Decentranlized Review

Desalination and Water Treatment 320 (2024) 100830
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Desalination and Water Treatment

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/desalination-and-water-treatment/
Advancements and challenges in decentralized wastewater treatment: A

comprehensive review
Jey-R S. Ventura a,* , Jaren U. Tulipan a , Angelo Banawa b , Kennedick D.C. Umali b,
John Allen L. Villanueva b
a
Biomaterials and Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Department of Engineering Science, College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of the
Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• DEWATS gains attention for tackling

untreated wastewater in areas lacking
central systems.
• The review assessed progress in the
treatment technology integrated into
DEWATS.
• Several studies on DEWATS treatment
technologies report high removal
efficiencies.
• DEWATS needs further development to
become a preferred community solution.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) are gaining prominence as solutions to challenges
DEWATS encountered by centralized systems, such as high costs, inflexible designs, and limited adaptability. This article
Sustainability reviews the literature on DEWATS and highlights their benefits, types, and diverse pollutant removal efficiencies.
Resource recovery
The analysis encompasses various DEWATS, including anaerobic baffled reactors, constructed wetlands, mi
Wastewater management
crobial fuel cells, and more. Notably, microbial fuel cells and single-pass sand filters with denitrifying reactors
excel in removing chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), and ammonium ni
trogen (NH+ 4 -N). This shows their effectiveness in organic matter and nitrogen reduction. However, variations
exist in total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP), and coliform removal among different systems. DEWATS
proves to be a viable solution for small communities, large buildings, and areas unsuitable for centralized sys
tems. These systems offer significantly lower construction and operational costs. Moreover, they enable resource
recovery from wastewater and safe disposal of treated sewage sludge and water. Despite their benefits, DEWATS
face challenges stemming from technological constraints, social factors, and regulatory issues. Since wastewater
characteristics can affect DEWATS’ efficiency, site-specific evaluations are crucial to selecting the most suitable
technology. In areas where centralized systems are impractical, decentralized solutions present a pragmatic
wastewater management approach. Future research should focus on optimizing DEWATS’ design and efficiency
under varying operational conditions. Additionally, exploring DEWATS’ potential to contribute to sustainable
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jsventura@up.edu.ph (J.-R.S. Ventura).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100830
Received 15 May 2024; Received in revised form 29 September 2024; Accepted 6 October 2024
Available online 9 October 2024
1944-3986/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
J.-R.S. Ventura et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 320 (2024) 100830
water management, reduce energy consumption, and promote resource recovery is essential for advancing
decentralized wastewater treatment systems.
1. Introduction and treats wastewater from the immediate vicinity to the treatment fa
cility, offering a pragmatic solution to address the wastewater man
Despite significant scientific and technological advancements, the agement needs in such areas [4].
discharge of untreated wastewater continues to pose grave environ DEWATS is a type of wastewater treatment that collects, treats, and
mental and human health risks [1]. A significant issue in wastewater disposes/reuses wastewater originating from individual households,
remains as the escalating volumes of wastewater are generated due to groups of dwellings, or industrial or institutional facilities located in
ongoing population growth. This challenge demands either the expan relatively close proximity (indicatively 3–5 km at maximum) which is
sion or modification of existing treatment facilities or the establishment not served by a central sewer management system linking to a regional
of entirely new plants. Although treatment technologies exist, they wastewater treatment plant [5]. DEWATS promote the recycling and
largely rely on conventional large-scale centralized wastewater treat reuse of water near their location. Commonly, DEWATS provides
ment plants, involving the collection of effluents from various sources different treatment options, ranging from simple, passive methods like
and transportation through extensive pipe networks to centralized septic systems with soil dispersal to more advanced mechanized ap
treatment facilities. proaches. These advanced methods involve treatment units that gather
The data concerning the population connected to wastewater col wastewater from various buildings and release it to either surface waters
lecting systems and wastewater treatment facilities across various or soil [6].
countries reveals significant disparities and trends that reflect varying DEWATS are becoming more popular due to their advantages over
levels of infrastructure development and sanitation practices globally centralized systems. This system provides lower capital and operating
[2]. Firstly, the percentage of the population connected to wastewater costs, increased flexibility, adaptability to local conditions, reduced
collecting systems demonstrates a broad range, with countries like environmental impacts, enhanced resource recovery, and improved
Monaco and Singapore achieving nearly universal coverage (100 %) in public health and hygiene [5]. Despite these advantages, implementing
the latest available years, indicating highly developed urban infra decentralized systems still faces challenges. These include technological
structure. In contrast, several countries, including Guinea and Kenya, limitations, social and institutional factors, and regulatory issues.
exhibit very low connection rates, with Guinea at just 11 % and Kenya at Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the most suitable technology and
4.9 %, highlighting substantial gaps in wastewater infrastructure and conditions for each specific site to ensure the feasibility and sustain
potential public health risks. Similarly, the data on wastewater treat ability of decentralized systems. Based on a previous study, there is a
ment connectivity further underscores disparities. Countries such as significant increase in patented modular wastewater treatment systems
Monaco and Singapore maintain high connection rates for wastewater [7]. These systems integrate different treatment technologies to make
treatment (100 %), signaling advanced systems for managing and pro the system robust and scalable. Most modularized systems were bio
cessing wastewater. However, there are notable exceptions, such as logical treatments.
Venezuela, where only 23.8 % of the population is connected to With effective design, maintenance, and operation, several studies
wastewater treatment facilities, despite a high connection rate to show that DEWATS is a viable solution for communities of varying size
wastewater collecting systems (86 %). This discrepancy suggests chal and demographic [8,9]. These systems can cater to areas that lack or
lenges in transitioning from mere collection to effective treatment. cannot connect to centralized sewers or treatment plants. These systems
Several countries also display notable improvements or deteriorations can also reduce the construction, operation, and maintenance costs.
over time. For instance, Bulgaria’s wastewater collection system Furthermore, they can enable resource recovery of nutrients, treated
coverage has risen significantly from 70 % in 2009, while its treatment sludge, water, and energy from wastewater.
coverage has lagged at 45 %. This suggests ongoing efforts in expanding This study was done to provide a comprehensive overview of the
collection infrastructure without corresponding advancements in treat current state of decentralized wastewater treatment research. It also
ment capacity. On the other hand, Turkey’s treatment coverage (46 %) is aims to identify gaps in the existing literature on decentralized waste
substantially lower compared to its collecting system coverage (73 %), water treatment.
which could reflect inefficiencies or limitations in the treatment infra
structure. Looking at global regions, developed countries generally have 2. Literature search methodology
good collection and wastewater treatment systems, while developing
countries vary. In high-income countries, particularly in Western Europe Fig. 1 shows the literature search methodology done for this review.
and North America, over 80 % of the population is typically connected to A thorough literature search was conducted by using Google Scholar,
wastewater collection and treatment systems. In contrast, Web of Science, and Scopus as the source databases. The search was
middle-income countries, including parts of Eastern Europe and Asia, limited to research articles and review papers published between 2002
exhibit more variable connection rates, generally ranging between 40 % and 2024. The search strategy employed in this study used a keyword
and 70 %. Low-income countries, such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa search approach using keywords such as but not limited to "DEWATS",
and parts of South Asia, have significantly lower connection rates, often "decentralized wastewater treatment system", "small scale wastewater
below 30 %. In the Middle East and North Africa, approximately 15 % of
the population is connected to systems that enable substantial reuse of
treated wastewater.
On the global scale, the implementation of new developments ne
cessitates well-implemented transport systems of wastewater from
sewers to centralized treatment facilities. Nevertheless, in areas where
sewer systems are insufficiently developed, this strategy can be difficult
and non-economic [3].
In the context of urban and rural wastewater treatment, an alterna
tive approach involves the establishment of a decentralized, efficient,
on-site wastewater treatment facility. This system efficiently collects Fig. 1. DEWATS literature search methodology.
2
treatment system", "greywater treatment system", "blackwater treatment DEWATS are examined in developing nations (Vietnam and Thailand),
system", “onsite wastewater treatment system,” and “onsite wastewater in the context of a nation dealing with water scarcity and sanitation
reuse.” These terms were selected based on their relevance to the topic challenges (Africa), and in technologically advanced countries with
and their likelihood of returning pertinent results. A combination of well-established wastewater infrastructures (Ireland, USA, Japan). As
these keywords was also utilized in various searches to ensure a seen in Fig. 4, the researchers obtained the highest number of studies in
comprehensive and inclusive search. The initial search yielded 478 the USA. The country’s numerous studies about DEWATS can be
studies. attributed to its population density, urbanization, and varied
To improve the search results, specific guidelines were followed. The geographical conditions that require unique wastewater treatment ap
focus was on literature related to DEWATS or similar approaches. This proaches. Also, the region of Central and Southeast Asia is exploring
included studies on the design and implementation of DEWATS; the DEWATS. Meanwhile, even though there are sanitation challenges in
operation and performance of DEWATS; comparisons between central Africa, research regarding DEWATS is scarce. Comparing the studies
ized and decentralized wastewater treatment methods; and environ considered in this review to the patents for modular wastewater treat
mental, social, and economic aspects of DEWATS. Non-peer-reviewed ment systems [7], showed that China is the leading innovator for
articles, conference proceedings, theses, and dissertations were not decentralized wastewater treatment technologies, with modularization
considered. After applying these criteria, 478 studies were found. To approaches followed by the USA. This shows that developed countries
further improve the quality of the included literature, only those works are leading the development of decentralized systems in terms of
with technologies related to DEWATS were considered. This trimmed research and in terms of patents filed.
down the studies into 83 studies overall. Fig. 5 reveals the distribution of wastewater sources treated in the
featured studies focusing on DEWATS. Based on the said figure, the
3. Data extraction and analysis source of wastewater that was primarily treated by this system is do
mestic wastewater. This is followed closely by municipal wastewater,
Fig. 2 shows the data extraction and analysis methodology. The then by industrial and agricultural wastewater. DEWATS are proven to
selected articles were grouped into appropriate classifications to syn be advantageous in treating domestic wastewater since it offers a
thesize findings and identify knowledge gaps in the field. Key informa practical and efficient solution for areas without access to centralized
tion from the literature search was extracted. The extracted information sewer systems and reduces the strain on infrastructure and resources
included essential aspects such as: type and source of wastewater; [10]. Meanwhile, agricultural wastewater has lower percent utilization
geographical location; capacity of wastewater treatment systems; and because it is normally generated in rural areas. The treatment of agri
year of study. Additionally, details about the specific wastewater treat cultural wastewater is crucial because it often contains nutrients such as
ment technologies used and their corresponding removal efficiencies nitrogen and phosphorus, which can cause algal blooms and water
were recorded. Then, a comprehensive dataset was compiled using a pollution if not properly treated [11]. Wastewater treatment facilities
Microsoft Excel database. Analyzing the developed database, the are less common in rural areas, and the volume of wastewater generated
strengths, and limitations of DEWATS were highlighted. This produced is relatively small compared to other sources. DEWATS is commonly
valuable insights into their potential for sustainable waste management. used in areas without access to municipal sewerage networks [11].
Recommendations for future research and development were also
offered. 5. Definition of decentralized wastewater treatment systems
4. Literature search results Decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) represent a

practical solution to treating wastewater at or near its source. These
The distribution of studies across different years shows insights on systems can cater to the needs of small communities, individual
how the decentralized wastewater treatment research progressed households, and areas lacking centralized infrastructure. The studies
through the years. Notably, a surge in research activity was evident in considered defined DEWATS with the following key points: decentral
the early 2000s. This initial concentration of research endeavors in 2003 ization, low cost, adaptability, natural processes, and resource recovery.
and 2004 may reflect an exploratory phase. The studies during this The studies consistently highlight DEWATS as systems designed for
period were more about the investigation of novel technologies and managing wastewater at or near the source of generation. This decen
methodologies associated with decentralized systems. Interest in DEW tralized approach reduces the need for extensive centralized sewer
ATS was evident by the resurgence in 2010 and 2012, with 3 and 5 networks. Decentralization also makes such a system cost-effective. This
studies conducted, respectively. The intermittent years from 2016 to is particularly beneficial for small communities and developing regions.
2024 show a consistent level of research activity in DEWATS. Peaks in DEWATS’ cost-effectiveness is due to the robust system design that
the number of studies may mean that this period was described by utilizes natural processes. This design approach not only enhances sus
heightened exploration and innovation. Meanwhile, intermittent pla tainability but also contributes to minimizing environmental impacts.
teaus on the number of studies reflect consolidation and data analysis The adaptability of DEWATS to local resources and conditions is also
phases. This analysis showed that the research involving DEWATS was highlighted by the studies. This flexibility allows for the customization
continuous and developing. This also may be used to project the of systems based on specific environmental, social, and economic fac
research trajectory for such systems. Fig. 3. tors. This makes DEWATS suitable in diverse conditions. Lastly, many
DEWATS are particularly relevant in diverse contexts, ranging from definitions highlighted the potential for resource recovery using DEW
densely populated urban areas to remote rural communities. With that, ATS. This includes the recovery of nutrients like nitrogen and phos
this review paper aimed to cover a diverse range of countries, each with phorus, which can be reused in agricultural applications, or the
unique socio-economic, environmental, and technological contexts. generation of biogas through anaerobic digestion, which can be used as
Fig. 2. Data extraction and analysis methodology.
3
Fig. 3. Distribution of the number of publications per year for DEWATS.
Fig. 4. Distribution of the number of publications per country for DEWATS.
a renewable energy source. systems already have this treatment technology in place. However, to
make it applicable to decentralized systems, modifications must be
6. Types of decentralized wastewater treatment systems made. One approach is via modularization. The patent search in the
study revealed that modularization of wastewater treatment technolo
The need for decentralization in wastewater management came from gies has emerged as a way for making decentralized systems more
the lack of treatment facilities and the high cost of wastewater collec available [7]. In this review, the different emerging DEWATS estab
tion. However, early decentralized systems were septic tanks. Though lished in different settings are discussed.
not as complete and robust as centralized systems, septic tanks can Table 1 shows the common types of DEWATS globally. Most of the
mitigate the health risk associated with untreated wastewater. However, DEWATS incorporated biological treatments in their system. Also, there
with the rapid advancement of technology and our society, untreated have been attempts to incorporate tertiary treatments such as UV
wastewater became more complex, containing different pollutants. disinfection, microbial fuel cells (MFCs), and filters. The table also de
Thus, advancement in treatment technology is needed. Centralized picts the reactor configuration for each wastewater treatment
4
Fig. 5. Source of wastewater used in decentralized wastewater treatment systems.
technology used in the studies. 6.2. Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR)

Table 2 shows the advantages, disadvantages, and research gaps of
the abovementioned studies regarding DEWATS. It was shown that these Similar to BASTAF, ABR uses a series of baffles to direct the flow of
technologies offer a promising solution to treat wastewater because of wastewater, increasing its contact with active biomass to enhance
its high removal efficiency. However, it was observed that these systems treatment. It typically consists of an initial sedimentation chamber,
have notable disadvantages such as high operation and maintenance followed by multiple up-flow chambers separated by baffles.
costs, limited nutrient removal efficiency, and sensitivity to influent ABRs were explored in a study of Koottatep et al. [13]. Since
fluctuations and toxicants. Moreover, it was also identified that the centralized systems are expensive and unsustainable for many munici
studies emphasized the need for optimized design, long-term perfor palities in Thailand, the study investigated the application of ABRs for
mance studies, and the development of more cost-effective and energy- decentralized wastewater treatment, specifically targeting blackwater,
efficient technologies. or toilet wastewater. The research compares the performance of four
types of reactors, including a conventional two-chamber septic tank and
various configurations of ABRs. The key differentiating factor among
6.1. Baffled septic tank with up-flow anaerobic filter (BASTAF) these reactors is the number and arrangement of baffles, which signifi
cantly influenced the treatment efficiency. The study was conducted
The BASTAF system aims to enhance the conventional septic tank under controlled experimental conditions at the Asian Institute of
system, offering a more effective solution for decentralized wastewater Technology (AIT) in Thailand, with ambient temperatures ranging from
treatment. Ahn et al. [12] specifically explored the application of BAS 25 to 30 ◦ C. The ABRs were tested under varying hydraulic retention
TAF in Vietnam, focusing on its performance with real domestic times (HRTs) of 24 and 48 h and organic loading rates (OLRs) ranging
wastewater. The system presents a significant improvement over the from 0.32 to 0.64 kg BOD5/m3 /day. The wastewater used was a
conventional septic tanks commonly used in the country, which have mixture of septage from Bangkok and wastewater from the AIT campus,
historically exhibited low treatment efficiency. By providing a low-cost characterized by high levels of organic matter and solids, with an
and sustainable solution, BASTAF addresses key challenges in waste average COD of 1970 mg/L and BOD5 of 625 mg/L. The study reveals
water management. that the introduction of baffles within the reactor significantly improved
The BASTAF system is an on-site wastewater treatment solution that treatment efficiency in terms of COD, BOD5, and suspended solids (SS)
combines the functions of a septic tank and an anaerobic filter. It is removal. ABRs with two or three baffles exhibited similar performance,
divided into multiple chambers by vertical baffles, which influence the while the addition of an anaerobic filter in the two-baffled ABR slightly
fluid flow as it passes through the tank, thereby enhancing the contact enhanced the removal of total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and TP.
between the wastewater and the sludge. This design allows for a more Furthermore, the ABRs demonstrated resilience to organic and hydraulic
effective degradation of organic matter. The anaerobic filter, located at shock loads, making them robust treatment systems compared to con
the end of the septic tank, contains a porous medium that traps and ventional septic tanks. While the study emphasizes the environmental
further degrades the remaining solids and pollutants. The study found benefits of ABRs, such as improved wastewater treatment, potential
that this system could achieve high removal efficiencies for organic nutrient removal, and reduced environmental impact, it also highlights
matter, suspended solids, and pathogens, making it a low-cost, low- the need for further research in areas including optimal design criteria,
maintenance, and energy-efficient option for domestic wastewater nutrient removal mechanisms, long-term performance, post-treatment
treatment in Vietnam. options, and economic evaluation to enhance the efficiency and effec
Several technological innovations are suggested to improve the ef tiveness of ABR systems.
ficiency and effectiveness of the BASTAF system. This includes the use of
local charcoal as anaerobic filter media. The charcoal was proven to be
more effective than initially used PVC pipe pieces. Further optimization 6.3. Johkasou
of the system could be achieved by adding baffled chambers, increasing
retention time, and enlarging the primary settling chamber to enhance Johkasou systems are cost-effective, on-site wastewater treatment
treatment efficiency and reduce the risk of suspended solid flushing. technologies widely used in Japan. Yang et al. [14] examined the
5
Table 1 Table 2
Common representative decentralized wastewater treatment systems globally. Common decentralized wastewater treatment systems and its characteristics.
Country System Reactor Publication Source System Advantages Disadvantages Research Source
configuration year gaps
Vietnam Baffled septic tank Baffled septic tank 2002 [12] BASTAF High removal High operation Need for [12]
with up-flow with an up-flow model efficiency for and improved
anaerobic filter anaerobic filter. COD, BOD5, and maintenance design and
(BASTAF) model Charcoal and PVC suspended costs and higher operation of
pipe cuts are used as solids for black risk of sewer septic tanks
filter media. wastewater. clogging and and explore
Thailand Anaerobic baffled Anaerobic filters and 2004 [13] local flooding. additional
reactor (ABR) conventional 2- chambers and
chamber septic tank. increased
Japan Johkasou Mini wastewater 2010 [14] retention time
treatment plant for better
installed in the yards efficiency.
of houses ABR Better removal Limited Further [13]
New Single pass sand Have media filters, 2010 [15] of TS, COD, and efficiency in research is
Zealand filter with a post- rotating biological BOD5 compared removing TKN needed to
anoxic contactors (RBCs), to conventional and TP. define optimal
denitrifying and denitrifying septic tanks and design and
reactor filled with bioreactors. more stable evaluate
woodchips treatment nutrient
USA Septic tank with a Includes septic 2012 [16] process with removal and
recirculating sand tanks, small less impact from biomass
filter, UV diameter gravity- influent starvation at
disinfection, and forced piping, septic fluctuations. low HRTs.
dosing tank tank effluent pumps Johkasou Avoids the high Requires regular Need for low- [14]
(STEP), a investment maintenance, cost, energy-
recirculating sand needed for desludging, and saving
filter, a UV pipeline inspection to Johkasou
disinfection system, construction maintain systems
and an effluent and can treat performance suitable for
pump station. both black and different
China Membrane-less Three rectangular- 2013 [17] gray water. effluent
microbial fuel cell chamber MFC standards and
(MFC) bioreactors (anode, local
cathode, clarifier), conditions in
carbon cloth developing
electrodes, countries
composite cathode Single pass Suitable for Lower Need for more [15]
with iron sand filter retrofitting in reliability and comparative
phthalocyanine with a post- small lots and stability studies of long-
(FePc) and carbon anoxic shoreline compared to term operation
nanoparticles, and denitrifying developments centralized of OWTs under
immobilized cells in reactor filled and supports systems and field
the cathodic with compact village high variability conditions
chamber. woodchips developments. in performance worldwide
Ireland Sequencing batch Includes a six- 2018 [18] due to varied
reactor (SBR) population wastewater
equivalent (PE) characteristics.
domestic scale SBR Septic tank Lower initial Higher life-cycle Need for [16]
with a precast with a investment energy use, further
concrete tank recirculating costs, increased increased air evaluation of
divided into two sand filter, UV flexibility, pollutants, and emerging
chambers: a primary disinfection, potential for greater decentralized
chamber and a and dosing wastewater operational technologies
reaction chamber. tank reuse, and electricity and their life-
South Anaerobic baffled Includes anaerobic 2022 [19] reduced demand. cycle impacts.
Africa reactor coupled to baffled reactors, ecological
anaerobic filter biogas chambers, impacts
and constructed and anaerobic Membrane- High COD Sensitivity to Need for more [17]
wetland (ABR-AF- filters. less MFC removal high studies on
CW) efficiency, concentrations MFC response
effective of toxic metals to shock loads
nitrogen like copper and of toxicants
performance of the Johkasou system, which is specifically designed for removal has lower power and the
density changes in
decentralized wastewater treatment at the household level. These sys
compared to microbial
tems are particularly valuable in rural areas where conventional other MFC populations
sewerage infrastructure is impractical. systems.
The Johkasou system utilizes a fiber-reinforced plastic tank equipped SBR Utilizes low- Online sensors Limited [18]
with five functional chambers, including sedimentation, anaerobic, cost sensors and for key application of
programmable parameters like intelligent
aeration, and disinfection units. This system effectively uses microor
logic controllers ammonium software
ganisms to degrade organic contaminants, making it energy-efficient, (PLCs) and require frequent sensor-based
affordable, and producing minimal sludge waste. The study highlights achieves maintenance, systems and
various types of Johkasou, ranging from those focused on BOD5 (continued on next page)
6
Table 2 (continued ) to eliminate any remaining pathogens. The treated wastewater is finally
System Advantages Disadvantages Research Source pumped to a hilltop dosing tank for distribution to a community soil
gaps absorption field. Biosolids generated in the septic tanks are periodically
significant and advanced advanced
removed and sent to a landfill for disposal.
reductions in control control The system operates at full capacity, processing nearly 20 million
cycle time and techniques are methods in liters of wastewater annually, and is heavily reliant on electricity for
energy expensive. small and various pumping and disinfection processes. A significant environ
consumption. decentralized
mental concern associated with this system is methane emissions from
WWTPs.
ABR-AF-CW Higher removal Higher initial Need for more [19] the septic tanks. Although potentially lower than previously estimated,
efficiency due setup costs for non-targeted it remained considerably higher compared to centralized plants equip
to longer solids decentralized screening ped with methane capture systems. To improve the system further, it is
retention and systems. studies in data- recommended to integrate methane capture and utilization systems for
hydraulic scarce regions
residence times. like Africa.
energy production, upgrade to more energy-efficient pumps, and
Lack of studies explore newer decentralized treatment technologies that have greater
on trace efficiency and effectiveness.
organic The environmental benefits of this decentralized system include the
compounds in
potential for local water reuse, reducing the demand for freshwater re
DEWATS.
sources, and minimizing the environmental impact associated with
importing water from distant sources. However, the study also identifies
reduction to advanced models targeting nitrogen and phosphorus potential negative effects, such as higher energy consumption due to
removal. Some Johkasou systems employ membrane technology for extensive pumping, increased greenhouse gas emissions, and other air
even higher treatment efficiency. pollutants associated with the electricity used in the system’s opera
Despite its advantages in improving water quality and supporting tions. Further research is recommended in several areas to optimize
aquatic ecosystems, the study notes challenges such as sludge manage decentralized wastewater treatment systems. Some methods include
ment and the need for adherence to effluent standards. It emphasizes the conducting life-cycle assessments of emerging technologies, improving
necessity for further research in areas like pollutant load determination, energy efficiency by reducing pumping needs, and exploring energy
low-cost and energy-efficient technologies, and the development of recovery opportunities, and developing effective water reuse strategies
comprehensive operation and maintenance systems. These areas are tailored to local contexts. Overall, the community-scale wastewater
crucial for ensuring the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of treatment system as an effective and innovative solution for addressing
Johkasou systems, particularly in regions lacking centralized waste the wastewater needs of residential subdivisions, while also pointing out
water treatment facilities. areas for improvement and the need for further research to enhance the
system’s sustainability and efficiency.
6.4. Single-pass sand filter with a post-anoxic denitrifying reactor filled
with woodchips 6.6. Microbial fuel cell (MFC)
The single-pass sand filter, combined with a post-anoxic denitrifying MFC consists of two chambers: the anode and cathode. Wastewater is
reactor filled with woodchips, is a natural wastewater treatment system introduced into the anode chamber, where electroactive bacteria oxidize
capable of enhanced nitrification and denitrification. Commonly used as the organic matter, generating electrons and protons in the process. The
a secondary treatment in DEWATS, this technology is valued for its cost- flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode through an external
effectiveness and simplicity, significantly improving the overall removal circuit generates electricity. In the cathode chamber, denitrification
efficiency. Moreover, the system has demonstrated performance stabil occurs, using nitrate as an electron acceptor and converting it into ni
ity [15]. trogen gas.
The system employs a dual-stage approach. First, the sand filter Feng et al. examines a decentralized wastewater treatment system
removes suspended solids and organic matter from the wastewater. using MFC technology, focusing on its potential for simultaneous
Second, the post-anoxic denitrifying reactor filled with woodchips tar carbonaceous and nitrogenous pollutant removal and electricity gener
gets nitrogen removal. The woodchips create an anaerobic environment, ation [17]. The system, operated continuously at room temperature,
facilitating the denitrification process by denitrifying bacteria that employed an HRT of 3 days and a flow rate of 1.2 L/day. During oper
convert nitrate into nitrogen gas. The woodchips also serve as a carbon ation, the cathodic chamber was sparged with air to maintain a DO
source for the bacteria, enhancing the denitrification process. The concentration of around 2.0 mg/L. The study highlights key techno
reactor demonstrated a remarkable performance surpassing all other logical innovations aimed at improving the MFC system, including
systems tested in demonstration projects, even outperforming more increasing the number of holes in the baffle between anodic and
complex and energy-intensive technologies. Moreover, the study ach cathodic compartments to boost output voltage and using immobilized
ieved the strict TN effluent standard, especially in nitrogen-sensitive Paracoccus pantotrophus cells in the cathodic chamber to enhance deni
areas. trification and total nitrogen removal efficiency. Although the research
provides limited insights into social acceptance and community
6.5. Septic tank with a recirculating sand filter, UV disinfection, and engagement strategies for DEWATS implementation, it emphasizes
dosing tank several environmental benefits, such as the simultaneous removal of
organic matter and nitrogenous compounds from wastewater, along
Shehabi et al. conducted a comprehensive analysis of a decentral with electricity generation. However, heavy metal contamination,
ized, community-scale wastewater treatment system implemented in a particularly copper, poses a potential challenge by inhibiting system
suburban subdivision in California [16]. The process begins with pri performance, negatively impacting both electricity production and
mary treatment, where solids are separated from the wastewater, wastewater treatment efficiency. They emphasized the need for further
allowing for anaerobic digestion of organic matter. The wastewater then research to improve the MFC system’s power density, potentially
undergoes secondary treatment through a recirculating sand filter, through electrode optimization or alternative material exploration.
where it is repeatedly pumped through a gravel bed to remove organic Additionally, further investigation is required to understand the
matter and pathogens. This is followed by ultraviolet (UV) disinfection long-term effects of heavy metal exposure on the microbial community
7
and the system’s shock load recovery capabilities, along with its po advantage of facilitating wastewater reuse for agricultural purposes.
tential as a quick-responding indicator for toxic substances in However, the persistence of trace organic compounds in the effluent,
wastewater. identified across both centralized and decentralized systems, remains a
concern, necessitating further research into treatment technologies and
6.7. Sequential batch reactor (SBR) additional steps to mitigate these risks. Several areas within DEWATS
require further exploration, as shown by their study. This includes
SBR is an activated sludge wastewater treatment process that oper non-targeted analysis to identify emerging contaminants, geographic
ates through a time-based sequence of phases within a single reactor comparisons of wastewater treatment outcomes, and complementary
tank. Treatment steps such as aeration, mixing, settling, and effluent analytical methods. The study also calls for additional research on the
discharge all occur within the same vessel. This compact design and impact of extending hydraulic residence times (HRTs) in anaerobic
operational flexibility make SBRs well-suited for DEWATS. systems, which could improve the removal of trace organic chemicals.
The study by Fox et al. investigates the performance enhancement Moreover, the system’s performance under varying operational condi
and energy efficiency of small-scale wastewater treatment plants tions and across different geographical locations needs further investi
(WWTPs) using SBRs, focusing on innovations in automation and con gation to optimize its efficiency and effectiveness. While the study
trol such as the use of low-cost sensors and PLCs [18]. The study centers provides valuable insights into the technical aspects of wastewater
on a domestic-scale SBR designed to handle 900 liters of wastewater per treatment, it lacks detailed analysis of the social aspects and broader
day, with a flow rate of 150 liters per PE per day. The SBR operates on a environmental impacts of DEWATS implementation.
fixed-time cycle of 464 min, incorporating fill, aeration, settling, and
discharge phases. Notably, the aeration phase employs an intermittent 6.9. Integrated wetland treatment systems (IWTS)
strategy, alternating 5 min of aeration with 15 min of quiescence to
reduce energy consumption while maintaining sufficient dissolved ox IWTS combine various types of constructed wetlands, such as surface
ygen levels. The core innovation of this study lies in utilizing low-cost flow, subsurface flow, and vertical flow, to optimize treatment processes
surrogate sensors (pH and oxidation-reduction potential) and inexpen and overcome the limitations of individual wetland designs. These sys
sive PLCs to enhance system efficiency. The study developed three novel tems are cost-effective due to their lower capital costs and minimal
methodologies based on pH and ORP trends as indirect indicators of energy requirements, while also being sustainable by relying on natural
nitrification: analyzing the initial rate of change in pH or ORP, exam processes for wastewater treatment.
ining the average rate of change between peak and lowest points, and Behrends et al. studied two mesocosm-scale IWTS used to treat
focusing on the rate of change between consecutive peak values. This medium-strength wastewater from a pilot-scale intensive fish farm [20].
approach led to a significant reduction in cycle time by 60 % and energy These systems were designed to evaluate potential synergies in treat
consumption by 43 %, improving the environmental compliance of ment processes and cost reduction. IWTS I consisted of a surface-flow
small-scale WWTPs by optimizing nitrification and ensuring adherence wetland followed by a two-cell vertical flow reciprocating wetland
to effluent standards for ammonium-nitrogen. However, while the study (ReCip). IWTS II is comprised of a two-cell ReCip followed by a
highlights the system’s benefits, such as enhanced environmental per subsurface-flow wetland. The ReCip system is a patented vertical-flow
formance and cost-effectiveness, it also acknowledges potential risks process. It involves alternately filling and draining adjacent treatment
associated with improper implementation, such as inadequate treatment cells to aerate the substrate biofilm and wetland plant roots, creating
due to faulty sensor readings or control algorithms. The study suggests both aerobic and anoxic-anaerobic environments essential for the
further research on site-scale implementation to assess long-term im removal of various pollutants. Both systems demonstrated high removal
pacts and the application of these control strategies to other decentral efficiencies for COD, NH+4 , and TKN, with the ReCip system emerging as
ized wastewater treatment technologies beyond SBRs. Although the the most effective component. This suggests its potential as a standalone
study broadly references DEWATS, its primary focus remains on treatment option. The study also highlighted the ReCip’s ability to
advancing SBR efficiency. enhance nitrification and denitrification, making it a critical element in
nitrogen reduction. However, the research pointed to certain challenges,
6.8. Anaerobic baffled reactor coupled to anaerobic filter and constructed including declining phosphorus removal over time and sludge accu
wetland (ABR-AF-CW) mulation in the ReCip units. This necessitates further investigation into
long-term phosphorus management and sludge removal techniques.
Mladenov et al. developed a system consisting of an ABR-AF-CW Additionally, the study suggested that by potentially eliminating the
[19]. The study provides an in-depth analysis of both centralized and surface-flow and subsurface-flow wetlands, it may be possible to reduce
decentralized WWTPs, examining various treatment technologies and costs and land area requirements. This can make the system more
their effectiveness. Furthermore, the study provides an understanding of feasible for broader applications.
the persistence and removal of trace organic chemicals in different
wastewater treatment systems. Centralized WWTPs in the USA and 7. Performance of different decentralized wastewater treatment
South Africa use conventional activated sludge processes, with the South systems
African plant additionally employing Bardenpho processes for nutrient
removal. In contrast, a decentralized system in Durban, South Africa, Based on Fig. 6, the literature search showed that most DEWATS
utilizes ABRs for primary and secondary treatment, followed by con systems utilize anaerobic bioreactors (27 studies) as the main treatment
structed wetlands for final polishing. This system enhances the anaer technology. These systems can effectively treat wastewater and signifi
obic degradation of organic matter and further reduces COD and TSS by cantly decrease suspended solids [29]. Meanwhile, septic tanks are the
20–40 %. The constructed wetland provides additional treatment and second most used treatment technology of the studies considered in this
nutrient removal, resulting in overall high removal efficiencies, review. Septic tanks are low cost and low maintenance systems for
including 80–90 % for COD and TSS, 60–80 % for ammonia, and treating domestic wastewater, making it a viable option for rural areas
40–60 % for phosphorus. The ABR-AF-CW system also significantly re [10]. Also, the literature shows that membrane bioreactors are emerging
duces pathogen loads, with the biogas generated in the ABR serving as a as a decentralized system option. Membrane bioreactors are known for
renewable energy source. The study highlights the environmental ben high removal efficiency and compact size [6]. Microbial fuel cells are
efits of DEWATS like the ABR-AF-CW, particularly in low-income, one of the emerging decentralized treatment systems found in this re
densely populated areas. These systems can be more cost-effective and view. Simultaneous waste treatment and energy generation are one of
energy-efficient compared to centralized systems, with the added the ways to make a decentralized system more sustainable [17].
8
Fig. 6. Distribution of the number of studies-based system classification.
Table 3 shows the influent concentrations of the wastewaters treated efficiency from 66.0 % to 84.0 %, with the ANAMMOX unit contributing
by the different DEWATS systems based on the wastewater parameters 44.0 % of the total TN removal.
- 3-
such as COD, BOD5, TN, TP, NH+ 4 , NO3, PO4 , and Coliform. Certain wastewaters may contain specific pollutants, such as phar
The different influent characteristics of the decentralized wastewater maceuticals, heavy metals, or pathogens. Treatment systems need to be
treatment systems considered in this review suggest that decentraliza tailored to address these specific contaminants to ensure adequate
tion entails site-specific treatment solutions. In terms of organic loading, protection of public health and the environment.
high concentrations of organic matter, as indicated by COD and BOD5 The variability in influent wastewater characteristics highlights the
values, can significantly impact the efficiency of treatment systems. importance of proper system design. Factors such as wastewater flow
Systems designed for low-strength wastewater may become over rate, pollutant concentrations, and treatment objectives need to be
whelmed by high organic loads, leading to incomplete treatment and considered to select the appropriate decentralized wastewater treatment
potential environmental issues. Therefore, identifying the influent con system. Such systems must be monitored and adjusted accordingly to
centration can greatly affect the design of the system. One example is the maintain optimal treatment efficiency and prevent system failure. Based
study of Sarathai et al. [34]. They investigated the feasibility of using an on the reviewed literature, decentralized systems can already cater to
ABR, with a focus on its effectiveness in handling high organic loads different influent wastewater characteristics. However, long-term per
under the non-steady flow conditions typical of on-site systems. The formance evaluations are still needed to further develop such systems.
findings demonstrated that the ABR performed robustly, achieving over Table 4 shows the removal efficiency of the decentralized waste
85 % COD removal and over 90 % TSS removal, even under fluctuating water treatment systems with respect to the wastewater parameters.
flow conditions. A significant advantage of the ABR design is its ability DEWATS are already capable of effectively treating different wastewater
to minimize dead space, which remained below 13 % despite varying and that there can be different choices of decentralized systems when
flow rates, thanks to the reactor’s effective wastewater distribution. The choosing a treatment solution. The table also shows that DEWATS are
study also found that with a 48-h HRT, the ABR maintained consistent capable of comprehensive removal of multiple wastewater parameters.
treatment performance under non-steady flow conditions. This suggests that future innovations could focus on developing
Elevated levels of nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to eutrophica compact, multi-functional systems. Technological advancements should
tion in receiving water bodies. Treatment systems must be equipped to also consider tailoring treatment solutions to target specific pollutants
handle these nutrients, either through biological nutrient removal pro prevalent in the wastewater.
cesses or by incorporating additional treatment stages. Li et al. focused
on improving the removal of nitrogenous compounds from wastewater 8. Performance of DEWATS with varying capacities
using an onsite source-separation and synergistic treatment (O3ST)
process [35]. They aimed to optimize the anaerobic ammonia oxidation An example of high-capacity DEWATS is the aerobic membrane
(ANAMMOX) process, a more sustainable and efficient method for ni bioreactor in India [32]. This system can handle 1000 m3 of wastewater
trogen removal compared to traditional approaches. The study identi per day. It was observed that these DEWATS provided an economically
fied high levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the wastewater entering the feasible and efficient wastewater treatment solution for developing
ANAMMOX unit as a limiting factor in the process’s effectiveness. To countries. Moreover, this system also revealed a promising potential in
overcome this, two strategies were tested: intermittent aeration and developing a sustainable environmental sanitation system. The effluent
structural optimization of the treatment units. The intermittent aeration, quality of this DEWATS was also observed to be within the permissible
which alternated between periods of aeration and non-aeration, proved discharge limits of the Central Pollution Control Board of the Govern
ineffective in significantly reducing DO levels. In contrast, the structural ment of India for all parameters.
optimization strategy—reducing the overflow area and increasing the The IWTS is also a high capacity DEWATS [20]. The system can
overflow length of the channel connecting the aeration and buffer handle 350 m3 of medium strength wastewater in terms of COD and
chambers—was highly successful. This adjustment prevented air bub NH3-N daily. It was found out that for the period of twenty-eight months,
bles from entering the buffer chamber, reduced DO transfer, and allowed IWTS was able to obtain a high removal rate of COD (84 %) and
excess sludge to consume the remaining DO. As a result, the DO con ammonia (93 %). Notably, this system with sequential aerobic and
centration in the ANAMMOX unit feed stabilized at a level conducive to anoxic conditions demonstrated an excellent performance in terms of
the ANAMMOX reaction, leading to a significant increase in TN removal nitrate removal. Furthermore, the integration of short hydraulic
9
Table 3
Influent concentration of the wastewaters treated by the different decentralized wastewater treatment systems.
System Wastewater Wastewater System Influent concentration (mg/L) Source
loading (m3/ capacity
COD BOD5 TN TP NHþ
4 NO-3 PO3-
4 Coliform
day) (m3/day)
(CFU/mL)
BASTAF model Black wastewater and - 0.215 1200 720 - - - - - - [12]

gray wastewater with
high organic content and
nutrients
ABR Blackwater - 0.64 3870 1200 80 63 - - - - [13]
IWTS Medium strength - 350 172 - 72.2 25.4 50.9 - - - [20]
wastewater generated
from a pilot-scale
intensive fish farm
Johkasou Blackwater - - 20.3 20.3 17.4 - - - - - [14]
Single-pass sand filter Raw wastewater with - 13.9 715 314 48.6 5.8 29.3 - - 1.3 [15]
with a post anoxic high concentrations of
denitrifying reactor nitrogen and phosphorus
filled with woodchips
Full-scale DEWATS Mixed wastewater 9 - 263 96 - 17 - - - - [21]
with biogas settler and
planted gravel filter
Community-scale Domestic wastewater - 20 757 - - - - - - - [16]
system
Circulating fluidized Septic tank effluent - 5.3 250 60 30 - 2 - - - [22]
bed bioreactor (CFBBR)
Passive anaerobic Blackwater and - 6.2 654 - - - - - - - [23]
system greywater
MFC Organic and nitrogenous - - 25 - 19 - 30 38 - - [17]
wastewater
Novel pilot-scale Primary treated - 5.55 192.17 171.8 34.8 3.6 20.7 0.13 - - [24]
passively aerated wastewater
biological filter (PABF)
SBR Blackwater - 0.9 405 - 87.4 - 49.6 - - - [18]
Biological treatment Blackwater - 57 14.5 15 14.5 - - - - - [25]
using activated sludge
process
Integrated ecological Sewage and swine - 50 928 - - - - - - - [26]
treatment system
Communal wastewater Blackwater and - - 154 484 - - - - - - [27]
treatment plant greywater
(CWWTP)
Upflow aerobic fixed Fresh sewage 50 10 640 200 - - - - - 19.5 [28]
bed reactor (UAFBR)
Full-scale DEWATS Organic wastewater - 75 600 300 39 - - - 3.5 10 [29]
with constructed
wetlands
ABR Sewage wastewater - 0.42 - 1588 19 12 - - - 500 [30]
Vertical flow Sewage wastewater - 107 430 192 52.6 - - 3.37 13.6 - [31]
constructed wetland
Two-chambered MFC Mixed wastewater - - - - 146 - - - - - [32]
with biocathode
Aerobic membrane Blackwater, greywater, 290 - 560 720 - - - - - - [33]
bioreactor (MBR) mixed wastewater
ABR-AF Waterborne wastewater - 41.6 1180 - 87 - - - - [19]
Note: COD – chemical oxygen demand; BOD5 – biochemical oxygen demand; TN – Total Nitrogen; TP – Total Phosphorous; NH+
4 – ammonium, NO-3 – nitrate, PO3-
4 -
phosphate
retention times suggests that the IWTS components have the potential to decentralized ecological treatment systems for municipal wastewater
serve as a cost-effective wastewater treatment technology. was assessed while also facilitating biomass production. The VFCW,
Meanwhile, the MFC is an example of small capacity DEWATS [17]. planted with cumbu napier hybrid grass, demonstrated favorable
The system can only treat 0.0072 m3 of wastewater per day. This system average removal efficiencies for total suspended solids (TSS) at 89.80 %,
is capable of simultaneous wastewater treatment and energy production. BOD5 at 89.90 %, COD at 78.10 %, NO-3 at 69.07 %, TN at 44.33 %, and
During the operation, the MFC system revealed excellent COD removal PO3-
4 at 51.20 %. In the VFCW system utilizing palisade grass, the
(above 96 %), improved nitrogen removal (60–80 %) and about 0.2 V average removal efficiencies observed were turbidity at 98.70 %, TSS at
output voltage. The system also exhibited the ability to recover from the 89.50 %, BOD5 at 87.90 %, COD at 72.70 %, NO-3 at 62.07 %, TN at
copper shock load and had the potential to act as the detector for the 43 %, and PO3-4 at 47 %. The effluent from both VFCW units exhibited
toxic event. Microbial community analysis showed that the community concentrations that adhered to the non-potable water reuse standards
composition significantly changed and decreased in diversity after the set forth by the United States Environmental Protection Agency
copper shock load. (USEPA).
Another small capacity DEWATS is the vertical flow constructed Moderate capacity DEWATS such as SBR in Ireland can hold 0.9 m3
wetland (VCFW) which can only handle up to 0.03 m3 of sewage of wastewater treated per day [17]. In the study, the use of low-cost,
wastewater treated per day [31]. The effectiveness of VCFW as reliable surrogate sensors with inexpensive and robust programmable
10
Table 4
Removal efficiency of decentralized wastewater treatment systems.
System Wastewater Removal Efficiency (%) Source
COD BOD5 TN TP NHþ

4 NO-3 PO3-
4 Coliform
BASTAF model Black wastewater and gray wastewater with 74.85 71.47 - - - - - - [12]
high organic content and nutrients
ABR Blackwater 90 90 60 - - - - - [13]
IWTS Medium strength wastewater generated 85 84 26 46 - - - - [20]
from a pilot-scale intensive fish farm
Johkasou Blackwater 94 - 52 70 - - - - [21]
Single pass sand filter with a post anoxic Raw wastewater with high concentrations 84 - - 90 93 - - - [15]
denitrifying reactor filled with woodchips of nitrogen and phosphorus
Full-scale DEWATS with biogas settler and Mixed Wastewater 91 98 60.30 - - - - - [21]
planted gravel filter
Community-scale system Domestic wastewater 95 99 86 88 99 83 94 100 [16]
CFBBR Septic tank effluent 81 94 - 94 - - - - [22]
Passive anaerobic system Blackwater and greywater 54.8 - - - - - - - [23]
Membrane-less MFC Organic and nitrogenous wastewater 92 - 82 - 97 - - - [17]
Novel PABF Primary treated wastewater 90 90 20 20 20 - - - [24]
SBR Blackwater > 96 - 80 - 100 80 - - [18]
Biological treatment using activated sludge Blackwater 91 93 - - - - - - [25]
process
Integrated ecological treatment system sewage and swine - - - - 78 - - - [26]
CWWTP Blackwater and greywater 45 45 30 40 - - - 90 [27]
UAFBR Fresh sewage 82 - 93 94.6 95.7 - - - [28]
Full-scale DEWATS with constructed Organic wastewater 40 70 - - - - - - [29]
wetlands
ABR Sewage wastewater 60 77 - - - - - 55 [30]
Vertical flow constructed wetland Sewage wastewater 72 72 28 42 35 - 42 - [31]
Two-chambered MFC with biocathode Mixed wastewater 74 - 43 21 - - - - [32]
Aerobic MBR Blackwater, greywater, mixed wastewater 78.10 89.90 43 - - 62.07 47 - [33]
ABR-AF Waterborne wastewater - - 97 - - - - - [19]
logistics controllers to improve wastewater treatment performance and 9. Challenges and limitations of global decentralized
energy efficiency through automation was analyzed. Three control wastewater treatment systems
methodologies each with three subset analyses were developed and
applied to data collected from a domestic-scale SBR unit. It was deter Wastewater treatment systems are crucial to protecting the com
mined for a typical treatment cycle that the method that studied the munity and environment. This discussion compares decentralized sys
trend between the minimum and maximum values of pH and oxidation tems with conventional and centralized systems to examine the current
reduction potentials (ORP) achieved an average overall cycle time sav strengths and limitations of DEWATS.
ings of 60 % with a corresponding energy saving of 43 %. All methods While DEWATS offer numerous advantages, their successful
were found to be readily applicable to low-cost programmable control deployment is hindered by a range of operational, regulatory, financial,
lers, thus potentially making practical solutions for aiding small social, and environmental challenges. Below are the main key challenges
wastewater treatment systems. and limitations associated with global DEWATS:
Lastly, the CFBBR can also handle a moderate capacity of 0.9 m3 of
septic tank effluent per day based on the study [22]. The study aimed to • Operational challenges
identify suitable systems for wastewater treatment in individual
households, small communities, and marae (traditional Maori tribal ○ Need for skilled personnel and community involvement for regular
meeting houses) in rural, peri urban, coastal, and lakeside areas. Mean operation and maintenance.
BOD5 and TSS were reduced by over 94 % by the said system. Also, the ○ A higher frequency of maintenance is required to prevent system
mean TN removal ranged from 49 % in the horizontal-flow wetland to failure and environmental contamination.
between 58 % and 95 % in the hybrid systems. The findings of this ○ Sensitivity to influent fluctuations and toxicants, affecting consistent
research indicate that CFBBR, which integrates components of both performance.
wetlands and denitrifying bioreactors, demonstrates the ability to attain ○ Limited application of automation and on-site monitoring systems.
high-quality effluent while requiring minimal energy inputs. Moreover, ○ Inadequate focus on optimizing designs for nutrient removal and
the land area necessary for implementing this system was generally energy efficiency.
found to be approximately half or even less than that required for
horizontal-flow wetlands. • Regulatory and institutional challenges
There are types of DEWATS which can adapt to the wastewater
conditions from varied settings. The different capacities of DEWATS ○ Lack of clear and consistent regulations across regions, complicating
from small to high revealed varying performance in removing organic implementation.
pollutants, unnecessary biological nutrients, and microorganisms from ○ Absence of standardized definitions and protocols for onsite non-
wastewater. Determining the operating capacity of the systems in rela potable water systems.
tion to their removal efficiency is crucial in choosing the best applicable ○ Insufficient data to inform policy, particularly on pathogen concen
DEWATS in a particular area. Also, conducting further research and trations, DEWATS performance under variable conditions, and
optimization would also help in investigating the relationship between public opinion on water reuse.
wastewater treatment capacities and the treatment performance of ○ Resistance to change among regulators and policymakers.
DEWATS. ○ The need for comprehensive governance models to define roles and
responsibilities clearly.
11
○ Limited expertise within institutions to support DEWATS option. However, there are still technology gaps in decentralized sys
implementation. tems. These gaps include pathogen removal, emerging pollutant
removal, long-term reliability and sustainability, control system inte
• Financial and economic barriers gration, and economic considerations. This discussion provides insights
into future research in DEWATS (Fig. 7).
○ High upfront costs deter adoption, especially for individual home The literature review shows that DEWATS can remove organic
owners and small communities. matter and nutrients in different types of wastewaters. However, the
○ Limited financial incentives for implementing DEWATS. capacity of these systems to remove pathogens in wastewater was not
explored. Moreover, the removal efficiency of these systems in terms of
• Social acceptability and environmental risk emerging pollutants must be studied. Hube & Wu emphasized that the
high concentration of microplastics in wastewater needs to be studied
○ Health concerns and aesthetic apprehensions regarding reclaimed [36]. This includes investigating the effects of these emerging pollutants
water hinder public acceptance. in the treatment performance, sludge production, and membrane per
○ Higher sensitivity to environmental and operational changes formance of these decentralized systems.
compared to centralized systems. Proper sludge management is a challenge in decentralized systems
[37]. Research could explore technologies for on-site sludge treatment,
Several studies have highlighted the advantages of DEWATS [8,12, dehydration, and reuse to eliminate the need for off-site disposal.
15,22] as compared to conventional and centralized systems. DEWATS Methods to stabilize and reduce the volume of sludge can be investi
offers localized and customized solutions specific to the treatment needs gated. This includes digestion (anaerobic, aerobic, and thermophilic)
of the wastewater of a certain population. This enables water reuse, and composting. Treated sludge can then be used for other purposes
nutrient recovery, and groundwater recharge. These systems also reduce such as irrigation.
energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions. Since the systems One way to enhance the sustainability and efficiency of DEWATS is
are decentralized, the need for pumping and transporting wastewater by integrating smart technologies [38]. Research could explore how
over long distances is eliminated. This helps the DEWATS to be real-time monitoring, and adaptive control can be used to optimize
cost-effective. DEWATS also exhibit resiliency and adaptability to system operations. Remote monitoring and control capabilities can also
changing operating conditions. These advantages make DEWATS a be explored. This allows system operators to access and manage the
viable option for rural and remote communities. decentralized system’s performance from a centralized location. This
DEWATS also have limitations that require consideration. One sig can be achieved through remote sensing technologies and communica
nificant challenge is the need for skilled personnel and community tion systems. The integration of these technologies enables DEWATS to
involvement to operate the systems [25]. The need for skilled personnel have real-time adjustments and interventions based on the collected
arises from the need for the system to have more frequent operation and data. One example is the study of [18]. Traditional SBR systems operate
maintenance. Therefore, it is crucial to have proper management of the on fixed-time cycles, which often lack the flexibility needed to accom
system to avoid poorly treated wastewater being discharged into the modate variations in influent wastewater characteristics. The applica
environment [8]. This challenge can be addressed by automation and tion of online sensors, specifically pH and ORP sensors, offers a
on-site monitoring system [19]. Moreover, the quantity and quality of cost-effective alternative to more expensive and high-maintenance
wastewater differs greatly among different localities. These can cause ammonium sensors. These surrogate sensors facilitate real-time moni
high variability in the removal efficiencies of decentralized systems toring and control, providing critical insights into the nitrification pro
[21]. cess. Recent advancements have introduced innovative methods for
Meanwhile, the literature in this review identifies several policies utilizing sensor data to optimize SBR performance. Data mining and
and regulatory challenges that hinder the widespread adoption of analytical techniques have been developed to analyze trends in pH and
DEWATS. One major challenge is the lack of clear and consistent regu ORP values, leading to improved control strategies. For instance, three
lations across different regions. This could create confusion and novel methods have been proposed to determine the end of nitrification:
complicate the implementation process. The absence of standardized examining the initial rate of change in pH or ORP values post-peak,
definitions and specific protocols for onsite non-potable water systems analyzing the overall change between peak and nadir values during
further aggravates this issue. Additionally, there is an inadequate each aeration period, and focusing on the rate of change of consecutive
amount of data to inform policy development. This data should focus on peak values throughout an aeration cycle. These methods are imple
areas such as pathogen concentrations in stormwater, DEWATS perfor mented using low-cost PLCs, which facilitate real-time adjustments. Two
mance under variable conditions, and public opinion on water reuse. primary cycle termination rules are employed to enhance operational
Financial and economic barriers also pose significant challenges, with efficiency. The threshold termination rule (TTR) ends the aeration phase
high upfront costs and the lack of financial incentives deterring adop once pH or ORP values reach a predefined threshold, while the time
tion, especially for individual homeowners and small communities. delay termination rule (TDTR) introduces a specific time delay after
Institutional challenges, such as resistance to change and limited values cross a set point, ensuring adequate nitrification. These real-time
expertise among regulators and policymakers, further slowdown the control strategies contribute to improved effluent quality, as the system
implementation of DEWATS. Social acceptability issues, including can more accurately meet regulatory discharge limits. Additionally, they
health concerns and aesthetic apprehensions about reclaimed water, enable significant energy savings by optimizing aeration cycles based on
also hinder adoption. Finally, there is a need for comprehensive gover real-time data and increase flexibility by adapting to variations in
nance models that clearly define stakeholder roles and responsibilities in influent characteristics.
the implementation and management of DEWATS. The implementation of these technologies in small-scale SBR plants
Addressing these limitations is crucial to maximizing the benefits of is feasible with the use of cost-effective PLCs. By analyzing data from pH,
decentralized systems [25]. Further research and engineering solutions ORP, and ammonium sensors over a trial period, operators can refine
are required to enhance DEWATS to be a sustainable solution for control methods to meet specific treatment needs and discharge re
wastewater treatment in diverse environments. quirements. While the study focuses on the technical aspects of
improving nitrification control through smart technologies, it does not
10. Future research directions address broader implications such as remote monitoring, predictive
maintenance, or integration with smart city initiatives. Further research
DEWATS have advanced significantly and now is a viable treatment and practical implementation are needed to fully understand the
12
Fig. 7. Future research directions in DEWATS.
benefits and challenges associated with the widespread adoption of of DEWATS as a viable wastewater treatment solution, notably for small
these technologies in wastewater treatment systems. communities and areas with limited access to centralized services. The
Furthermore, developing effective tools and strategies for engaging adaptability, cost-effectiveness, and design flexibility of DEWATS make
local communities in the operation and maintenance of DEWATS is them a promising alternative to conventional systems. The study un
crucial. The literature considered in this review offers limited direct derscores the effectiveness of specific DEWATS, such as microbial fuel
insights into specific community engagement strategies for DEWATS. cells and denitrifying reactors coupled with sand filters, in substantially
However, they do underscore several key aspects where community reducing organic matter and nitrogen. However, the research also
involvement has been integral to the successful implementation and identifies critical areas for future investigation. Addressing the vari
acceptance of these systems. Community participation in the operation ability in total phosphorus and coliform removal across different
and maintenance of DEWATS has been shown to foster a sense of DEWATS is crucial. Further research should focus on optimizing DEW
ownership and responsibility, which can significantly enhance accep ATS for consistent and efficient pollutant removal, exploring the inte
tance levels. For instance, local involvement in India has demonstrated gration of complementary treatment technologies to enhance DEWATS
how such engagement contributes to a shared responsibility for the performance and evaluating the efficacy of DEWATS under diverse
system’s upkeep, thus increasing its acceptance within the community. operational conditions. Investigating these areas will be instrumental in
Additionally, the recognition of the benefits provided by decentral advancing DEWATS technology, improving its reliability, and promot
ized wastewater treatment—such as improved sanitation, reduced ing its wider adoption as a sustainable wastewater treatment solution.
pollution, and the potential for wastewater reuse—has been pivotal in
gaining community support. The positive perception of these benefits CRediT authorship contribution statement
likely plays a substantial role in the broader acceptance of DEWATS
projects. Public education and outreach are also crucial elements, as Angelo Banawa: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation,
they address concerns and adjust cultural beliefs and societal norms that Investigation, Data curation. Kennedick Umali: Writing – original
might otherwise impede adoption. This has been notably observed in draft, Visualization, Validation, Investigation, Data curation. Jey-R S.
efforts to address worries about health risks associated with greywater Ventura: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Re
reuse. Community engagement and education about onsite water reuse sources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Formal
systems and existing local practices have proven essential for successful analysis, Conceptualization. Jaren Tulipan: Writing – original draft,
implementation. For example, in rural Alaska, initial skepticism Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Investigation,
regarding water reuse systems decreased substantially through effective Conceptualization. John Allen Villanueva: Writing – original draft,
community engagement and educational initiatives. This suggests that Visualization, Validation, Investigation, Data curation.
understanding and adapting to local water reuse practices and needs can
significantly impact the success of such systems. Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the
To build on these observations, the literature also suggests several writing process
strategies for effective community engagement. These include involving
communities in the planning and decision-making processes related to During the preparation of this work the author(s) used ChatGPT to
DEWATS, providing clear and accessible information about the tech enhance grammar and sentence construction. After using this tool/ser
nology and its benefits, addressing community concerns, incorporating vice, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take
feedback into project design, and offering training and support for local (s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.
operators. Furthermore, displaying successful implementations and
their positive impacts on both the community and the environment can Declaration of Competing Interest
bolster acceptance and support. It is important to recognize that these
recommendations are extrapolated from the general findings and sup The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
plemented by broader knowledge on community engagement. To interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
develop more specific and evidence-based strategies, further research in the work reported in this paper.
social science literature would be necessary. This additional research
could provide a more nuanced understanding of effective community Appendix A. Supporting information
engagement practices tailored to various contexts and settings.
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
11. Conclusion online version at doi:10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100830.
DEWATS are becoming more popular as a wastewater treatment

solution. The research findings significantly advance the understanding
13
Data availability Chemosphere 2022;286:131621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

chemosphere.2021.131621.
[20] Behrends LL, Bailey E, Jansen P, Houke L, Smith S. Integrated constructed wetland
Data will be made available on request. systems: design, operation, and performance of low-cost decentralized wastewater
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Desalination and Water Treatment 320 (2024) 100830

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Desalination and Water Treatment

Advancements and challenges in decentralized wastewater treatment: A

• DEWATS gains attention for tackling

4. Literature search results Decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) represent a

Fig. 2. Data extraction and analysis methodology.

Fig. 3. Distribution of the number of publications per year for DEWATS.

Fig. 4. Distribution of the number of publications per country for DEWATS.

Fig. 5. Source of wastewater used in decentralized wastewater treatment systems.

technology used in the studies. 6.2. Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR)

Fig. 6. Distribution of the number of studies-based system classification.

BASTAF model Black wastewater and - 0.215 1200 720 - - - - - - [12]

COD BOD5 TN TP NHþ

Fig. 7. Future research directions in DEWATS.

DEWATS are becoming more popular as a wastewater treatment

Data availability Chemosphere 2022;286:131621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

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