in the S-domain

Electrical Components

Components Time relation S- relation Impedance

V 1
t 1 I
v( s)  I (s)
c
+ - v(t)  I ( )d cs cs
0
C I

di(t ) v (s ) L s I (s ) Ls
v(t )  L
dt
V
+ -
L I

+ R - v(t)=R I(t) v(s)=R I(s) R

1
Mechanical impedance (Translation)

Component Time relation S-relation Impedance

Mass
F(t) d 2 x(t ) F (s ) ms 2 x (s )
M F (t ) m Ms 2
dt 2
X(t)

dx(t ) F (s ) BsX (s ) Bs
F(t) F (t )  B
dt
B X((t) F ( s )=Bs (X 2 (s)− X 1 (s ))
damper
F ( t )=B ( ddtx − ddtx )
2 1

F(t)
F (t ) kx (t ) F ( s ) kX ( s ) K
K
Spring X(t)
F ( t )=K ( X 2 (t)− X 1 (t)) F ( s )=K ( X 2 ( s )−X 1(s) )

Mechanical Impedance (Rotational)

Component Time relation S-relation Impedance
Inertia d 2 (t ) T ( s )  Js 2 ( s ) Js 2
J T (t )  J
dt
 (t ) T(t)

d  (t ) T ( s )  Bs  ( s ) Bs
T (t )  B
dt
B  (t ) T(t)

( d θdt(t) − d θdt(t) )
damper 2 1
T ( t )=B

T (t )  K (t ) T ( s ) k ( s ) K
K T ( t )=K ( θ2 ( t )−θ 1 ( t ))
 (t ) T(t)
Spring

2
 Chapter 2

Modeling of physical systems

To understand and control complex systems, one must obtain quantitative mathematical models
of these systems. It is necessary therefore to analyze the relationships between the system
variables and to obtain a mathematical model. Because the systems under consideration are
dynamic in nature, the descriptive equations are usually differential equations. Furthermore if
these equations can be linearized, then the Laplace transform can be utilized to simplify the
method of solution. In practice the complexity of systems lead us to use assumptions concerning
the system in operation. Then by using the physical laws describing the linear equivalent system,
we can obtain a set of linear differential equations. Finally utilizing mathematical tools such as
the Laplace transform we obtain a solution describing the operation of the system.

We present a summary of modeling various components which are often used in control systems.

Electrical components: -

+ V -
+ V - + V -

R C L
I I I

dV dI L

V = I.R I = C dt V = L dt

Resistance Capacitance Inductance

Figure 2.0

Kirchoff's law: _ Voltage drop around loop = 0.

_ Current at a node = 0.

3
Mechanical system elements

Most control systems contain mechanical as well as electrical components, although some
systems even have hydraulic and pneumatic elements. From a mathematical view point the
descriptions of electrical and mechanical elements are analogous. In fact, we can show that given
an electrical device there is usually an analogous mechanical counter part mathematically and
vice versa.

The motion of mechanical elements can be described in various dimensions as, translation,
rotational or combination. The equations governing the motion of mechanical systems are often
formulated directly or indirectly from Newton's law of motion.

Translational motion

The motion of translation is defined as a motion that takes place along a

straight line. The variables that are used to describe translational motion are acceleration,
velocity and displacement. Newton's law of motion states that the algebraic sum of forces acting
on a rigid body in a given direction is equal to the product of the main of the body and its
acceleration in the same direction.

∑ Forces=Ma M: mass, a: acceleration

x
d2 x
m 2
F = m dt
F

Figure 2.1

2
Mass = Kg, acceleration=m/s Force = Newton's (N)

4
Mass is considered as a property of an element that stores kinetic energy of
translational motion. Mass is analogous to inductance of electrical network.

Spring (linear)

x1 x2

F = k(x2 - x1 ) Newton
F k = spring constant N/m
k

Figure 2.2 linear spring

In practice, a linear spring must be modeled as an actual spring or a compliance of a cable or

belt. In general a spring is considered to be an element that stores potential

energy. It is analogous to a capacitor in electric networks. All springs in real life

are nonlinear to some extent. However, if the deformation of the spring is so small its behavior
can be approximated by a linear relationship.

Friction (damper)

x1 x2

F=B dt (
dx 2 dx 1
−
dt )
Figure 2.3 viscous friction

Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two physical elements, frictional
forces exist. The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of a nonlinear
nature. The characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces often depend
on such factors as the composition of the surfaces. The pressure between the surfaces, their
relative velocity and others so that an exact model description of the friction force is difficult.

5
 Rotational motion

The rotational motion of a body can be defined as a motion about a fixed axis. The
extension of Newton's law of motion for rotational or torque about a fixed axis is equal to the
product of the inertia and the angular acceleration about the axis, or

∑ torque=J ×a
Torques acting on inertia = inertia¿ angular acceleration

Inertia T(t)

(t) J = angular displacement

2
(Kg.m )

Q(t) = rad

Figure 2.4 Inertia

d 2θ
T =J
dt 2 N.m

Inertia J is considered to be the property of on element that stores the kinetic energy of
rotational motion. The inertia of a given element depends on the geometric composition about
the axis of rotation and its density. For instance, the inertia of a circular disc or shaft about its
2 2
geometric axis is J = 1/2 M.r Kg.m

6
Torsional spring
As with the linear spring for translational motion, a torsional spring constant k, in torque per unit
angular displacement, can be devised to represent the compliance of a rod or a shaft when it is
subject to an applied torque.

T T

1
2 2
1
Figure 2.5 Torsional spring

T = k(2 -1 ) where, k = spring constant N.m/rad

Friction (damper) for rotational motion

T

B
1 2

Figure 2.6

(
T = B dt
dθ2
−
dθ1
dt )

7
Example (2.1): -

Modeling R_L circuit, Vi(t) input, Vo(t) output.

L
+

I
Vi(t)
R
Vo(t)

Figure 2.7 LR circuit

Time Domain

dI
Vi(t)= L dt +Vo(t)

Vo
I= R

L dVo(t )
∴ Vi(t) = R dt +Vo(t)

Using Laplace
V ( s )=LSI ( s )+ Vo ( s )

Vo ( s ) LSVo ( s )
I= ¿ ∴ Vi ( s )= +Vo ( s )
R(s¿ R ( s)

∴ Vi(s)=Vo ( s )
[ LS
R (s )
+1
]
Vo (s ) 1 R (s )
∴ = =
Vi( s) LS LS+ R(s)
+1
R (s )

8
Example (2.2): -

Modeling R_C circuit, Vi(t) input, Vo(t) output.

Figure 2.8 RC circuit

Time Domain

1 d V o(t )
V i ( t ) =RI ( t ) +V o ( t ) we know that V 0=
C
∫ I ( t ) dt ∴ I ( t ) =C
dt

d V o (t)
∴ V i ( t )=RC +V o (t )
dt

Laplace Transform

Vi ( s )=RI ( s ) +Vo ( s )

1
we know Vo ( s )= I ( s ) ∴ I ( s )=Vo ( s ) CS
Cs

∴ Vi ( s )=R [ Vo ( s ) Cs ] +Vo ( s )

Vi ( s )=Vo ( s ) [ RCs+1 ]

9
 Vo (s ) 1
∴ =
Vi( s) RCs+1

Example 2.3

Figure 2.9 LRC circuit

Tme domain equation

di 1 1
e i=L + Ri+ ∫ idt ¿ e o= ∫ idt
dt C C

Laplace transform

1 1 1 1
E I =LSI ( s )+ RI ( s ) + I ( s )∧Eo = I ( s)
C s C s

∴ E I =LSI ( s )+ RI ( s )+ Eo ∴ E i=( LS+ R ) I + Eo However I =CS Eo

∴ Ei=( LS + R ) CS E o + Eo ∴ Ei=E o [ LC S 2+ RCS +1 ]

❑❑

Eo 1
∴ = 2
E i LC S + RCS +1

10
Example 2.3

Figure 2.10 electrical circuit

Time Domain

Loop 1

1
e i=
C1
∫ ( i1−i2 ) dt+ R 1 i1

Loop2

1 1
0=
C1
∫ ( i2−i1 ) dt+ R 2 i2+ C ∫ i2 dt
2

Output

1
e o= ∫ i dt
C2 2

Laplace domain

1
Ei ( s )= [ I ( s )−I 2 ( s ) ] + R1 I 1 ( s )
C1 S 1

1 1
¿ 0= [ I ( s )−I 1 ( s ) ]+ R 2 I 2 ( s )+ C S I 2 ( s )
C1 S 2 2

1
¿ E0 ( s ) = I ( s)
C2 S 2

This yield

11
 Eo (s) 1
=
Ei (s) ( R1 C 1 S+1 )( R 2 C 2 S+1 ) + R 1 C 2 S

Example (2.3):

R1 R2

I1 I2 C

Figure 2.11 Electrical circuit

Taking loop 1:

[sum of all impedances in loop1]* I1 + [impedances common loop1+loop2]* I2 = V

Taking loop 2:

[sum of all impedances on loop2]* I2 + [impedances common loop1+loop2]* I1 = 0

Applying rule 1:

( R 1 + Ls ) I 1−LsI 2 =V

Applying rule 2:

(
−LsI 1 + R2 + Ls+
1
)
I =0
Cs 2

Manipulating equation 2 by putting whole equation on top of Cs

12
 ( LsI 1 ) ( Cs )+ ( R2 Cs+ LsCs+1 ) I 2
=0
Cs

−LCs2 I 1 + ( R2 Cs+ LCs 2 +1 ) I 2

=0
Cs

Multiply both sides by Cs

−LCs 2 I 1 + ( R 2 Cs+ LCs2 +1 ) I 2 =0

Therefore the two equations become

( R1 + Ls ) I 1−LsI 2 =V
−LCs 2 I 1 + ( R 2 Cs+ LCs2 +1 ) I 2 =0

Taking inverse Laplace

dI 1 dI 2
R1 I 1 + L −L =V
dt dt
2
d I1 dI 2 d 2 I2
−LC + R2C + LC 2 + I 2=0
dt 2 dt dt

13
 Mechanical system

Example (2.4):
T 1 2

B1  B2 3 B3
 
k
1
J1 J2 J3

Figure 2.12 Mechanical system

Rule

θ1 θ2
[Sum of all impedances acting on J1 ] 1 - [impedances connecting J1 &J2 ]

- [impedances connecting J1 &J3 ]θ3 = T

( J 1 s 2 + B1 s+k ) θ1 −kθ 2−0 θ 3=T

J1 d2 θ dθ1
+B 1 + kθ1 −kθ 2 =T
dt 2 dt equation1

2) [Sum of all impedances acting on J2 ]θ2 - [impedances connecting J1 &J2 ]θ1

- [impedances connecting J2 & J3 ] θ3 = 0

−kθ 1 + ( J 2 s 2 + B2 s+ k ) θ2 −B2 sθ 3 =0
d2 θ2 dθ 2 dθ3
−kθ 1 + J 2 + B2 + kθ2 −B 2 =0
dt 2 dt dt equation2

[Sum of all impedances acting on J3 ] θ3 - [impedances connecting J1 & J3 ]θ1

14
 - [impedances connecting J2 & J3 ] θ2 = 0

0 θ1 −B2 sθ 2 + ( J 3 s2 + B3 s +B 2 s ) θ3 =0
dθ 2 d 2θ dθ dθ
−B2 + J 3 2 3 + B3 3 +B 2 3 =0
dt dt dt dt equation3

From equation (3)

( J 3 s 2 + B3 s+ B2 s ) θ 3
θ2 =
B2 s

Substituting for 2 in the first equation yields

[ J 3 s2 + ( B 2 + B3 ) s ] θ 3
(J 1s 2
+ B1 s+k ) θ −k1
B2 s
=T
equation4

substituting for 2  in the second equation yields

2
−kθ 1 +( J 2 s + B2 s+k )
[ ( J 3 s2 + ( B2 + B3 ) θ3 )
B2 s ]
− B2 sθ3 =0
equation5

Now using the second equation obtain 1 . Then substitute 1 in the first equation, simplify then
θ3
workout the transfer function T .

From equation (2)

( Js 2 + B2 s+ k ) θ2 −B2 sθ 3
θ1 =
k

Substituting in the fourth equation

(J 1s 2
+ B1 s+k )
( Js 2 + B2 s+ k ) θ2 −B2 sθ 3
k
−k
[
J 3 s 2 +( B2 + B 3 ) s
B2 s ]
θ3 =T

15
 θ3
θ2
Now substitute for in above equation and find transfer function T

Example

Figure 2.13 Mechanical system

One mass one equation

m y ( t )¨+c ẏ ( t ) +ky ( t )=f (t)

Laplace

( m s 2 +cs+ k ) y ( s )=f ( s ) ∴ Y (s ) = 1
F ( s) ( m s +cs +k )
2

Example

Figure 2.14 Mechanical Translational System

m1 y¨1 + k 1 y 1−k 2 ( y 2− y 1 )=f (t )

16
 m2 ÿ2 + c y 2 +¿ k 2 ( y ˙2− y 1 )=0 ¿

y 2(s)
∧ y 1 (s )
Students are required to finish this question convert to Laplace and derive f (s)
f (s)
Example

Figure 2.15 Mechanical System

m1 ÿ 1 + ( c1 +c 2 ) ẏ 1 + ( k 1 +k 2) y 1−c 2 ẏ 2−k 2 y 2=u 1 ( t )

m2 ÿ2 + c2 ẏ 2+ k 2 y 2−c 2 ẏ 1−k 2 y 1=u2 (t)

Convert to Laplace

Example

17
 Figure 2.16 Rotational system

Apply Euler’s rotational law (The rotational equivalent of Newton’s second law)
J θ̈+b θ̇+ k R θ=τ ( t )

This system can be represented by a single second order linear time invariant ordinary
differential equation (shown above). This equation is equivalent of a translational
mechanical mass-spring-damper system with torque as the input and angular displacement
as outut

Example
Consider the system shown in figure 2.17 below obtain the mathematical model by assuming the
cart is standing still for t<0 and the spring-mass-dashpot system is also standing till at t<0. In this
system u(t) is the displacement of the cart and is the input to the system. The displacement Y(t)
is the output (the displacement is relative to the ground). M denotes the mass, b viscous friction
and k denotes the spring constant. We assume that the friction force of the dashpot is
proportional to ẏ−u̇ and the spring is linear that is the spring force is y−u

18
 Figure 2.17 Spring mass dashpot system mounted on a cart
For translational systems Newton’s second law state
ma=∑ F

Where m=mass a=acceleration

Applying the rule
Impedances acting on mass
2
d y (t ) dy ( t ) du ( t )
m 2
+b + ky (t )−ku ( t ) −b =0
dt dt dt

∴m
d2 y ( t )
dt 2
+b(dy ( t ) du ( t )
dt
−
dt )+k ( y ( t )−u(t) ) =0

Impedances connecting mass on to mass 2 (However there is no mass 2 therefore as there is a

second displacement u(t) we assume there is an imaginary mass=0 and write impedances
connecting the masses shown red in the equation above)
Taking Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions

2
m S Y ( s ) +bSY ( s ) +kY ( s )=kU ( s ) −bSU ( s )
Y (s) k +bS
∴ ( m S 2+ bS+ k ) Y ( s )=( k +bS ) U ( s ) ∴ =
U ( s) m S 2 +bS+ k

Example
x1 ( s) x2 ( s)
Obtain the transfer function and for the mechanical system shown in figure 2.18
u (s) u (s )

19
 Figure 2.18 Mechanical System

The equations of motion for the system are

For mass 1

(black impedances acting on mass 1 and in red impedances common between mass 1 and mass 2)

m1 x¨1 +k 1 x 1+ k 2 x 1 +b x˙1−k 2 x 2−b x˙2=u(t )

For mass 2

(black impedances acting on mass 2 and in red impedances common between mass 2 and mass 1)

m2 x¨2 +k 2 x 2+ k 3 x 2 +b x˙2−k 2 x 1−b x˙1=0

Simplyfying and taking Laplace transforms yields

[m 1 s 2+ bs+ ( k 1 +k 2 ) ] x 1 ( s )−( bs +k 2 ) x 2 ( s ) =u ( s )

[m 2 s 2+ bs+ ( k 2 +k 3 ) ] x 2 ( s )−( bs +k 2 ) x 1 ( s )=0

From the second equation solve for x 2 (s ) and substitute in equation 1

[ ( m s +bs +k +k )( m s +bs +k +k )−( bs+ k ) ] x

1
2
1 2 2
2
2 3 2
2
1 ( s )=( m2 s2 +bs+ k 2 +k 3 ) u (s )

From which we obtain

20
 X 1 (s) ( m2 s +bs +k 2+ k 3 )
2

=
U (s) ( m1 s +bs+ k 1 +k 2 )( m 2 s2 +bs +k 2 +k 3) −( bs +k 2) 2
2

Similarly but now substitute for x 1 (s ) yields

X 2 (s) ( bs+ k 2 )
=
U (s) ( m1 s +bs +k 1 +k 2 )( m 2 s2 +bs +k 2 +k 3) −( bs+k 2) 2
2

Modeling of a DC motor with gears.

Figure 2.19 Elctro Mechanical system

Va = armature voltage (V) Ia = armature current (A)

Ra = armature resistance (Ω ¿ La = armature inductance (H)

Vb = back electromotive force (bemf) potential (V)

Tm = motor torque (N.m) ω m= motor angular velocity (rad/s)

T1 = load torque on motor shaft (N.m)

21
T L = load driving torque (N.m) ω Lload angular speed (rad/s)

2 2
Jm = motor inertia (N.m.s /rad) J L = load inertia (N.m.s /rad)

B L = viscous friction coefficient (N.m.s/rad)

N1 number of teeth of gear 1.

N2 = number of teeth of gear 2.

Gear relationship

N1
ωL = ωm
N2 (for both acceleration and position).

If N2 > N1 speed reduction, torque amplification.

N2
t1
TL = N1

For ideal gears (without loss)

Input power = output power

t 1 ωm =T L ω L

Electrical side
dI
V a = R I a + L dt + e = R I a + e since L=0

e = kb ω m = back e.m.f * motor speed

∴ V a = R I a + kb ω m

22
 V a −k b ωm
I a=
Ra

tm = kt
I a = torque constant*current

Mechanical equation

Tm m t1

tm = Jmsω m + t1 ∴ t1 = tm - Jm.s ω m(equation 1)

t1
BL L T L = J L s L B L  L

N2
JL t1
But T =
L N 1

N2
t
N 1 1 = ( J L s +B L ) ω L equation2

Substituting for t1 in from (equation1) to (equation2): -

N2 N
t m=( J L s+ B L ) ω L + 2 J m sωm
N1 N1 … (equation3)

23
 N2
ω m= ω
Equation on the load side substitute N 1 L into (equation3)

( )
N2 N 2
t m=( J L s+ B L ) ω L + 2 J m sωL
∴
N1 N1

[ ( ) ]
2
N 2 = J s+ J s N 2 + B ω
t L m
N1 L L
NL m … (equation4)

However we know that

V a−k b ωm
t m=k t I a = Kt
Ra

( )[ ( ) ]
N2 V a −k b ω m N2 2
k = J L s+ J m s + B L ωL
N 1 t Ra N1
N 2 kt V a N 2 k t k b ωm
N1 Ra
−
N 1 Ra [
= J L s+ J m s
N2 2
N1 ( )
+ B L ωL
]
N 2 kt V a
N1 Ra [( N 22
)
= J L + J m 2 s + B L ω L+
N1
kt kb
Ra
ωm
]
N2
N1

N2
ω m= ωL
But N1

∴
N2 k t
N1 Ra [(N2
)
k k N2
V a = J L+ J m 22 s+ B L ω L + t b 22 ω L
N1 Ra N 1 ]
[(
¿ J L+ J m
N 22
N 21 ) (
s+ B L+
k t k b N 22
R a N 21 )] ωL

24
Equation on the motor shaft substituting
ω L in (equation3): -

N1
ωL = ωm
N2

∴
N2
N1 [
t m= ( J L s+ B L )
N1
N2
+Jm
N2
N1 ]
s ωm

[ ]
N1 N2
( J L s+ B L ) N2
Jm s
N1
t m= + ωm
N2 N2
N1 N1

[
= ( J L s+ B L )
N 21
N 22
+ J m s ωm
]
¿
[( JL
N 21
N 22 )
+J m s+ B L
N 21
N 22 ] ωm

Same as before

V a−k b ωm Va
t m=k t I a = k t=
Ra Ra

ktVa
Ra
−
( kt kb )
Ra
ω m= J L
( N 21
N22 )
+ J m s + BL
N 21
N 22
ωm

[( ) ( )]
2 2
kt N1 N 1 kt kb
V a = J L 2 +J m s+ B L 2 + ωm
Ra N2 N 2 Ra

Both representations are equivalent.

DC motors in control systems: -

Direct current (dc) motors are one of the most widely used prime movers in industry today.
Years ago a majority of the small servomotors used for control purposes were of the ac variety.
In reality ac motors are more difficult to control especially for position control and their

25
characteristics are quite nonlinear, which makes the analytical task more difficult. DC motors on
the other hand are more expensive

because of the brushes and commutators. Before permanent-magnet technology was fully
developed, the torque per unit volume or weight of a dc motor with permanent magnet (PM)
field was far desirable. Today with the development of the rare magnet, it is possible to achieve
very high torque-volume PM dc motors at reasonable cost.

Basic operation: -
The dc motor is basically a torque transducer that converts electric energy into mechanical
energy. The torque developed on the motor shaft is directly proportional to the fixed flux and

armature current. The relationship among the developed torque, flux  and current ia is:

Tm = km θm .ia N.m

km = proportional constant ia = armature current θm = magnetic flux

When the conductor moves in the magnetic field, a voltage is generated across its terminals. This
voltage, the back e.m.f which is proportional to the shaft velocity tends to oppose the current
flow.

eb = km ω m

eb = b.e.m.f ω m= shaft velocity (rad/s)

Basic classifications of PM DC motors: -

In general the magnetic field of a dc motor can be produced by field winding or permanent
magnets. Due to the popularity of PM dc motors in control system applications, we concentrate
on this type of motor. PM dc motors can be classified according to commutation scheme and
armature design conventional dc motors mechanical brushes and commutators. However, in one
important class of dc motors the commutation is done electronically. This type of motor is called
Brushes dc motors.

26
Torque speed curves of a dc motor: -
The torque speed curves of a dc motor describe the static torque producing capability of the
motor with respect to the applied voltage and motor speed. With reference to the figure below in
the steady state, the effect of the inductance is zero, and the torque equation of the motor is

( Ea −k b ω m )
kt
Tm = kt Ia = Ra where Tm, Ia, Ea and
ω m represent the steady state values
of the motor torque current applied voltage-speed
respectively.

Ea1 >Ea2 >Ea3 >Ea4

Maximum Tm

Figure 2.20

For a given applied Ea the equation above describes the straight line relation of the torque-speed
characteristics of the dc motor. In reality the motor may be subject to two types of saturation or
limitations. 1) As Ia increase when La is increased the magnetic circuit will saturate. 2) The
second limitations is due to the maximum current that the motor can handle due to the heat
dissipation rating of the motor.

27
In practice, the torque-speed curves of a dc motor can be determined experimentally by a
dynamometer.

28