The word atom is a Greek word meaning indivisible.

different but the sum of number of neutrons and protons

According to Dalton's atomic theory, atom is the smallest (mass number) is same.
indivisible part of matter which takes part in chemical • Isobars occupy different positions in periodic table.
reactions. In 1833, Michael Faraday showed that there is a • Because these are atoms of different elements so their
relationship between matter and electricity. The discovery chemical properties are different but as their atomic
of electrons, protons and neutrons discarded the indivisible masses are same so they possess almost identical physical
nature of atom proposed by John Dalton. properties.
Atomic Number (Z) CONCEPTS OF SHELLS AND SUBSHELLS
• Atomic number of an element is the number of positive
charges (or the number of protons, p) present in the
nucleus of the atom.
• Since the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, therefore
the number of positively charged particles i.e. protons andQ ;or l,2,3,4,5,6and
present in the atom must be equal to the number of 7 ; going from innermost
negatively charged particles i.e. electrons present in it. shell to outwards.
Each shell can contain
• Atomic number of an element
only a fixed number of
= total numb.er of protons present in the nucleus
electrons, the n shell
= total number of electrons present in the atom.
to can hold up to 2n 2
Mass Number (A) electrons.
• The total mass of an atom is mainly due to protons and • The electrons in outer
neutrons, and the sum of the number of protons and shell have higher average
neutrons (nucleons) in the nucleus of the atom is known energy and travel farther Shell designation in an atom
as mass number. from nucleus than those in inner shells. 1hus electrons of
• A = Z + N, where N is the number of neutrons. An outer shells are more important for reactivity.
element X having a mass number A and atomic number Subshell
Z is represented as: • Each shell consists of one or more subshells and each
zXA or ;x subshell consists of one or more atomic orbitals.
Isotopes • There are four different types of subshells. These various
• Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having different subshells are denoted by letters s, p, d andf
l f
atomic masses. e.g. H, H and f H .
• Isotopes of an element possess identical chemical
properties but differ slightly in physical properties.
• Number of neutrons present in the nuclei of various K ls 2 2
2s 2
isotopes of an element is always different. L 2+6=8
• All the isotopes of an element occupy the same position 2p 6
in the periodic table. 3s 2
M 3p 6 2+6+ 10= 18
Isobars
3d IO
• These are the atoms of different elements having same
4s 2
mass number but different atomic numbers.
N 4p 6
2+6+ 10+ 14=32
4
e. O'o-. J9°K and 420°Ca' 146 C and 147 N' etc " 4d 10
• Number of electrons or protons (atomic number) is 4J 14
Structure of Atom 31

The kinetic energy of an electron is 4.55 x 1 0 25

- J. Calculate
the wavelength (h = 6.6 x 1 0-34 J sec, mass of electron
� 9 . ] X lQ· 3 l kg).
�� Soln.: K.E. = I.mv2 = 4.55 x 1 0 -25
@ 2 2 6 2 6 10 1 2
or I. x 9 . l x l0-31 x v2 = 4.55 x l 0 -25
2
2 X 4.55 X 10-25
or v2 = orv = !03 m s-1
9. l x l0-31
� Applying de Broglie equation,
Copper atom
6.6 X 10-34
A = h --- - 3 - 0.72 x l0-6 m
• The subshell s is of lowest energy and thef subshell is of mv 9. l x l0-31 x l 0
highest energy subshelL
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
Dual Nature e Heisenberg's uncertainty principle implies that it is
• In 1924, deBroglieprnposedthatanelectron, likeligh� behaves impossible to know simultaneously the position and
both as a material and as a wave. This proposal gave birth to velocity (or momentum) of a microscopic moving particle
wave mechanical theory which states that electrons, protons like electron, proton, etc.
and even atoms when in motion possess wave properties. Microscope
• The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is given by Reflected
Photon Photon of
'A = � = I,_
p
wavelength 1 A
mv
where, h = Planck's constant, m = mass of particle
v = velocity, p = momentum Changed path of
o Let kinetic energy of the particle of mass 'm' is E.
E = lmv2
the electron

,,.,,.,,.'
-­
2 Nucleus
,_ _ 1,_ _ _h_ '/
- p - )2mE Expected path / Original path
ofthe electron .J. of the electron
Modifications made by Davisson and Germer Fig : Change in the path and velocity of a moving electron by the
e Davisson and Germer demonstrated the physical reality impact of a photon of light of wavelength equal to 1 A.
of the wave nature of electrons by showing that a beam @ Mathematical relation : IfAx is the uncertainty in defining
of electrons could also be diffracted by crystals just like the position and Av is uncertainty in the velocity, the
light of X-rays. uncertainty principle may be expressed mathematically
Let a charged particle, say an electron, be accelerated with as,
a potential of V, then kinetic energy l /2mv2 acquired by h
this electron due to the electric field shall be equal to the fu · ti.v 2 -
47!
electrical force.
½mv2 = eV A dust particle has mass equal to 1 o-n g, diameter equal to
1 0--4 cm and velocity equal to 1 Q--4 cm s-1 . The error in
• According to de Broglie, mv = 12.
'A
measurement of velocity is 0.1 %. Calculate unce1tainty in its
h position.
'A
)2meV -4
Soln.: f..v 0. l x l0 = l x lO-'cm s-1
de Broglie Wavelength 100
ti.v-fu = �h_
'· ]l'of.ehai'g<\d pa#i�le· 'F'of �nchatged particle ·· · 4rcm
12.27 A 0.286 A 6.626 x l0-27
Electrons, 'A = Neutrons, 'A
rv Gas molecules,
Ji (eV)
L\x
4 x 3. l 4 x l0-1 1 x l x !0-7
o 6 The uncertainty in position as compared to particle size
Proton, 'A = -;; A 'A = -h- L\x 5.27 x 1 0 - 10 = 5.27 x 10-6 cm
)3mkT
diameter I o-4
O.lOl A where,
a-particles, A =
rv
where, V= acceleratingpoten-
k = Boltzmann constant
Atomic Orbital
e The three dimensional space around the nucleus within
E = kinetic energy which the probability of finding an electron of given
tial of these particles energy is maximum, is called atomic orbital.
• Atomic orbital is the spatial description of the motion Quantum Numbers
of an electron corresponding to a particular energy level. • It is defined as a set of four numbers which gives complete
The energy of electron in an atomic orbital is always information about the electron in an atom i.e. energy, orbital
the same. occupied, size, shape and orientation of that orbital and
the direction of electron spin.

Used to . specify the position and describe orbital or determ:ine the preferred orientations a c c o u n t the s p i n o f
energy of electron. subshell of qrbitals in space. electrons.

Values. n = 1 , 2, 3, . . . , oo l = 0, I , 2, . . . (n - I) -l ... 0 .... +l +1/2 or -1/2

1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 0, 1 , 2, 3
Examples
KL MN O P Q s p df
Minimum numb er of Orbital angular Total value of m = (21 + I ) Spin angular momentum
electrons = 2n2 momentum s => m = 0 (1 value)
= !!-.J s(s + 1)
Used for -13.6 z2 p => m = -l, 0, +l (3 values) 21t
c.alculating En = 2
= _!!_.jz(Z + 1) d => m = ±2 , ± 1 , 0 (5 values) s => maximum 2 electrons
n 21t => maximum 6 electrons
/=> m = ±3 , ±2, ± 1 , 0 p
s < p < d <f (7 values) d => maximum 1 0 electrons
f => maximum 14 electrons

s
n I m s m
+1

l- o - o -{
+l
2 } Total 2
_ l · electrons
+2-[ _I 2
1

:r _I
+
l
+1-[
+ 2
1-[
2 1
1 2 or +2 I Od
_r 2
+
6p L. -2
1
electrons
l
O L -2
1 .electrons
+l
2
-1-[
+l
_i
Total 8
electrons
-1-[ _l2
2 + 1

+- } 2s 1
0 -.·· O L _ f electrons
_J -2-[
-2
t Total 1 8
electrons

n +l
3 1
+ -[
.. _1 2
+l
o -[ _I
1 6p
electrons
2
1
-l__r
---i_
+2
i
-2
+l
o - o __r 2 } zs
L _ l2 electrons

Quantum numbers and the permissible number of electrons

 CONCEPT MAP
"'=t
SillRl:T@ffifilRE OE,&');C!JNJ; �
ii!

Co11cept9t 9ll�llt1'II(
J�litfd:,�:ei,9P , ��nt_()f·.�.S,U,ital,1e:-,.���­ O_rbl_tal ·numbers: .
.·gen.�.�,i / 1J1gij,el ·}r..:-�.t��-�f-.-':Vfas
. _ai_nlyib_: ai;ed'iqlon, UV�:r�'i,n:�_epts-�_
·m Three dimensional space around Each electron is characterised by T h e d i s tr i b u t i o n o f

J
l i
the nucleus within which the
probability of finding an electron
of given energy is maximum is an
a set of four numbers called
quantum numbers.
electrons in different
orbitals.

Dual nature of Heisenberg atomic orbital. The maximum l�I Principal quantum number (n) Aufbau principle
matter and light uncertainty principle number of electrons present in • Determines the main energy
any orbital is 2. shell or level in which the In the ground state of an
The wave associated States that it is atom, an electron enters the
with a particle is called
a matter wave or de­
impossible to
determine simul­
J
Shapes of atomic orbitals
electron is present.
e n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . orbital of lowest energy
first and subsequent
Broglie wave and its taneously, the exact electrons are fed in the
wavelength was position and exact s-orbitals (spherical) o rder o f i n c r e a s i n g
l�I Azimuthal (angular) quantum

0
calculated by analogy momentum of an number(!) energies.
with photon. electron. e Gives the snbshell or sub­
de Broglie's relation­ level in a given principal Bohr Bury's rule (n + l
ship, h ------'>- p-orbitals (dumb-bell)
f1x x /j_p '?_ - energy shell to which an rule)
4n electron belongs. Orbitals fill in the order of
h h • n =O, 1,2, 3, (n - 1)
Jc = - = ­ increasing value of (n + [).
mv p �x ¾ x �x • Determines the angular If the two orbitals have
z z momentum ofthe electrons. same (n + /) value then the
e l=0, 1 , 2, 3 , . orbital with lower value of
Px. Py Pz s, p, d,f, ... n will be filled first.
d -orbitals (dxy, dyz' dxz• dx2 � y2)
clover leaf shape, dz2 (doughnut shape) Magnetic quantum number (m) Pauli's exclusion
@ Gives different orientations principle
ofthe orbitals in space. No two electrons in an
atom can have same set of

+· +·
• m =-1, ... 0 ... +l
�x �y �x
e For each value of l, there are values for all the four
(2l + 1) values ofm. quantum numbers.
dxy dyz dxz An orbital can accomm­
odate max.imum of two
Spin quantum number (s) electrons.
• D escribes the spin
orientation ofthe electron.
Hund's rule of maximum
• s =+1/2 or -1/2
multiplicity
(two orientations clockwise
dx2-y2 dz2 Electron pairing will not
or anti-clockwise
take place in orbitals of
respectively)
same energy until each
orbital is singly filled.
w
u,