Earth and Life

Science
Quarter 1 – Module 5:
Deformation of the Crust

1|P ag e
 What I Need to Know

This module was design to visualize how the continents drifted away from
each other based on the evidences presented by different scientist. This also
discusses how the plates move and explains how the corresponding landforms
created. This also provides some activity that would represents how the major
continents move, seafloor spreads and even the motion of crustal plates.

The module is divided into three lessons, namely:

● Lesson 1 – Continental Drift and its evidences
● Lesson 2 – Movement of Plates
● Lesson 3 – Seafloor Spreading
After going through this Lesson 1, students are expected to:
1. define and explain how the continental drift occur (S11/12ES-Id-20)
2. cite evidence that support the continental drift (S11/12ES-Id-21)
3. explain how paleomagnetism provides support for continental drift by
providing evidence for the concepts of apparent polar wander and magnetic
polarity reversal.
4. create a graphic organizer that would summarize the continental drift theory.

What I Know

General Direction: Select the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Who is the person credited with the developing theory of continental drift?
A. Alfred Wegener B. Aristotle C. Charles Darwin D. Harry Hess

2. What does the theory of continental drift state?

A. Continents are stationary and do not move
B. The Earth is broken into lithospheric plates that move due to convection
currents
C. The continents were once joined in a super-continent and have moved
over time
D. none of the above

2|P ag e
 3. What evidence did Wegener use in his theory?
A. Continents and fossils fitting together/matching-up like puzzle pieces
B. glacier scars and other climate evidence from temperature
C. mountain ranges and rocks line up across continents
D. all of the above

4. What two specific continents fit together most noticeably?

A. Africa and North America
B. Antartica and Africa
C. South America and Africa
D. South America and Europe

5. Alfred Wegener hypothesize that continents move across Earth’s surface was
based on which piece of evidence?
A. The shapes of continental coastlines
B. The distribution of earthquake zones across the globe
C. The pattern of magnetic anomalies on the ocean floor
D. The location of volcanoes with respect to deep sea trenches

6. What is the distance traveled by a continent in km if the rate of its movement

is 3 cm per year for 500, 000 years.
A. 13.5 km B. 15.5 km C.16.5 km D. 18.5 km

7. Which of the following reptiles whose fossil are found in black shales in South
Africa and Brazil?
A. Cynognathus B. Glossopteris C. Lystrosaurus D. Mesosaurus

8. What is the rate of movement of a plate if it takes 2.6 million years to move in
540 kilometers?
A. 2.6 cm/year B. 26 cm/year C. 20.77 cm/year D.30.77cm/year

9. These reptiles were found across the South America, Africa, India and
Antarctica and on the side of the continents that drifted apart after they
became fossilized.
A. Cynognathus and Glossopteris B. Glossopteris and Lystrosaurus
C. Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus D. Mesosaurus and Cynognathus

10. Based on Wegener’s theory, there was a huge super continent called as _______?
A. Antarctica B. Gondwana C. Laurasia D. Pangea

Lesson
Continental Drift Theory
1
Continental Drift Theory is the theory that explains the global distribution of
geological phenomena. This refers to the movement and interaction of lithosphere.
This includes the formation, movement, collision, and destruction of plates and the

3|P ag e
resulting geological events as seismicity, volcanism, continental drift, and mountain
building.

Based on your Grade 10 science, it was discussed that Earth, which has seven
continents, began as one huge mass of land called Pangea. It has been proposed that
today’s continent was join and gradually drifted apart because of tectonic forces. It
was also discussed that tectonic plates are made of both continental and oceanic
crust. The land that we see is the continental crust, about 30 kilometers (19 mi)
thick. Under the sea, the heavier oceanic crust is much thinner, about 8 to 10
kilometers (5 to 6 mi) thick.

Plates move about 8 centimeters (3 in) per year. That is about as fast as a fingernail
grows in a year. The tallest mountains in the world are still growing. About 60 million
years ago, the Himalayan Mountains formed when the Indian Plate crashed into the
Eurasian Plate. Today the two plates are still colliding and the Himalayas continue
to rise. Los Angles sits on the Pacific Plate that is moving northwest and San
Francisco sits on the North American Plate that is moving southeast. Moving towards
each other at the rate of 5 centimeters (2 in) a year, someday these two cities may be
neighbors.

What is It

Continental Drift Theory

The idea that continents fit together like pieces of a
jigsaw puzzle has been around since the 1600s,
although little significance was given to it.
The continental drift hypothesis was first
articulated by Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist, in 1912. He proposed that a single
supercontinent, Pangaea, separated into the current
continents and moved across Earth’s surface to their
present locations. He published his work through a
book entitled “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” in
1915.

Until the 1950s-60s, it was still widely held that

that continents and ocean basins had fixed geographic Image: www
positions. As such, scientists were reluctant to believe
that continents could drift. What was the driving mechanism?

In the 1960s, the post-war boom in oceanography generated a lot of new data
about the ocean floor. It turned out that the ocean floor was not as flat and
featureless as they had originally thought. The ocean floor was characterized by deep
depressions called trenches and a network of ridges that encircled the globe. These

4|P ag e
topographic data, together with heat flow measurements, led to the emergence of the
Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis which revived interest in Alfred Wegener’s idea of
drifting continents. Although Wegener presented a lot of evidence supporting
continental drift, he was not able to convincingly explain how the continents moved.

Wegener supported his Continental Drift idea with four lines of evidence:

1. JIGSAW FIT

The similarity in outline of the

coastlines of eastern South
America and West Africa had been
noted for some time. The best fit is
obtained if the coastlines are
matched at a depth of 1,000 meters
below current sea level.

Opponents of Wegener’s idea

disputed his continental fit
evidence, arguing that the fit of the
continents’ margins was crude, and
that shorelines were continuously
being modified by wave erosion and
depositional processes.
The oceanographic data later
on revealed that a much better
approach was to fit the continents Image: From
together along the continental https://chedk12.wordpress.com/teachingguides/

slope, where erosion would be minimal. However, a perfect fit could still not be
achieved. The process of stretching and thinning of the continental margins and
sedimentary processes (e.g. erosion, delta formation, etc.) could explain some of the
overlaps.

2. SIMILARITY IN GEOLOGIC UNITS AND STRUCTURES

Wegener discovered that

geologic structures (mountain
ranges), as well as ages and rock
types on opposite sides of the Atlantic
Oceans, were identical.

For example, the

Appalachians of the eastern United
States and Canada are similar with
the mountain ranges in eastern
Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain,
and Norway. Wegener concluded that
these belonged to a single mountain

5|P ag e
range that became separated as the continents drifted.

3. FOSSIL MATCH EVIDENCE

Similar fossils of extinct plants and animals of the same age were found on
different continents which are now separated by oceans. Wegener argued that these
organisms physically could not have crossed the oceans because organisms adapt to
specific types of environment and their dispersal can be limited by biogeographic
boundaries (e.g. Oceans, mountain ranges, etc.)
A likely explanation for this is that the continents were part of a large
contiguous landmass which later on broke apart and drifted.

I. Glossopteris flora (seed fern) – had large seeds (too large to be blown away by
wind to different continents) and grew only in subpolar regions, but fossils were
widely distributed over Australia, Africa, India and South America (later on
discovered in Antarctica).
II. Mesosaurus – a freshwater reptile (cannot cross oceans) whose fossils were found
only in black shales about 260 million years of age (Permian) in South Africa and
Brazil.
III. Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus – land reptiles whose fossils were found across
South America, Africa, India and Antarctica. With their inability to swim and the
continent’s differing climates, the organisms must have lived side by side and that
the lands drifted apart after they became extinct and fossilized.

4. GLACIAL DEPOSITS AND PALEOCLIMATE EVIDENCE

A glacier is a slowly moving mass or river of ice formed from the accumulation
and compaction of snow on high mountains or in polar areas. As it flows, it carries
sediments of different shapes and sizes which are then deposited and slowly
compacted into a soft sedimentary rock called till (glacial till). It also creates grooves
or scratches called striations in the underlying bedrock.

6|P ag e
I. Wegener analyzed glacial tills and striations of ancient times and found
out that glacier of the same period ( late Paleozoic age) were located in
Australia, South America, Africa, India And Antarctica.

Image: From https://chedk12.wordpress.com/teachingguides/

These continents, except for Antarctica did not have subpolar climate
that allow glaciation. In addition, the striations in the rocks were consistently
pointing in different directions. Putting the continents together in accordance
to Wegener’s Pangaea shows that the glaciation only occurred in a small region
in Gondwana (around the South Pole) which then moved outward to the
continents.
II. Reconstructing the location of ancient glaciers led Wegener to discover
that the location of the current poles was different from the ancient ones.
His studies showed that South Africa was originally at the South Pole (300
million years ago), which explains the flow direction of the ancient glaciers.
Fitting the continents together places the northern half of Pangaea closer to
the tropics and was proven correct by fossil and climatological evidences.

Paleomagnetism and polar wandering

This group of evidence emerged relatively much later (1950s) with the development
of new technology and the boom in oceanographic studies. This evidence of
continental drift that was discovered after the time of Wegener.
I. Paleomagnetism
As magma cools down it starts forming minerals. Some minerals are strongly
magnetic (e.g. magnetite). Below a certain threshold temperature, some of these
minerals attain magnetic properties. The magnetic minerals start to align with the

7|P ag e
surrounding magnetic field. The alignment of these minerals becomes fixed once the
lava or magma solidifies.
Rocks therefore can potentially preserve or record magnetic polarity (normal
vs. reverse), direction or location of magnetic poles, and the strength of the magnetic
field.
II. Magnetism of geologically recent rocks
It is generally consistent with the Earth’s current magnetic field. When the
location of the Earth’s magnetic poles are plotted based on the paleomagnetism of
rocks of different ages, their positions appear to be “wandering” through time (Figure
above) if we assume a fixed position of the continents. In reality, the magnetic poles
have a relatively fixed position, and it is actually the continents which are moving.

What’s More

This activity aims to show the rate of movements of crustal plates. It will help
you to recall the basic conversion of one units to another to represent the motion
of plates. The conversion factor for length is provided below

Independent Activity: Calculate the Rate..

Solve the following word problem using the GFSA method. Express your final
answers in centimeter. To calculate the rate of plate motion, divide the distance the
plate moves by the time it takes to move that distance.

Wandering pole Fixed pole

Paleomagnetism of rocks different

ages suggest either (a) the varying
position of the magnetic poles
through time or (B) the fixed
position of the poles and the
movement of the continents

(a) Fixed continent (b) drifting continents

Independent Assessment
Instruction. Answer the following questions briefly based on your
understanding about continental drift theory.

1. What is continental drift theory?

2. What are the evidences that supported the continental drift theory?

8|P ag e
3. What evidences can prove that two mountain ranges separated by ocean were part
of a single mountain range and that these were once joined together?
4. What do you think will happen if the continents don’t move according to the
theory?

What I Have Learned

1. Continental drift hypothesis was first articulated by Alfred Wegener, a

German meteorologist, who proposed that a single supercontinent, Pangaea,
separated into the current continents and moved across Earth’s surface to
their present locations.
2. Wegener supported his theory with four evidences such as jigsaw puzzle
(continental fit), similarity in geologic units and structures, fossil match
evidence, glacial deposits, and paleoclimate evidence
3. Paleomagnetism refer to the residual magnetism in ancient rocks showing
direction and intensity of Earth’s magnetic field at the time of the rock’s
formation.
4. Polar wandering pertains to the slow movement of the Earth’s magnetic poles
relative to the geographic poles.

What I Can Do

Did you know….

Los Angles sits on the Pacific Plate that is

moving northwest and San Francisco sits on
the North American Plate that is moving
southeast. Moving towards each other at the
rate of 5 centimeters (2 in) a year, someday
these two cities may be neighbors! The average
rate of movement along the San Andreas Fault
is between 30mm and 50mm per year over the
last 10 million years. If current rates of
movement are maintained Los Angeles will be
adjacent to San Francisco in approximately 20
million years.

Image: From
https://geology.com/articles/san-andreas-
fault.shtml

9|P ag e
 Assessment

A. Identification: Identify the best answer for each statement. Choose your answer
from the box and write it on a separate sheet of paper.

0.03 km 30km Fossils Continental drift Theory

geologic structures Glacier Glossopteris Magnetic Minerals
Mesosaurus Paleomagnetism Polar Wandering
ocean floor Reconstructing of ancient glaciers

________________ 1. It is ‘seed fern’ that grew only in a subpolar regions, fossils of

which were widely distributed over Australia, Africa, India, and
South America.
________________ 2. It is mass or river of ice formed from the accumulation and
compaction of snow on high mountains or in polar areas.
________________ 3. It was characterized by deep depressions called trenches and a
network of ridges that encircled the globe.
________________ 4. This evidence help Wegener to discovered that the mountain
ranges, as well as ages and rock types on opposite sides of the
Atlantic Oceans, were identical.
________________ 5. Fitting the continents together places the northern half of
Pangaea closer to the tropics and was proven correct by fossil
and climatological evidences.

________________ 6. This evidence emerged relatively with the development of new

technology
________________ 7. This will be the distance traveled of Antarctica 1.5 million years
if it has a speed of 2cm/per.

________________ 8. It is a single supercontinent, Pangaea, separated into the current

continents and moved across Earth’s surface to their present
locations.
________________ 9. It refers to the slow movement of the Earth’s magnetic poles
relative to the geographic poles.

________________ 10. Its alignment will be fixed once the lava or magma solidifies.

10 | P a g e
 Lesson

2 Movement of Plates

The Earth’s outermost rigid layer (lithosphere) is broken into discrete plates
each moving as a unit. Driven by mantle convection, the lithospheric plates ride over
the soft, ductile asthenosphere. Different types of relative motion and different types
of lithosphere at plate boundaries create a distinctive set of geologic features.

What’s New

Familiarizing oneself with the layers of the Earth help you to visualize how the
crustal plates move with the aid of asthenosphere and with the influenced by two
types of forces: driving forces and resisting forces. Within the asthenosphere
are convection cells, slowly turning over hot, plastic rock. The convection cells bring
heat from the earth's interior out to the surface, but slowly. Movement is about 10
centimeters a year. Plates move with respect to each other in different ways.

What Is It

After accomplishing those activities, this part will help you to learn more about
plate boundaries and the resulting geological structures and activity. As the plates
interact with other plates it creates some natural calamities such as movement in
narrow zones along plate boundaries causes most earthquakes. Most seismic activity
occurs at three types of plate boundaries—divergent, convergent, and transform.

As the plates move past each other, they sometimes get caught and pressure
builds up. When the plates finally give and slip due to the increased pressure, energy
is released as seismic waves, causing the ground to shake. This is an earthquake.

11 | P a g e
 Major and minor tectonic plates

Some of the plates have ocean water above them. Other plates include
continents, and some plates include both continents and ocean. The movements of
the plates help shape the geological features of our planet. The three main types of
plate movements include:

1. Divergent (Spreading)

This is where two plates move away from each other. Molten rock from the
mantle erupts along the opening, forming new crust. The earthquakes that occur
along these zones, called spreading centers, are relatively small. The Great Rift Valley
in Africa, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden all formed as a result of divergent plate
motion.

Image from Dive and discover.

Expedition to the seafloor
https://divediscover.whoi.edu/pl
ate-tectonics/plate-movements/
2. Convergent (Colliding)

This occurs when plates move towards each other and collide. When a
continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the thinner, denser, and more flexible
oceanic plate sinks beneath the thicker, more rigid continental plate. This is called

12 | P a g e
subduction. Subduction causes deep ocean trenches to form, such as the one along
the west coast of South America. The rocks pulled down under the continent begin
to melt. Sometimes the molten rock rises to the surface, through the continent,
forming a line of volcanoes. About 80% of earthquakes occur where plates are pushed
together, called convergent boundaries.

Image from Dive and discover. Expedition to the seafloor https://divediscover.whoi.edu/plate-

tectonics/plate-movements/

Another form of convergent boundary is a collision where two continental

plates meet head-on. Since neither plate is stronger than the other, they crumple
and are pushed up. This can lead to the formation of huge, high mountain ranges
such as the Himalayas.

Image from Dive and discover. Expedition to the seafloor https://divediscover.whoi.edu/plate-

tectonics/plate-movements/

3. Transform (lateral fault)

Plates grinding past each other in opposite directions create faults called
transform faults. Powerful earthquakes often strike along these boundaries. The
San Andreas Fault is a transform plate boundary that separates the North American
Plate from the Pacific Plate. This fault system is largely responsible for the
devastating earthquakes in Los Angeles and San Francisco.

13 | P a g e
 Image from Dive and discover. Expedition to the seafloor https://divediscover.whoi.edu/plate-
tectonics/plate-movements/

Type of Plate Boundaries

Plate
Plate Boundary Movement Description Examples
Forms elevated ridge with Mid-Atlantic
Oceanic- rift valley at the center;
submarine volcanism and
ridge; East
Oceanic Plates moving
away from each shallow earthquakes Pacific rise
Divergent other
Continental Broad elevated region with
major valley; abundant East African
-
volcanism and shallow Rift; Red Sea
Continental earthquake

Dense oceanic plate slips

beneath less dense
continental plate; trench
forms on the subducting
Western
Oceanic- plate side and extensive
South
Continental volcanism on the overriding
continental plate; America
earthquake foci becoming
deeper in the direction of
subduction

Plates moving Older, cooler, denser plate

Convergent toward each other slips beneath less dense Aleutians;
Oceanic- plate; trench forms on
subducting plate side and
Marianas
Oceanic
island arc on overriding trench
plate;

Neither mass is subducted;

plate edges are compressed,
Continental
folded, and uplifted Himalayas;
- resulting in the formation of Alp
Continental major mountain range

14 | P a g e
 Lithosphere is neither
created nor destroyed; most mid-ocean
Plate sliding past offset oceanic ridge systems ridge; San
Transform each other while some cut through Andreas
continental crust;
Fault
characterized by shallow
earthquakes.

Wilson Cycle

Tectonics is concerned with deformation in the earth and the forces which
produce deformation. Plate tectonics is the theory that the earth's lithosphere (outer
rigid shell) is composed of several dozen "plates", or pieces, which float on a ductile
mantle, like slabs of ice on a pond.

In plate tectonic theory earth history, at its simplest, is one of plates rifting
into pieces diverging apart and new ocean basins being born, followed by motion
reversal, convergence back together, plate collision, and mountain building. This
cycle of opening and closing ocean basins is the Wilson Cycle. Plate tectonics is
cyclic. In 1966, J. Tuzo Wilson proposed a cycle that includes continental breakup,
drifting, collision, and re-assembly of the continent.

Image from https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/385480049328744234/

Main phases of the Wilson Cycle

a. Rifting within the supercontinent leads to the opening of new ocean basin and
formation of oceanic crust.
b. Passive margin cools and sinks, and sediment accumulates along the edge.

15 | P a g e
c. Convergence begins, initiating subduction and eventual ocean closure.
d. Continent-continent collision forms the next supercontinent.

Driving forces for plate motion

a. Convection in the mantle (the sinking of denser material and rising of hot, less
dense material) appears to drive plate motion.

b. Gravity-driven mechanisms such as slab-pull and ridge-push are thought to be

important in driving plate motion. Slab-pull develops when cold, dense subducting
slab of lithosphere pulls along the rest of the plate behind it. Ridge-push develops as
gravity pushes the lithosphere off the mid-ocean ridges and toward the subduction
trenches

What I Have Learned

1. The movements of the plates help shape the geological features of our planet. The
three main types of plate movements include: divergent, convergent and transform.

2. Divergent happens when the two plates move away from each other. The
earthquakes that occur along these zones, called spreading centers, are relatively
small. The Great Rift Valley in Africa, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden all formed as
a result of divergent plate motion.

3. The convergent movement of plate happens when the continental crust and
oceanic crust collides causing the oceanic subducts beneath the continental crust
which forms trench at the subducting plate. This also occur when two oceanic crust
moves toward each other forming deep the Mariana trench.

4. Transform plate movement occurs when the plates slide past each other
characterized by a shallow earthquake.

What I Need to Know

After learning the motions of crustal and oceanic plates, this section will help
you to explore the parts of the ocean basins and how the seafloor spreading theory
developed. Through the emergence of new technology scientists as able to present
some evidences as to how they formulated the said theory. This lesson also indicates

16 | P a g e
activities that would describe how the seafloor spread and the processes involved
that lead to the creation of oceanic features and events.

After going through this Lesson 3 Seafloor Spreading, students are expected to:
1. describe the structure of ocean basins
2. determine the different technological devices used to explore the feature of
ocean basins
3. Discuss the seafloor spreading and the processes involve in the formation
of geological features in ocean floor
4. recognize the significance of natural water resources through creating a
campaign for saving the major water resources

What I Know

Multiple Choice

Direction: Select the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. Which best describes an ocean trench?

A. A wide, flat basin with steep sides
B. A straight, narrow valley along the center of a mid-ocean ridge
C. A deep fracture perpendicular to and intersecting a mid-ocean ridge
D. A deep, curved depression near the margin of a continent or chain of
volcanic islands
2. Which best summarizes the hypothesis of seafloor spreading?
A. Lava erupts from hotspots and spreads over the ocean floor.
B. The seafloor gradually spreads in size as a result of erosion of the continental
shelves.
C. Sediments from continents are carried to the ocean in rivers and spread out
on the ocean floor.
D. Lava erupts from the mid-ocean ridge and is carried away as the floor of the
ocean spreads apart.
3. Most new ocean crust forms:
A. At hotspots B. At mid-ocean ridges
C. Along deep sea trenches D. At the edges of continents

4. Strips of magnetized rock on the ocean floor are arranged in which pattern?
A. Concentrically about the poles
B. Concentrically about the continents
C. Symmetrically about the mid-ocean ridges
D. Symmetrically about the deep sea trenches

5. It described as extremely flat, sediment-covered stretches of the ocean floor,

interrupted by occasional volcanoes

17 | P a g e
 A. abyssal hills B. abyssal plain
C. deep-ocean trenches D. mid-ocean ridges

6. _________ profiles the shape of the sea surface by measuring the travel time of a
radar pulse from the satellite to the ocean surface and back to the satellite receiver.
A. Echo Sounding B. Satellite altimetry
C. Sonar D. Sounding line

7. Which of the following stage in the evolution of ocean basins where has an active
spreading axes?
A. embryonic B. declining C. mature D. terminal

8. Which of the following stages involves the formation of new destructive margins
due to continental collision or the initiation of new continental rifting.
A. embryonic B. declining C. relict scar D. terminal

9. ____________ proposes that the seafloor is not permanent but continuously being
renewed with the process.
A. Alfred Wegener B. Charles Darwin C. Harry Hess D. J. Tuzo
Wilson

10. This made the scientists to speculate that magma is rising into the crust just
below the mid-ocean ridge axis.
A. Composition of oceanic crust
B. Distribution of seafloor topographic features
C. High heat flow along mid-ocean ridge axes
D. Sediment thickness

Lesson

3 Seafloor Spreading

Different scientist formulated a theory that explains the how the new crust
forms by upwelling magma. One of them was Harry Hess who proposed the theory of
seafloor spreading. Newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge
with the motion like that of a conveyor belt. Old oceanic crusts are dragged down at
the trenches and re-incorporated back into the mantle.

In this section, you will learn the different evidences that supports the seafloor
spreading theory and the various features of the ocean floor.

18 | P a g e
 What’s In

What would the ocean floor look like if we drain away all the seawater? Sketch
a picture of what they think the ocean bottom may look like. Compare your work
with your classmates and observe the different features present on it.

What Is It

Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basin

Ocean Basin refers to any of several vast submarine regions that collectively
cover nearly three-fourth of Earth’s surface. Together they contain the overwhelming
majority of all water on the planet and have the average depth of 4 km (about 2.5
miles). A number of major features of the basins depart from this average- for
example, the mountainous ocean ridges, deep sea trenches and linear fracture zones.
Other significant features of the ocean floor include aseismic ridges, abyssal hills and
seamounts.

19 | P a g e
Different Features of the Ocean floor

Image from https://gotbooks.miracosta.edu/earth_science/images/ocean_margin.jpg

a. Continental margin – submerged outer edge of the continent where continental

crust transitions into oceanic crust

i. Passive or Atlantic type – features a wide, gently sloping continental shelf

(50-200m depth), a steeper continental slope (3000-4000m depth), and a
flatter continental rise.
ii. Active or Pacific type – characterized by a narrow shelf and slope that
descends into a trench or trough

b. Abyssal plains and abyssal hills – abyssal plain is an extremely flat, sediment-
covered stretches of the ocean floor, interrupted by occasional volcanoes, mostly
extinct, called seamounts. Abyssal hills are elongate hills, typically 50-300m high
and common on the slopes of mid oceanic ridge. These hills have their origins as
faulted and tilted blocks of oceanic crust.

c. Mid-ocean ridges – a submarine mountain chain that winds for more than 65,000
km around the globe. It has a central rift valley and rugged topography on its flanks.
Mid-ocean ridges are cut and offset at many places by transform faults. The trace of
a transform fault may extend away from either side of the ridge as a fracture zone
which is older and seismically inactive.

d. Deep-ocean trenches- narrow, elongated depressions on the seafloor many of

which are adjacent to arcs of island with active volcanoes; deepest features of the
seafloor.

e. Seamounts and volcanic islands – submerged volcanoes are called seamounts

while those that rise above the ocean surface are called volcanic islands. These

20 | P a g e
features may be isolated or found in clusters or chains. Seamounts as well as abyssal
hills and most aseismic ridges, are produced by volcanism.

The basins also contain a variable amount of sedimentary fill that is thinnest
on the ocean ridges and usually thickest near the continental margins. While the
ocean basins lie much lower than sea level, the continents stand high about 1km
(0.6 mile) above sea level. The physical explanation for this condition is that the
continental crust is light and thick while the oceanic crust is dense and thin. Both
the continental and oceanic crust lie over a more uniform layer called the mantle. As
an analogy, one can think of a thick piece of styrofoam and a thin piece of wood
floating in a tub of water. The styrofoam rises higher out of the water than the wood.

Seafloor bathymetry is the measurement of water depth: height from water bed to
water surface. It measures the vertical distance from the ocean surface to mountains,
valleys, plains, and other sea floor features

Various Methods of Measuring Ocean Depths

A. Sounding line – weighted rope lowered overboard until it touched the ocean
bottom; this old method is time-consuming and inaccurate

B. Echo sounding– type of sonar which measures depth by emitting a burst of high
frequency sound and listening for the echo from the seafloor. Sound is emitted from
a source on the ship and the returning echo is detected by a receiver on the ship.
Deeper water means longer time for the echo to return to the receiver.

C. Satellite altimetry – profiles the shape of the sea surface by measuring the travel
time of a radar pulse from the satellite to the ocean surface and back to the satellite
receiver. The shape of the sea surface approximates the shape of the sea floor.

Scientist aboard the HMS Challenger determined ocean depths by means of wire-line
soundings and discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Dredges brought up sample of
rocks and sediments off the seafloor. The main advance mapping was occur when
the sonar was developed in the early 20 th century. This system for detecting the
presence of objects underwater by acoustics echo provided marine researchers with
a highly useful tool, since sound can be detected over several thousands of km in the
ocean.

Another notable instrument system is ANGUS, a deep-towed camera sled that

can take thousands of high-resolution photographs of the seafloor during a single
day. It has been successfully used in the detection of hydrothermal vent at spreading
centers.

Evolution of Ocean Basins

An individual ocean basin grows from an initial rift, reaches a maximum size
then shrinks and ultimately closes completely. Stages in this cycle are summarized
in Table 1.2 and briefly reviewed below.

21 | P a g e
Table 1.2 Stages in the Evolution of ocean Basins, with example
Stage Examples Dominant Motion Characteristic Features

1 embryonic East African crustal extension rift valleys

rift valleys and uplift

2 young Red Sea, Gulf subsidence and narrow seas with

of California spreading parallel coasts and a
central depression

3 mature Atlantic Ocean spreading ocean basin with active

spreading axes; island
arc and trenches

4 declining Pacific Ocean spreading and

shrinking

5 terminal Mediterranean shrinking and uplift young mountains

Sea

6 relict scar Indus suture in shrinking and uplift young mountains

the Himalayas

Stage 1 Whether or not the East African rift valleys really are an incipient ocean
basin and eastern Africa will eventually be split apart is debatable. Nevertheless,
such rift valleys must develop along the line of continental separation. When
separation does occur, sediments from the adjacent continents soon begin to build
out into the new basin and will become part of the eventual continental shelf-slope-
rise zone.

Stage 2 As the spreading axis migrates away from the marginal areas, the continents
become increasingly distant and so the sediment supply dwindles. The ocean floor
between the spreading axis and the continent subsides by thermal contraction of the
underlying lithosphere (Figure 2.13), abyssal plains form, and the continental shelf-
slope-rise zone becomes fully developed.

Stage 3 The continental margins are more or less parallel to the central spreading
ridge, as in the Atlantic.

Stage 4: Involves the development of one or more destructive plate margins. The
reason for the formation of new destructive margins probably lies in changing
circumstances in another part of the globe, such as continental collision or the
initiation of new continental rifting. If (as seems certain) the Earth is neither
expanding nor contracting, the net rates of spreading and subduction over any great
circle on the Earth must be equal, and the pattern of plates and plate motion must
adjust to keep this so.

22 | P a g e
Stage 5: The Mediterranean is an ocean in the final stages of its life with the African
Plate being consumed under the European Plate.

Stage 6: Unless the world system of plates changes so as to halt the northward
movement of Africa relative to Europe, the continental blocks of Europe and Africa
will eventually collide, and new mountain ranges will form

Seafloor Spreading Theory

The mechanism that operates along the ocean ridge system to create new floor
is called seafloor spreading. Harry Hess, an American geologist presented this
hypothesis and he proposed that the seafloor is not permanent but is continuously
being renewed. In 1960 Hess suggested that a process he called seafloor spreading
continually adds new material to the ocean floor. In seafloor spreading, the ocean
floor spreads apart along both sides of a mid-ocean ridge as a new crust is added. As
a result, the ocean floors move like a conveyor belts, carrying the continents along
with them.

FIGURE 1Sea-Floor
Spreading Molten material
erupts through the valley that
runs along the center of some
mid-ocean ridges. This
material hardens to form the
rock of the ocean floor.

What happens to the rock along the ridge when new molten material erupts?
Sea-floor spreading begins at a mid-ocean ridge, which forms along a crack in the
oceanic crust. Along the ridge, molten material that forms several kilometers beneath
the surface rises and erupts. At the same time, older rock moves outward on both
sides of the ridge. As the molten material cools, it forms a strip of solid rock in the
center of the ridge. When more molten material flows into the crack, it forms a new
strip of rock.

The ocean floor does not just keep spreading. Instead, it sinks beneath deep
underwater canyons called deep-ocean trenches. Where there are trenches,
subduction takes place. Subduction is the process by which the ocean floor sinks
beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle. At deep-ocean trenches,

23 | P a g e
subduction allows part of the ocean floor to sink back into the mantle, over tens of
millions of years.

The processes of subduction and sea-floor spreading can change the size and
shape of the oceans. Because of these processes, the ocean floor is renewed about
every 200 million years. The Pacific Ocean is shrinking. Its many trenches are
swallowing more ocean crust than the mid-ocean ridge is producing. The Atlantic
Ocean is expanding. In most places, the oceanic crust of the Atlantic Ocean is
attached to continental crust. As the Atlantic’s floor spreads, the continents along
its edges also move.

Different Observations that led to the proposal of Seafloor Spreading by Harry

Hess

A. Distribution of seafloor topographic features – distribution of mid-ocean ridges

and depth of the seafloor

B. Sediment thickness – fine layer of sediment covering much of the seafloor

becomes progressively thicker away from mid-ocean ridge axis; seafloor sediment not
as thick as previously thought

Sea sediments can be classified according to origin: 1) terrigenous 2) biogenous 3)

hydrogenous. Terrigenous sediments are consists of mineral grains that was
weathered from continental rocks and transported to the ocean. Biogenous
sediments is consists of shells and skeletal of marine animals and algae.
Hydrogenous sediments are consisting of minerals that crystallize directly from
seawater through various chemical reactions.

C. Composition of oceanic crust – consists primarily of basalt

D. High heat flow along mid-ocean ridge axes – led scientists to speculate that
magma is rising into the crust just below the mid-ocean ridge axis

E. Distribution of submarine earthquakes – earthquakes do not occur randomly

but define distinct belts (earthquake belts follow trenches, mid-oceanic ridges,
transform faults)

Evidence for seafloor spreading

1. Magnetic stripes on the seafloor

Scientists discovered that the rock that makes up the ocean floor lies in a
pattern of magnetized “stripes.” These stripes hold a record of reversals in Earth’s
magnetic field. The rock of the ocean floor contains iron. The rock began as molten
material that cooled and hardened. As the rock cooled, the iron bits inside lined up
in the direction of Earth’s magnetic poles. This locked the iron bits in place, giving
the rocks a permanent “magnetic memory.”

24 | P a g e
2. Molten Material

In the 1960s, scientists found evidence that new material is indeed erupting
along mid-ocean ridges. The scientists dived to the ocean floor in Alvin, a small
submarine built to withstand the crushing pressures four kilometers down in the
ocean. In a ridge’s central valley, Alvin’s crew found strange rocks shaped like pillows
or like toothpaste squeezed from a tube. Such rocks form only when molten material
hardens quickly after erupting under water. These rocks showed that molten
material has erupted again and again along the mid-ocean ridge.

3. Deep sea drilling results:

Age of seafloor forms a symmetric pattern across the mid-oceanic ridges, age
increases with distance from the oceanic ridge; no seafloor older than 200 million
years could be found, indicating that seafloor is constantly being created and
destroyed.

What I Have Learned

1. Seafloor spreading separates at mid-ocean ridges where new crust forms by

upwelling magma. Newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the
ridge with the motion like that of a conveyor belt.
2. The longest chain of mountains in the world is the system of mid-ocean
ridges.
3. At a mid-ocean ridge, molten material rises from the mantle and erupts. The
molten material then spreads out, pushing older rock to both sides of the
ridge.
4. At deep-ocean trenches, subduction allows part of the ocean floor to sink
back into the mantle, over tens of millions of years.

25 | P a g e
 5. Ocean Basin refers to any of several vast submarine regions that collectively
cover nearly three-fourth of Earth’s surface. Together they contain the
overwhelming majority of all water on the planet and have the average depth
of 4 km (about 2.5 miles).

Assessment

Identification.
Directions: Identify the answer in each statement. Choose your answer from the box
and write it on a separate sheet of paper.

Active or Pacific type Declining deep sea drill molten material

ocean Crust Seafloor bathymetry Seafloor spreading
Stage 2 young Subduction Terrigenous sediments Terminal

________________ 1. are consists of mineral grains that was weathered from

continental rocks and transported to the ocean.
________________ 2. This evidence was found out by the scientist that new material is
erupting along mid-ocean ridges.
________________ 3. The process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep-ocean
trench and back into the mantle.
________________ 4. This consists of primarily of basalt.
________________ 5. It explains that the ocean floor spreads apart along both sides of
a mid-ocean ridge as a new crust is added.
________________ 6. This evidence helps to indicating that seafloor is constantly being
created and destroyed and the age of sea floor increases with distance from the
oceanic ridge
________________ 7. It is characterized by a narrow shelf and slope that descends into
a trench or trough.
________________ 8. It measures the vertical distance from the ocean surface to
mountains, valleys, plains, and other sea floor features
________________ 9. It is the stage where the dominant motion was spreading and
shrinking.
________________10. It is characterized by narrow seas with parallel coasts and a
central depression.

26 | P a g e
 Earth and Life
Science
Quarter 1 – Module 6:
History of the Earth

27 | P a g e
 What I Need to Know

Although there doesn’t seem to be much going on, the Earth and its materials
are very dynamic. The Earth’s history is recorded in the rocks of the crust. Rocks at
the Earth’s surface are continually being broken up, reformed and changed. It is just
that the changes take a very long time. This module is intended to develop an
understanding of the different methods that play a significant part on our planet’s
annals. The lessons can be used as guide and to better extrapolate present views
about Earth.

You shall demonstrate a thorough understanding of how the planet Earth evolved in
the last 4.6 billion years (including the age of the Earth, major geologic time
subdivisions, and marker fossils). The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
● Lesson 1 – Stratification and Geologic Dating
● Lesson 2 – Geologic Time Scale

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed (S11/12ES-Ie-25);
2. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the
age of stratified rocks (S11/12ES-Ie-26);
3. explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the
subdivisions of geologic time scale (S11/12ES-Ie-27);
4. describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time
scale (S11/12ES-Ie-29); and
5. foster appreciation to the evolution of Earth throughout time.

What I Know

General Directions: Read each statement carefully. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

A. Multiple Choices: Select the letter of the best answer.

1. The study of stratified rocks is called _______________________.
a. biology
b. dendrology
c. petrology
d. stratigraphy
2. The greatest part of the uppermost zone of the earth’s bedrock is
_________________________.
a. igneous rock
b. metamorphic rock
c. sedimentary rock

28 | P a g e
 d. none of these
3. The following are examples of stratified rocks except ________________.
a. A cooled granite outside the volcano
b. A basalt flow spread over a land surface by a volcano
c. A sand bed deposited on the continental shelf by a gigantic storm
d. An ash bed deposited over a wide area by an explosive volcanic eruption
4. The age of Earth is estimated to be _____________________.
a. 4.6 billion years old
b. 4.9 billion years old
c. 13.8 billion years old
d. 13.9 billion years old
5. The actual age of sedimentary rocks in which the datable material is found is
given by ______________________.
a. radioactive decay
b. radiometric dating
c. relative dating
d. superposition
6. To determine if one thing is younger or older than another, one can use
_________________.
a. radioactive decay
b. radiometric dating
c. relative dating
d. superposition
7. Radioactive isotope is an unstable form of an element, decays into stable
element, and gives off energy known as ______________________.
a. heat
b. mechanical energy
c. radiation
d. solar wind
8. In an unreformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer is older than the
one above and younger than the one below, a principle known as
__________________________________.
a. cross-cutting
b. inclusion
c. original horizontality
d. superposition

B. True or False: On the blank provided, draw a happy face ☺ if the statement
displays a fact and a sad face ☺ if the statement is incorrect.
_____9. Local section is the sequence of strata you would see in one big outcrop,
or in a series of outcrops in a small area.
_____10. Gradients of deposition of sediments in space and time can be non-
uniform; at certain times and places, changes are slower and less
abrupt.
_____11. Catastrophic depositional events cannot produce stratification in
sediments.
_____12. The age of stratified rocks can be determined using both the qualitative
and quantitative dating.
_____13. Nicholas Steno is the father of stratigraphy.
_____14. Half-life is the time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay.
_____15. To determine the age of an object, rock for instance, just divide the
number of half-lives by the known half-life of radioactive isotope.

29 | P a g e
 What is It

Stratification

The study of stratified rocks is called stratigraphy. It’s the branch of geology that
deals with the description, correlation, and interpretation of stratified sediments and
stratified rocks on and in the Earth. In as much as by far, the greatest part of the
uppermost zone of the earth’s bedrock is sedimentary rock. Stratigraphy is an
important branch of Earth Science.
How are stratified rocks formed? That very fundamental question goes right to
the heart of how and where sediments are deposited. In an approximate sort of way,
processes of two different kinds produce stratification in sediments:
● variations in slow and continuous depositional processes with time, because
of slow changes in environmental conditions
● brief and often catastrophic depositional events that punctuate slow
background sedimentation

Here are some other examples of events or processes that give rise to the strata
we see in the modern and ancient record of stratified rocks:
● A sand bed deposited on the continental shelf by a gigantic storm
● A gravel bed spread over a small area of the bed of a braided stream by a flood
● A thin lamina of clay deposited in the deep ocean, with slightly different
composition and/or texture, caused by slight change in depositional
conditions, that serves to distinguish it from underlying and overlying strata
● A basalt flow spread over a land surface by a volcano
● An ash bed deposited over a wide area by an explosive volcanic eruption

Now think about the sequence of strata you would see in one big outcrop, or in a
series of outcrops in a small area. This is called a local section. Even though the
physical dimensions of the outcrop might be fairly equidimensional, you are seeing
a stack of strata in essentially one dimension, because the changes from stratum to
stratum in the sequence are almost always much more rapid and substantial, per
unit distance, than lateral changes along the strata. It turns out that in any given
area, deposition is usually non-uniform in both space and time; the nature of
deposition changes laterally at a given time, and it changes with time at a given point.
Figure 1 is a cartoon of an outcrop that shows a local section.
It also usually turns out that gradients of deposition in space and time are also
non-uniform; at certain times and places, changes are faster and more abrupt. This
means that we have a good chance of recognizing what we could think of as natural
rock units. When we examine a local vertical section we usually find that vertical
variations are not entirely random or chaotic. Instead, there is usually some natural
ordering or signal such that the stack can be subdivided into rock units that show a
high degree of internal sameness compared with rocks above and below. (See Figure
2)

30 | P a g e
 Fig. 1 - Local section Fig. 2 - Natural rock units
Photo courtesy: www.wikipedia.com

Geologic Dating

Essential Questions:
How are the ages of
stratified rocks determined?
How old is planet Earth?

Photo courtesy: www.wikipedia.com

On your My Life Time line worksheet, you were able to find the exact date and
your age for your life events. At this point, you can identify the age of rocks and/or
fossils. The age of stratified rocks can be determined using the following methods:
1. Relative Dating (qualitative) - It is used to determine if one thing is younger
or older than another. Early scientists like Nicholas Steno (born Niels
Stensen; 1638–1686), the father of stratigraphy, recognized not only the
significance of fossils but also the true nature of strata. He used the principles
below to discern the nature and sequence of geological events and the relative
ages of rocks.

i. Original horizontality - Layers of sediments are deposited evenly with

each new layer laid down nearly horizontally over older sediment.
ii. Original lateral continuity - Strata were originally laterally extensive
relative to their thickness when they were deposited.
iii. Superposition - In an unreformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each
layer is older than the one above and younger than the one below.

31 | P a g e
 iv. Cross-cutting - An igneous intrusion or fault that cuts through
preexisting rock is younger than the rock which it cuts.
v. Inclusion - Inclusions are pieces of one rock type contained within
another. Any inclusion is older than the rock containing it.

Fig. 3 -
Rocks in Canada
Photo courtesy:
www.wikipedia.com

2. Absolute Dating (quantitative) - This referred as the actual age of rocks and
is used to determine how many years old something is. An example of this is
radiometric dating which entails measuring the ratio of radioactive isotopes
to their decay products.

Fig. 4 - Granite rock. Unstable atoms such as uranium (U) eventually change
into stable atoms, such as lead (Pb). The original version is called a parent atom
or isotope, and the new version is called a daughter atom.
Photo courtesy: www.wikipedia.com

What’s More

General Directions: Read and analyze each statement or question carefully. Write
your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
Independent Activity 1: Arrange Me!

Nicholas Steno used different principles in order to study the nature of strata.
From his underlying principles, what is the sequence of rock units in this figure,
from oldest to youngest? Use the letter indicated in each rock unit.

32 | P a g e
Independent Assessment 1

Fill in the blanks by identifying the Steno’s principle being described below.
1. The idea that most beds are laid down horizontally or nearly so is called the
_____________.
2. The idea that beds extend laterally in three dimensions until they thin to zero
thickness is called the ______________.
3. The idea that younger beds are deposited on top of older beds is called the
___________.
4. The idea that a dike transecting bedding must be younger than the bedding it
crosses is called the _________________.
5. The idea that one rock type is older than the rock containing it is called
________________.

What I Have Learned

1. The study of stratified rocks is called stratigraphy. It’s the branch of geology
that deals with the description, correlation, and interpretation of stratified
sediments and stratified rocks on and in the Earth.
2. The greatest part of the uppermost zone of the earth’s bedrock is sedimentary
rock.
3. In any given area, deposition is usually non-uniform in both space and time;
the nature of deposition changes laterally at a given time, and it changes with
time at a given point.
4. The age of stratified rocks can be determined using relative and absolute
dating.
5. Relative dating is used to determine if one thing is younger or older than
another and is governed by five principles - original horizontality, original
lateral continuity, superposition, cross-cutting, and inclusion.
6. Absolute dating is referred as the actual age of rocks and is used to determine
how many years old something is. An example of this is radiometric dating

33 | P a g e
 which entails measuring the ratio of radioactive isotopes to their decay
products.
7. Radioactive isotope is an unstable form of an element, decays into stable
element, and gives off energy (radiation) while half-life is the time it takes for
half of a radioactive isotope to decay.
8. To determine the age of an object, you have to multiply the number of half-
lives by known half-life of radioactive isotope.
9. Earth is estimated to be 4.6 billion years old.
10. The geologic time scale was developed through the use of relative dating, and
the specific dates were applied to it via radiometric dating.

Assessment

General Directions: Read each statement carefully. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

A. Multiple Choices: Select the letter of the best answer.

1. The study of stratified rocks is called _______________________.
a. biology
b. dendrology
c. petrology
d. stratigraphy
2. The greatest part of the uppermost zone of the earth’s bedrock is
_________________________.
a. igneous rock
b. metamorphic rock
c. sedimentary rock
d. none of these
3. The following are examples of stratified rocks except ________________.
a. A cooled granite outside the volcano
b. A basalt flow spread over a land surface by a volcano
c. A sand bed deposited on the continental shelf by a gigantic storm
d. An ash bed deposited over a wide area by an explosive volcanic eruption
4. The age of Earth is estimated to be _____________________.
a. 4.6 billion years old
b. 4.9 billion years old
c. 13.8 billion years old
d. 13.9 billion years old
5. The actual age of sedimentary rocks in which the datable material is found is
given by ______________________.
a. radioactive decay
b. radiometric dating
c. relative dating
d. superposition
6. To determine if one thing is younger or older than another, one can use
_________________.
a. radioactive decay

34 | P a g e
 b. radiometric dating
c. relative dating
d. superposition
7. Radioactive isotope is an unstable form of an element, decays into stable
element, and gives off energy known as ______________________.
a. heat
b. mechanical energy
c. radiation
d. solar wind
8. In an unreformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer is older than the
one above and younger than the one below, a principle known as
__________________________________.
a. cross-cutting
b. inclusion
c. original horizontality
d. superposition

B. True or False: On the blank provided, draw a happy face ☺ if the statement displays
a fact and a sad face ☺ if the statement is incorrect.
_____9. Local section is the sequence of strata you would see in one big outcrop,
or in a series of outcrops in a small area.
_____10. Gradients of deposition of sediments in space and time can be non-
uniform; at certain times and places, changes are slower and less
abrupt.
_____11. Catastrophic depositional events cannot produce stratification in
sediments.
_____12. The age of stratified rocks can be determined using both the qualitative
and quantitative dating.
_____13. Nicholas Steno is the father of stratigraphy.
_____14. Half-life is the time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay.
_____15. To determine the age of an object, rock for instance, just divide the
number of half-lives by the known half-life of radioactive isotope.

Lesson
Geologic Time Scale
2
S. Evringham quoted, “I understand better why there are mountains and valleys and
now they developed over millions of years. It gives me a better sense of how old the
Earth is, which is quite amazing.” A geologic time scale is a system of chronological
dating that relates geologic landforms (strata) to time, shows sequence of major
evolutionary events, places plate motions and mountain building events, and divides
Earth’s history into time units based on the fossil record. At the end of the lesson,
you are expected to:

1. define and identify subdivisions of the geologic time scale; and

2. interpret from the geologic time scale the history of the Earth.

35 | P a g e
 What is It

The geologic time scale was developed through the use of relative dating, and the
specific dates were applied to it via radiometric dating. The geologic time scale is
divided into three eras. Each is further divided into periods and further into epochs.
Precambrian Time (time of hidden life) - 4.6 bya to 544 mya
Most of the rocks in this early part of Earth’s history have been extensively eroded
away, metamorphosed obscured by overlying strata or recycled into the Earth’s
interior.
The Earth’s earliest gases were hypothesized to be swept into space by solar wind.
As the planet slowly cooled, a more sustaining atmosphere was formed. Gases
brought to the surface by volcanic processes created both a primitive atmosphere
and an ocean. The first atmosphere was rich in water vapor but very poor in free
oxygen. The first simple organisms were plants. Organisms such as blue green algae
developed a simple version of photosynthesis. They keep carbon dioxide and expel
oxygen. With the release of free oxygen a primitive ozone layer began to develop which
reduced the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth.
The most common Precambrian fossils are stromatolites. These are indirect
pieces of evidence of algae. Towards the end of this period, fossil records revealed
that diverse and complete multi-celled organisms existed.
1. Paleozoic Era (time of ancient life) - 544 mya to 300 mya
This was the time sea levels rose and fell worldwide, allowing shallow seas to
cover the continents and marine life to flourish - from marine invertebrates to
fishes, amphibians, and reptiles.
a. Cambrian period - Almost all marine organisms came into existence
as evidenced by abundant fossils. A most important event is the
development of organisms having the ability to secrete calcium
carbonate and calcium phosphate for the formation of shells.
b. Ordovician period - This period marks the earliest appearance of
vertebrates - the jawless fish known as agnatha.
c. Silurian period - This period brought the emergence of vascular plants.
As plants move ashore so did other terrestrial organisms. Air-breathing
scorpions and millipedes were also common.
d. Devonian period - This is the age of the fishes. Sharks and bony fishes
developed. The lung fishes and coelacanth, a living fossil, have such
internal nostrils and breathe in a similar way. Lowland forests of seed
ferns, scale trees and true ferns flourished.
e. Carboniferous period - Warm, moist climate conditions contributed to
lash vegetation and dense swampy forests. Insects under rapid
evolution led to such diverse forms of giant cockroaches and
dragonflies.
f. Permian period - The two major reptiles - diapsids and synapsids -
dominated this period. Diapsids gave rise to dinosaurs, while the
synapsids gave birth to mammals.

36 | P a g e
 2. Mesozoic Era (time of middle life)
This is known as the age of reptiles and is made up of three periods namely:
a. Triassic period - First dinosaurs appeared during this period. Life and
fauna rediversified. Pangaea broke apart.
b. Jurassic period - This period is regarded as the golden age of dinosaurs
by which dinosaurs flourished.
c. Cretaceous period - T-rex developed. First snakes and primates
appeared on this period. Deciduous trees, grasses, and first flowering
plants emerged. Mass extinction marks the end of the Mesozoic Era,
with the demise of dinosaurs and 25% of all marine life.

3. Cenozoic Era (time of recent life)

This era is known as the age of mammals because mammals replaced reptiles
as the dominant land animal.
a. Tertiary period
i. Paleocene epoch - First horses appear and tropical plants
dominated.
ii. Eocene epoch - Grasses spread and whales, rhinos, elephants and
other large mammals developed. Sea level rose and limestone
deposits formed in South China.
iii. Oligocene epoch - Dogs, cats, and apes appeared.
iv. Miocene epoch - Horses, mastodons, camels, and tigers roamed.
v. Pliocene epoch - Hominids developed and the Grand Canyon
formed.
b. Quaternary period
i. Pleistocene epoch - Modern humans developed and ice sheets were
predominant. This epoch is considered as the Ice Age.
ii. Holocene epoch - Humans flourished.

Climates cooled during Cenozoic era, hence the widespread glaciation. This era also
brought about the advent of humans. The lowered sea level resulted in the ‘land
bridges’ connections between land masses. One of these land bridges provided the
route for the human migration from Asia to North America, also throughout the
world.

stromatolites agnatha coelacanth

37 | P a g e
 diapsid synapsid rhino

mastodon Grand Canyon

Photo courtesy: www.wikipedia.com

Independent Assessment 1

Mark the following important events from the geologic time scale next to the
correct period. The first one is done for you.

1. Single-celled organisms Precambrian

2. Early vascular plants ___________
3. Fishes ___________
4. Agnatha, a jawless fish ___________
5. Synapsids ___________
6. Separation of Pangaea ___________
7. First snakes ___________
8. First dinosaurs ___________
9. Modern humans ___________
10. Formation of Grand Canyon ___________

What I Have Learned

1. The geologic time scale was divided into three eras - Paleozoic (ancient life),
Mesozoic (middle life), and Cenozoic (recent life).
2. Each geologic era was divided into different periods which gave rise to the
emergence of various life forms and processes.

38 | P a g e
 3. Precambrian time is the time of hidden life by which stromatolite fossils are
found.
4. Mesozoic era is known as the age of reptiles.
5. Cenozoic era is known as the age of mammals because mammals replaced
reptiles as the dominant land animal, and the era that brought about the
advent of humans.
6. Humans flourished during the Holocene epoch.

Assessment

General Directions: Read each statement carefully. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.

A. Multiple Choices: Select the letter of the best answer.

1. Vascular plants emerged during the _______________________.
a. Cambrian period
b. Devonian period
c. Ordovician period
d. Silurian period
2. Ordovician period marks the earliest appearance of vertebrates - the jawless
fish known as _________________________.
a. agnatha
b. diapsid
c. rhino
d. stromatolites
3. Towards the end of the _______________________, fossil records revealed that
diverse and complete multi-celled organisms existed.
a. time of ancient life
b. time of hidden life
c. time of middle life
d. time of recent life
4. The age of Earth is estimated to be _____________________.
a. 4.6 billion years old
b. 4.9 billion years old
c. 13.8 billion years old
d. 13.9 billion years old
5. The geologic time scale was developed through the process of
______________________.
a. radioactive decay
b. radiometric dating
c. relative dating
d. superposition
6. Dogs, cats, and apes appeared during _________________ epoch.
a. Eocene
b. Miocene
c. Oligocene
d. Paleocene

39 | P a g e
 7. Humans flourished during ___________________ epoch.
a. Holocene
b. Miocene
c. Oligocene
d. Pleistocene
8. Pangaea broke apart on the _____________________ period.
a. Cretaceous
b. Jurassic
c. Tertiary
d. Triassic

B. True or False: On the blank provided, write FACT if the statement displays all
reality, and BLUFF if the statement is incorrect.
_____9. Paleozoic era is the time of middle life.
_____10. First dinosaurs appeared during Jurassic period.
_____11. Mesozoic era is known as the age of mammals because mammals
replaced reptiles as the dominant land animal.
_____12. Climates cooled during Cenozoic era, hence the widespread glaciation.
_____13. The most common Precambrian fossils are pieces of evidence of algae
called stromatolites.
_____14. During Holocene epoch, modern humans developed and ice sheets were
predominant.
_____15. The specific dates were applied to geologic time scale via radiometric
dating.

40 | P a g e
 41 | P a g e
Lesson 1: Continental Drift and Its Lesson 1:
Evidences Continental Drift
and Its Evidences
What’s More
Independent Assessment. What’s More
1. Continental drift is the idea that the continents Independent
move. From a single landmass called Pangaea, the Activity.
continents broke apart and drifted to their current Calculate the Rate
positions.
1. 2.50 cm/year
2. The evidence of continental drift include (1)
2. 7.80 cm/year
continental fit, (2) similarities of geologic units and
structures across continents, (3) fossil match across 3. 6. 00 cm/year
continents, and (4) glacial and paleoclimate evidence.
3. The mountain ranges should be aligned from one
continent to another. The rock types and their ages
should be similar for both landmasses. If there are
fossils in the area, they should be similar as well.
What's In Lesson 1-Activty 1.1 What I Know
Continental Drift A
C
Answer Key: The following were
D
considered in piecing together the ‘jigsaw
C
puzzle’: the shapes of coast lines, distribution
A
of fossils, and mountain ranges.
C
Answer Key: The distribution of fossils and
D
mountain ranges will ‘line up’ in the
C
reconstructed map. They will form
C
continuous belts or areas.
D
Answer Key: The imperfect fit is most
likely due to the modification of the coastlines
as a result of weathering and erosion, and
collisions and movement of plates. Fitting
together the continental slopes will provide a
much better fit.
Lesson 1. Continental drift
Week5:
Answer Key
 42 | P a g e
Lesson 2:
What's More Lesson 2: Lesson 2:
Independent Activity 1 What’s In What I Know
Answers may vary. Give ERA - a large d
clarifications if needed. division of geologic a
time usually b
Independent Assessment shorter than eon a
1 EVOLUTION - a c
process of change c
Precambrian or transformation a
(sample) TIMELINE - a d
Silurian table listing BLUFF
Devonian important events BLUFF
Ordovician for successive BLUFF
Permian years within a FACT
Triassic particular FACT
Cretaceous historical period BLUFF
Triassic FACT
Quaternary
Tertiary
Lesson 1:
Lesson 1:
Assessment
What I Know
d
d c
c a
a a
a b
b c
c c
c d
d
Week 6:
References

Salandanan, G. Faltado, R. Lopez, M., Earth and life science for senior high school
(core subject)
Braile, L., (2000)Teaching about plate tectonics and faulting using foam models
Purdue University,https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/foammod/f
oammod.htm
Dela Cruz, A., Remotigue, C, Dizon Jr. E., (et. al)2016, Teaching guide for senior high
school earth and life science core subject, Commission on Higher Education
Retrieved from https://chedk12.wordpress.com/teachingguides/
Guzman II, A., Dizon Jr. E., Dizon, Z., Listanco, E., Abon, C. (2016) Teaching guide
for senior high school earth science core subject, Commission on Higher
Education Retrieved from https://chedk12.wordpress.com/teachingguides/
Lumen Physical Geology, Plate tectonics, Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/theory-of-
continental-drift/
Luyendyk, B., (n.d.) Ocean basin, earth feature
https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-basin/Evolution-of-the-ocean-
basins-through-plate-movements
Miller, K, (2015), Edible plate tectonics, Science Inquiry.com
https://science4inquiry.com/LessonPlans/EarthScience/PlateTectonics/Edi
blePlateTectonicsFinal.pdf
Antartica 90 degrese south, western reserve public media
https://westernreservepublicmedia.org/antarcti/platetec.htm
Continents in the sand http://www.cee.org/tep-lab-
bench/pdf/ContinentalDriftActivity.pdf

Earth floor (2005) http: //www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/ mses/ earthsysflr/plates4.

html
National Geographic, Seafloor spreading, Retireved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/seafloor-spreading/
Socratic Q & A https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-the-major-layers-of-the-
earth

The Geological Society, Plate tectonics retrieved from

https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap4-Plate- Tectonics-of-the-
UK

Wilson Cycle https://csmgeo.csm.jmu.edu/geollab/Fichter/Wilson/Wilson.html

Pinterest Plate Tectonic Wheel Foldable (Plate Boundaries) Distance Learning,

43 | P a g e