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Second Edition

Quantitative Methods
and Socio-Economic
Applications in

GIS

Fahui Wang
Second Edition

Quantitative Methods
and Socio-Economic
Applications in

GIS
Second Edition

Quantitative Methods
and Socio-Economic
Applications in

GIS
Fahui Wang

Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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 In loving memory of Katherine Z. Wang
To Lei and our three J’s (Jenny, Joshua, and Jacqueline)
Contents
List of Figures .......................................................................................................... xv
List of Tables ...........................................................................................................xix
Foreword .................................................................................................................xxi
Preface.................................................................................................................. xxiii
Author ..................................................................................................................xxvii
List of Major GIS Datasets and Program Files .....................................................xxix
List of Quick References for Spatial Analysis Tasks ............................................xxxi

Section i GiS and Basic Spatial Analysis tasks

Chapter 1 Getting Started with ArcGIS: Data Management and

Basic Spatial Analysis Tools ................................................................3
1.1 Spatial and Attribute Data Management in ArcGIS .................3
1.1.1 Map Projections and Spatial Data Models ................... 4
1.1.2 Attribute Data Management and Attribute Join ...........5
1.2 Spatial Analysis Tools in ArcGIS: Queries, Spatial Joins,
and Map Overlays ......................................................................7
1.3 Case Study 1: Mapping and Analyzing Population
Density Pattern in Baton Rouge, Louisiana ............................ 10
1.3.1 Part 1: Mapping the Population Density Pattern
across Census Tracts .................................................. 10
1.3.2 Part 2: Analyzing the Population Density Pattern
across Concentric Rings ............................................. 16
1.4 Summary ................................................................................. 23
Appendix 1: Identifying Contiguous Polygons by Spatial
Analysis Tools ......................................................................... 23

Chapter 2 Measuring Distance and Time ........................................................... 27

2.1 Measures of Distance .............................................................. 27
2.2 Computing Network Distance and Time ................................. 29
2.3 Distance Decay Rule ............................................................... 32
2.4 Case Study 2: Computing Distances and Travel Time to
Public Hospitals in Louisiana .................................................. 33
2.4.1 Part 1: Measuring Euclidean and Manhattan
Distances ....................................................................34
2.4.2 Part 2: Measuring Travel Time .................................. 38
2.5 Summary ................................................................................. 41

vii
viii Contents

Appendix 2A: Valued Graph Approach to the Shortest

Route Problem ......................................................................... 41
Appendix 2B: Estimating Travel Time Matrix by Google Maps API.... 42

Chapter 3 Spatial Smoothing and Spatial Interpolation ..................................... 47

3.1 Spatial Smoothing ................................................................... 47
3.1.1 Floating Catchment Area (FCA) Method .................. 48
3.1.2 Kernel Density Estimation ......................................... 49
3.2 Point-Based Spatial Interpolation ............................................ 50
3.2.1 Global Interpolation Methods .................................... 50
3.2.2 Local Interpolation Methods ...................................... 51
3.3 Case Study 3A: Mapping Place Names in Guangxi, China ...... 53
3.3.1 Part 1: Spatial Smoothing by the Floating
Catchment Area Method ............................................ 53
3.3.2 Part 2: Spatial Interpolation by Various Methods ...... 56
3.4 Area-Based Spatial Interpolation ............................................ 59
3.5 Case Study 3B: Area-Based Interpolations of Population
in Baton Rouge, Louisiana ......................................................60
3.5.1 Part 1. Using the Areal Weighting Interpolation
to Transform Data from Census Tracts to School
Districts in 2010 .........................................................60
3.5.2 Part 2. Using the Target-Density Weighting
(TDW) Interpolation to Interpolate Data from
Census Tracts in 2010 to Census Tracts in 2000........ 61
3.6 Summary .................................................................................64
Appendix 3A: Empirical Bayes Estimation for Spatial Smoothing.......64
Appendix 3B: Network Hierarchical Weighting Method for
Areal Interpolation................................................................... 65

Section ii Basic Quantitative Methods and

Applications

Chapter 4 GIS-Based Trade Area Analysis and Application in

Business Geography ........................................................................... 69
4.1 Basic Methods for Trade Area Analysis.................................. 70
4.1.1 Analog Method and Regression Models .................... 70
4.1.2 Proximal Area Method............................................... 70
4.2 Gravity Models for Delineating Trade Areas .......................... 72
4.2.1 Reilly’s Law ................................................................ 72
4.2.2 Huff Model ................................................................. 73
4.2.3 Link between Reilly’s Law and Huff Model .............. 74
4.2.4 Extensions of the Huff Model .................................... 75
Contents ix

4.3 Case Study 4A: Defining Fan Bases of Cubs and

White Sox in Chicago Region ................................................. 76
4.3.1 Part 1. Defining Fan Base Areas by the Proximal
Area Method............................................................... 78
4.3.2 Part 2. Defining Fan Base Areas and Mapping
Probability Surface by Huff Model ............................ 79
4.3.3 Discussion................................................................... 81
4.4 Case Study 4B: Estimating Trade Areas of Public
Hospitals in Louisiana ............................................................. 82
4.4.1 Part 1. Defining Hospital Service Areas by the
Proximal Area Method............................................... 82
4.4.2 Part 2. Defining Hospital Service Areas by Huff
Model.......................................................................... 83
4.5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 87
Appendix 4A: Economic Foundation of the Gravity Model .............. 88
Appendix 4B: A Toolkit for Implementing the Huff Model ..............90

Chapter 5 GIS-Based Measures of Spatial Accessibility and Application in

Examining Health Care Access ......................................................... 93
5.1 Issues on Accessibility............................................................. 93
5.2 Floating Catchment Area Methods ......................................... 95
5.2.1 Earlier Versions of Floating Catchment Area
(FCA) Method ............................................................ 95
5.2.2 Two-Step Floating Catchment Area (2SFCA)
Method .......................................................................96
5.3 Gravity-Based and Generalized 2SFCA Models..................... 98
5.3.1 Gravity-Based Accessibility Index ............................. 98
5.3.2 Comparison of the 2SFCA and Gravity-Based
Methods ......................................................................99
5.3.3 Generalized 2SFCA Model ...................................... 100
5.4 Case Study 5: Measuring Spatial Accessibility to
Primary Care Physicians in Chicago Region ........................ 101
5.4.1 Part 1. Implementing the 2SFCA Method ................ 102
5.4.2 Part 2. Implementing the Gravity-Based
Accessibility Model .................................................. 105
5.4.3 Discussion................................................................. 108
5.5 Concluding Comments .......................................................... 108
Appendix 5A: A Property of Accessibility Measures ...................... 110
Appendix 5B: A Toolkit of Automated Spatial Accessibility
Measures ................................................................................ 112

Chapter 6 Function Fittings by Regressions and Application in Analyzing

Urban Density Patterns .................................................................... 115
6.1 Density Function Approach to Urban and Regional
Structures............................................................................... 115
x Contents

6.1.1 Urban Density Functions .......................................... 115

6.1.2 Regional Density Functions ..................................... 117
6.2 Function Fittings for Monocentric Models ............................ 118
6.2.1 Four Simple Bivariate Functions .............................. 118
6.2.2 Other Monocentric Functions .................................. 120
6.2.3 GIS and Regression Implementations ...................... 121
6.3 Nonlinear and Weighted Regressions in Function Fittings ... 122
6.4 Function Fittings for Polycentric Models .............................. 126
6.4.1 Polycentric Assumptions and Corresponding
Functions .................................................................. 126
6.4.2 GIS and Regression Implementations ...................... 128
6.5 Case Study 6: Analyzing Urban Density Patterns in
Chicago Urban Area .............................................................. 129
6.5.1 Part 1: Function Fittings for Monocentric Models
at the Census Tract Level ......................................... 130
6.5.2 Part 2: Function Fittings for Polycentric Models
at the Census Tract Level ......................................... 133
6.5.3 Part 3: Function Fittings for Monocentric Models
at the Township Level............................................... 134
6.6 Discussions and Summary .................................................... 136
Appendix 6A: Deriving Urban Density Functions ........................... 137
Appendix 6B: Centrality Measures and Association with Urban
Densities ................................................................................ 139
Appendix 6C: OLS Regression for a Linear Bivariate Model ......... 140

Chapter 7 Principal Components, Factor and Cluster Analyses, and

Application in Social Area Analysis ................................................ 143
7.1 Principal Components Analysis ............................................ 144
7.2 Factor Analysis ...................................................................... 145
7.3 Cluster Analysis..................................................................... 149
7.4 Social Area Analysis ............................................................. 151
7.5 Case Study 7: Social Area Analysis in Beijing ..................... 153
7.6 Discussions and Summary .................................................... 159
Appendix 7: Discriminant Function Analysis .................................. 162

Chapter 8 Spatial Statistics and Applications ................................................... 163

8.1 The Centrographic Measures ................................................ 164
8.2 Case Study 8A: Measuring Geographic Distributions of
Racial–Ethnic Groups in Chicago Urban Area ..................... 166
8.3 Spatial Cluster Analysis Based on Feature Locations ........... 168
8.3.1 Tests for Global Clustering Based on Feature
Locations .................................................................. 168
8.3.2 Tests for Local Clusters Based on Feature
Locations .................................................................. 168
Contents xi

8.4 Case Study 8B: Spatial Cluster Analysis of Place Names

in Guangxi, China ................................................................. 170
8.5 Spatial Cluster Analysis Based on Feature Values ................ 172
8.5.1 Defining Spatial Weights.......................................... 172
8.5.2 Tests for Global Clustering Based on Feature
Values ....................................................................... 173
8.5.3 Tests for Local Clusters Based on Feature Values ... 175
8.6 Spatial Regression ................................................................. 176
8.6.1 Spatial Lag Model and Spatial Error Model ............ 176
8.6.2 Geographically Weighted Regression ...................... 178
8.7 Case Study 8C: Spatial Cluster and Regression Analyses
of Homicide Patterns in Chicago........................................... 178
8.7.1 Part 1: Spatial Cluster Analysis of Homicide Rates . 180
8.7.2 Part 2: Regression Analysis of Homicide Patterns... 182
8.8 Summary ............................................................................... 187
Appendix 8: Spatial Filtering Methods for Regression Analysis ..... 190

Section iii Advanced Quantitative Methods and

Applications
Chapter 9 Regionalization Methods and Application in Analysis
of Cancer Data.................................................................................. 193
9.1 Small Population Problem and Regionalization .................... 193
9.2 Spatial Order and the Modified Scale–Space Clustering
(MSSC) Methods ................................................................... 196
9.3 REDCAP Method .................................................................. 199
9.4 Case Study 9: Constructing Geographical Areas for
Analysis of Late-Stage Breast Cancer Risks in the
Chicago Region ..................................................................... 201
9.5 Summary ...............................................................................209
Appendix 9A: Poisson-Based Regression Analysis ......................... 212
Appendix 9B: Toolkit of the Mixed-Level Regionalization
Method .................................................................................213

Chapter 10 System of Linear Equations and Application of Garin–Lowry

Model in Simulating Urban Population and Employment Patterns . 217
10.1 System of Linear Equations................................................... 217
10.2 Garin–Lowry Model ............................................................. 219
10.2.1 Basic versus Nonbasic Economic Activities ............ 219
10.2.2 Model’s Formulation ................................................ 220
10.2.3 An Illustrative Example ........................................... 222
10.3 Case Study 10: Simulating Population and Service
Employment Distributions in a Hypothetical City ................ 223
xii Contents

10.4 Discussion and Summary ...................................................... 229

Appendix 10A: Input–Output Model ............................................... 230
Appendix 10B: Solving a System of Nonlinear Equations .............. 231
Appendix 10C: Toolkit for Calibrating the Garin– Lowry Model .... 233
Appendix 10D: Cellular Automata (CA) for Urban Land Use
Modeling................................................................................ 233

Chapter 11 Linear Programming and Applications in Examining Wasteful

Commuting and Allocating Healthcare Providers ........................... 237
11.1 Linear Programming and the Simplex Algorithm ................ 238
11.1.1 LP Standard Form .................................................... 238
11.1.2 Simplex Algorithm ................................................... 238
11.2 Case Study 11A: Measuring Wasteful Commuting
in Columbus, Ohio................................................................. 241
11.2.1 Issue of Wasteful Commuting and Model
Formulation .............................................................. 241
11.2.2 Data Preparation in ArcGIS ..................................... 242
11.2.3 Measuring Wasteful Commuting in an R Program ...245
11.3 Integer Programming and Location–Allocation Problems ... 247
11.3.1 General Forms and Solutions for Integer
Programming ........................................................... 247
11.3.2 Location–Allocation Problems.................................248
11.4 Case Study 11B: Allocating Health Care Providers in
Baton Rouge, Louisiana......................................................... 251
11.5 Summary ............................................................................... 254
Appendix 11A: Hamilton’s Model on Wasteful Commuting ........... 254
Appendix 11B: Coding Linear Programming in SAS ...................... 256
Appendix 11C: Programming Approach to Minimal Disparity in
Accessibility .......................................................................... 257

Chapter 12 Monte Carlo Method and Its Application in Urban Traffic

Simulation ........................................................................................ 259
12.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Method ...........................................260
12.1.1 Introduction to Monte Carlo Simulation ..................260
12.1.2 Monte Carlo Applications in Spatial Analysis .........260
12.2 Travel Demand Modeling ...................................................... 262
12.3 Examples of Monte Carlo–Based Spatial Simulation ...........264
12.4 Case Study 12: Monte Carlo–Based Traffic Simulation in
Baton Rouge, Louisiana.........................................................266
12.4.1 Data Preparation and Program Overview ................266
12.4.2 Module 1: Interzonal Trip Estimation ...................... 269
12.4.3 Module 2: Monte Carlo Simulation of Trip
Origins and Destinations .......................................... 272
Contents xiii

12.4.4 Module 3: Monte Carlo Simulation of Trip

Distribution............................................................... 273
12.4.5 Module 4: Trip Assignment and Model
Validation ................................................................. 273
12.5 Summary ............................................................................... 276
References ............................................................................................................. 279
List of Figures
FIGURE 1.1 Dialog window for attribute query. .................................................. 12
FIGURE 1.2 Dialog window for spatial query...................................................... 13
FIGURE 1.3 Dialog windows for projecting a spatial dataset.............................. 14
FIGURE 1.4 Dialog window for calculating a field.............................................. 15
FIGURE 1.5 Dialog window for defining mapping symbols. .............................. 16
FIGURE 1.6 Population density pattern in Baton Rouge in 2010......................... 17
FIGURE 1.7 Dialog window for multiple ring buffer........................................... 18
FIGURE 1.8 Dialog window for the Dissolve tool. .............................................. 19
FIGURE 1.9 Dialog window for creating a graph in ArcGIS. .............................20
FIGURE 1.10 Dialog window for spatial join. ..................................................... 21
FIGURE 1.11 Population density patterns based on data at the census tract
and block levels. ............................................................................. 22
FIGURE 1.12 Flow chart for Case Study 1........................................................... 22
FIGURE A1.1 Rook versus queen contiguity. .......................................................24
FIGURE A1.2 Workflow for defining queen contiguity........................................24
FIGURE 2.1 An example for the label-setting algorithm. .................................... 30
FIGURE 2.2 Dialog window for geocoding hospitals based on geographic
coordinates. ..................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 2.3 Dialog window for geocoding hospitals based on street
addresses. ...................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 2.4 Dialog window for an attribute join. ............................................... 37
FIGURE A2.1 A valued-graph example. .............................................................. 41
FIGURE A2.2 Dialog window for defining Toolbox properties........................... 43
FIGURE A2.3 Google Maps API tool user interface for computing
O-D travel time matrix. ................................................................44
FIGURE A2.4 Estimated travel time by ArcGIS and Google. ............................. 45
FIGURE 3.1 Floating catchment area method for spatial smoothing. ...................... 48
FIGURE 3.2 Kernel density estimation. ............................................................... 49

xv
xvi List of Figures

FIGURE 3.3 Zhuang and non-Zhuang place names in Guangxi, China. ............. 54
FIGURE 3.4 Dialog window for summarization.................................................. 55
FIGURE 3.5 Zhuang place name ratios in Guangxi by the FCA method. ........... 57
FIGURE 3.6 Kernel density of Zhuang place names in Guangxi. ....................... 57
FIGURE 3.7 Spatial interpolation of Zhuang place names in Guangxi by
the IDW method. ............................................................................. 58
FIGURE 3.8 Population change rate in Baton Rouge 2000–2010........................ 63
FIGURE 3.9 Flow chart for implementing the TDW method. ............................. 63
FIGURE 4.1 Constructing Thiessen polygons for five points............................... 71
FIGURE 4.2 Reilly’s law of retail gravitation. ................................................. 72
FIGURE 4.3 Proximal areas for the Cubs and White Sox. .................................. 77
FIGURE 4.4 Probability of choosing the Cubs by the Huff model. ..................... 81
FIGURE 4.5 Proximal areas for public hospitals in Louisiana. ...........................84
FIGURE 4.6 Service areas for public hospitals in Louisiana by Huff model. ..... 86
FIGURE 4.7 Probability of visiting LSUHSC-Shreveport Hospital by Huff
model. .............................................................................................. 87
FIGURE A4.1 Interface for implementing the Huff model. ................................. 91
FIGURE 5.1 Basic floating catchment area method in Euclidean distance..........96
FIGURE 5.2 Two-step floating catchment area method in travel time. ............... 98
FIGURE 5.3 Conceptualizing distance decay in G2SFCA. ............................... 101
FIGURE 5.4 Flow chart for implementing the 2SFCA in ArcGIS..................... 104
FIGURE 5.5 Accessibility to primary care physician in Chicago region by
2SFCA. .......................................................................................... 105
FIGURE 5.6 Accessibility to primary care physician in Chicago region by
2SFCA. .......................................................................................... 106
FIGURE 5.7 Comparison of accessibility scores by the 2SFCA and gravity-
based methods. .............................................................................. 109
FIGURE A5.1 Interface for implementing G2SFCA method. ............................ 112
FIGURE 6.1 Regional growth patterns by the density function
approach. ....................................................................................... 119
FIGURE 6.2 Excel dialog window for regression. ............................................. 122
FIGURE 6.3 Excel dialog window for Format Trendline. ................................. 123
FIGURE 6.4 Illustration of polycentric assumptions. ........................................ 127
List of Figures xvii

FIGURE 6.5 Population density surface and job centers in Chicago. ................ 130
FIGURE 6.6 Density versus distance exponential trend line (census tracts)...... 133
FIGURE 6.7 Density versus distance exponential trend line (survey
townships). ..................................................................................... 136
FIGURE 7.1 Scree plot and variance explained in principal components
analysis. .......................................................................................... 147
FIGURE 7.2 Major steps in principal components analysis and factor
analysis........................................................................................... 148
FIGURE 7.3 Dendrogram for a cluster analysis example. .................................. 150
FIGURE 7.4 Conceptual model for urban mosaic. ............................................. 153
FIGURE 7.5 Districts and subdistricts in Beijing. .............................................. 154
FIGURE 7.6 Spatial patterns of factor scores in Beijing. ................................... 158
FIGURE 7.7 Social areas in Beijing. .................................................................. 159
FIGURE 8.1 Mean centers and ellipses for racial–ethnic groups in the
Chicago area. ................................................................................. 167
FIGURE 8.2 SaTScan dialog windows for point-based spatial cluster
analysis. ..................................................................................... 171
FIGURE 8.3 A spatial cluster of Zhuang place names in Guangxi, China. ....... 172
FIGURE 8.4 ArcGIS dialog window for computing Getis–Ord General G. ..... 173
FIGURE 8.5 Clusters of homicide rates based on local Moran’s Ii. ................... 183
FIGURE 8.6 Clusters of homicide rates based on Gi∗. ........................................ 184
FIGURE 8.7 GeoDa dialog window for defining spatial weights. ..................... 186
FIGURE 8.8 GeoDa dialog window for regression. ........................................... 187
FIGURE 8.9 Standard residuals in the GWR model. ......................................... 188
FIGURE 8.10 Spatial variations of coefficients from the GWR model. ............ 189
FIGURE 9.1 Female breast cancer death rates in Illinois for 2003–2007. ......... 194
FIGURE 9.2 Example of assigning spatial order values to areas. ...................... 197
FIGURE 9.3 Example illustrating REDCAP....................................................... 200
FIGURE 9.4 Interface windows in REDCAP. ....................................................204
FIGURE 9.5 Late-stage breast cancer rates in zip code areas in the Chicago
region in 2000................................................................................206
FIGURE 9.6 Distribution of late-stage breast cancer rates in the Chicago
region in 2000. ...............................................................................207
xviii List of Figures

FIGURE 9.7 Screen shot for “Dissolve” in data aggregation. ............................209

FIGURE 9.8 Late-stage breast cancer rates in newly defined areas in
Chicago in 2000. ........................................................................... 210
FIGURE 9.9 Hot and cold spots of late-stage breast cancer rates in newly
defined areas in the Chicago region in 2000. ................................ 211
FIGURE A9.1 User interface of the MLR method. ............................................ 214
FIGURE 10.1 Interaction between population and employment distributions
in a city......................................................................................... 219
FIGURE 10.2 A simple city for illustration........................................................ 222
FIGURE 10.3 Spatial structure of a hypothetical city. .......................................224
FIGURE 10.4 Population distributions in various scenarios. ............................. 228
FIGURE 10.5 Service employment distributions in various scenarios. ............. 228
FIGURE A10.1 Interface of the Garin–Lowry model tool. ................................ 234
FIGURE 11.1 TAZs with employment and resident workers in Columbus,
Ohio.............................................................................................. 243
FIGURE 11.2 Interface of R. ..............................................................................246
FIGURE 11.3 Five selected hospitals in the p-median model. ........................... 253
FIGURE 12.1 Monte Carlo simulations of (a) resident workers, and (b) jobs. ... 265
FIGURE 12.2 Traffic monitoring stations and adjacent areas in Baton Rouge..... 267
FIGURE 12.3 Workflow of the TSME. .............................................................. 269
FIGURE 12.4 TSME interface for the intrazonal trip estimation module. ........ 271
FIGURE 12.5 TSME interface for the Monte Carlo simulation of O’s and
D’s module. .................................................................................. 272
FIGURE 12.6 TSME interface for the Monte Carlo simulation of trips
module. ........................................................................................ 274
FIGURE 12.7 TSME interface for the trip assignment and validation module. .... 275
FIGURE 12.8 Observed versus simulated traffic. .............................................. 276
List of Tables
TABLE 1.1 Types of Relationships in Combining Tables .......................................6
TABLE 1.2 Types of Spatial Joins in ArcGIS .........................................................9
TABLE 1.3 Comparison of Spatial Query, Spatial Join and Map Overlay ........... 10
TABLE 2.1 Solution to the Shortest Route Problem ............................................. 31
TABLE 4.1 Fan Bases for Cubs and White Sox by Trade Area Analysis ............. 79
TABLE 4.2 Population by Hospital Trade Areas in Louisiana ............................. 85
TABLE 5.1 Comparison of Accessibility Measures ............................................ 107
TABLE A5.1 Items to Be Defined in the Accessibility Toolkit Interface ........... 113
TABLE 6.1 Linear Regressions for a Monocentric City...................................... 123
TABLE 6.2 Polycentric Assumptions and Corresponding Functions ................. 128
TABLE 6.3 Regressions Based on Monocentric Functions ................................ 132
TABLE 6.4 Regressions Based on Polycentric Assumptions 1 and 2 ................. 135
TABLE 7.1 Idealized Factor Loadings in Social Area Analysis ......................... 152
TABLE 7.2 Basic Statistics for Socioeconomic Variables in Beijing .................... 155
TABLE 7.3 Eigenvalues from Principal Components Analysis .......................... 156
TABLE 7.4 Factor Loadings in Social Area Analysis ......................................... 157
TABLE 7.5 Characteristics of Social Areas ........................................................ 160
TABLE 7.6 Zones and Sectors Coded by Dummy Variables .............................. 160
TABLE 7.7 Regressions for Testing Zonal versus Sector Structures .................. 161
TABLE 8.1 Rotated Factor Patterns of Socioeconomic Variables in Chicago
in 1990 .............................................................................................. 180
TABLE 8.2 OLS and Spatial Regressions of Homicide Rates in Chicago ......... 185
TABLE 9.1 Approaches to the Small Population Problem................................... 196
TABLE 9.2 Descriptive Statistics for Female Breast Cancer by Zip Code
and by Constructed New Areas in Chicago Metro Area in 2000 ....202
TABLE 9.3 Regression Results for Late-Stage Breast Cancer Risks in the
Chicago Region in 2000 ...................................................................207
TABLE A9.1 Items to Be Defined in the MLR Toolkit Interface........................ 215

xix
xx List of Tables

TABLE 10.1 Simulated Scenarios of Population and Service Employment

Distributions ................................................................................... 227
TABLE 11.1 Location–Allocation Models .......................................................... 250
TABLE 11.2 Service Areas for the Clinics ......................................................... 253
TABLE 12.1 Major Tasks and Estimated Computation Time in Traffic
Simulation....................................................................................... 271
Foreword
This book introduces the reader in a gentle and unassuming way to the notion that
the spatial structure of cities and regions is organized around ideas about the spatial
geometry of cities in terms of distances, densities of occupation, and nearness or
proximity usually referred to as accessibility. These are the driving forces of the way
spatial structures defining our cities self-organize into recognizable forms and func-
tions, and during the last 50 years, they have been catalogued and researched using
formal methods and models that provide a unifying sense of the way the physical
form of cities is organized. In general, cities grow from some central location, tradi-
tionally the marketplace that is often established accidently or relates to some pre-
dominant natural advantage such as a river crossing or harbor. But as the city grows
around this pole or center, it provides the essential structure of the city with its land
uses and movement patterns, reinforcing the resulting configuration. Sometimes,
when the centralizing forces are destroyed by those of decentralization, new hubs or
centers emerge in the periphery—edge cities, thus generating landscapes which are
polycentric, composed of multiple cores and clusters of different sizes which func-
tion in an autonomous whole.
These are the theories and models that constitute the subject matter of this text.
Fahui Wang provides an excellent introduction to these various models and the meth-
ods that are used to link them to data and thence to prediction, but he does much
more than this for he casts all the models that he introduces into a framework which
is dominated by desktop GIS, specifically ArcGIS. Not only is the text an excellent
and cogent summary of the main theories that explain the spatial structure of our
cities, it is a working manual for making these theories operational by turning theo-
ries into models that are then estimated or fitted to existing cities using the various
software and extensions that have been developed in the field of GIS during the last
20 years. Readers are thus treated to a view of operational theory building and mod-
eling in the social sciences with the focus on spatial structures and contemporary
software which ultimately empowers the persistent reader who works through the
book with tools and methods for turning theory into practice.
This revised and extended edition of Fahui Wang’s book, originally published as
Quantitative Methods and Applications in GIS in 2006, is divided into three sec-
tions. Section I deals with getting started with ArcGIS, which focuses on key func-
tions involving mapping population densities, computing distances and travel times,
and interpolating and smoothing spatial surfaces from discrete points and areal data.
This sets the scene for Section II which deals with basic quantitative methods and
applications starting with defining trade areas or hinterlands which are key factors
in business geography. Measuring accessibilities that depend on gravity and distance
come next with applications to health care, and this is followed by linear analysis that
is used to transform nonlinear functions of population density into forms that can be
estimated for cities. Extracting structure from data at different scales using principal
components and factor analysis with clustering comes next, and this section of the

xxi
xxii Foreword

book concludes with a new chapter on spatial statistics that also builds on clustering
with respect to local and more global structures.
Section III of the book treats more advanced topics: regionalization which again
relates to clustering, various linear methods of land use modeling and optimiza-
tion, and finally, a new chapter on modeling of traffic based on Monte Carlo tech-
niques. A very nice feature of the book is the wealth of examples that are included.
Different places such as Louisiana State, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Columbus, Ohio
and Chicago, Illinois in the United States, and Beijing and Guangxi Province of
China, among other locations are used, while the applications of these various tech-
niques are to population density, retail trade, health care, hospital provision, social
area analysis, the spatial incidence of cancer, and traffic.
In this book, Fahui Wang shows just how far GIS has progressed. Virtually
everything that was developed prior to the GIS age can now be applied, further
developed, and interpreted through the GIS lens, and in some respects, his examples
illustrate the great range and diversity of potential applications which are the marks
of a mature technology. In fact, GIS is becoming part of the routine tool kit that any
analyst would use in studying data that varies across space. What is intriguing about
the treatment here is that the edifice of theory of urban and regional systems that
draws on locational analysis and social physics, although still advancing, is becom-
ing increasingly integrated with GIS, and it is treatment of the subject area such as
that developed here that shows how relevant these tools are to contemporary urban
policy. In fact, it is this focus on policy that marks the book. Those reading it will
find that the author weaves together explanations of the theories involved with their
translation into tools and models and their estimation using straightforward statistics
with notions about different ways of applying these models to real problems that
have strong policy implications. At the end of the day, it is not only understanding
cities better that is the quest for the tools introduced here but also understanding
them in deep enough ways so that effective policies can be advanced and tested that
will provide more sustainable and resilient cities—one of the challenges of near-
and medium-term futures in the socioeconomic domain. This book sets a standard,
shows how this can be achieved, and charts the way forward.

Michael Batty
Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis
University College, London, United Kingdom
Preface
One of the most important advancements in recent social science research (includ-
ing applied social sciences and public policy) has been the application of quantita-
tive or computational methods in studying the complex human or social systems.
Research centers in computational social sciences have flourished in major uni-
versity campuses including Harvard University (http://www.iq.harvard.edu/),
Stanford University (https://css-center.stanford.edu/), UCLA (http://ccss.ucla.edu/),
University of Washington (http://julius.csscr.washington.edu/), and George Mason
University (http://www.css.gmu.edu/). Many conferences have also been organized
around this theme (http://computationalsocialscience.org/). Geographic Information
System (GIS) has played an important role in this movement because of its capability
of integrating and analyzing various data sets, in particular spatial data. The Center
for Spatially Integrated Social Science (CSISS) at the University of California Santa
Barbara, funded by the National Science Foundation (1999–2007), has been an
important force in promoting the usage of GIS technologies in social sciences. The
Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA) at the University College, London,
UK, is also known for its leading efforts in applied GIS and geo-simulation research
with a focus on cities. The growth of GIS has made it increasingly known as geo-
graphic information science (GISc), which covers broader issues such as spatial data
quality and uncertainty, design and development of spatial data structure, social, and
legal issues related to GIS, and many others.
Many of today’s students in geography and other social science-related fields (e.g.,
sociology, anthropology, business management, city and regional planning, public
administration) share the same excitement in GIS. But their interest in GIS may fade
away quickly if the GIS usage is limited to managing spatial data and mapping. In
the meantime, a significant number of students complain that courses on statistics,
quantitative methods, and spatial analysis are too dry and feel irrelevant to their
interests. Over years of teaching GIS, spatial analysis, and quantitative methods, I
have learned the benefits of blending them together and practicing them in case stud-
ies using real-world data. Students can sharpen their GIS skills by applying some
GIS techniques to detecting hot spots of crime, or gain better understanding of a
classic urban land use theory by examining their spatial patterns in a GIS environ-
ment. When students realize that they can use some of the computational methods
and GIS techniques to solve real-world problems in their own field, they become bet-
ter motivated in class. In other words, technical skills in GIS or quantitative methods
are learned in the context of addressing subject issues. Both are important for today’s
competitive job market.
This book is the result of my efforts of integrating GIS and quantitative (com-
putational) methods, demonstrated in various policy-relevant socioeconomic appli-
cations. The applications are chosen with three objectives in mind. The first is to
demonstrate the diversity of issues where GIS can be used to enhance the studies
related to socioeconomic issues and public policy. Applications spread from typical

xxiii
xxiv Preface

themes in urban and regional analysis (e.g., trade area analysis, regional growth
patterns, urban land use and transportation) to issues related to crime and health
analyses. The second is to illustrate various computational methods. Some methods
become easy to use in automated GIS tools, and others rely on GIS to enhance the
visualization of results. The third objective is to cover common tasks (e.g., distance
and travel time estimation, spatial smoothing and interpolation, accessibility mea-
sures) and major issues (e.g., modifiable areal unit problem, rate estimate of rare
events in small populations, spatial autocorrelation) that are encountered in spatial
analysis.
One important feature of this book is that each chapter is task-driven. Methods
can be better learned in the context of solving real-world problems. While each
method is illustrated in a special case of application, it can be used to analyze dif-
ferent issues. Each chapter has one subject theme and introduces the method (or a
group of related methods) most relevant to the theme. For example, spatial regres-
sion is used to examine the relationship between job access and homicide patterns;
systems of linear equations are analyzed to predict urban land use patterns; linear
programming is introduced to solve the problem of wasteful commuting and allo-
cate healthcare facilities; and Monte Carlo technique is illustrated in simulating
urban traffic.
Another important feature of this book is the emphasis on implementation of
methods. All GIS-related tasks are illustrated in the ArcGIS platform, and most sta-
tistical analyses are conducted by SAS. In other words, one may only need access to
ArcGIS and SAS in order to replicate the work discussed in the book and conduct
similar research. ArcGIS and SAS are chosen because they are the leading software
for GIS and statistical analysis, respectively. Some specific tasks such as spatial clus-
tering and spatial regression use free software that can be downloaded from the
Internet. Most data used in the case studies are publicly accessible. Instructors and
advanced readers may use the data sources and techniques discussed in the book to
design their class projects or craft their own research projects. A link to the website
is provided for downloading all data and computer programs used in the case studies
(see “List of Major GIS Datasets and Program Files”). I plan to run a blog under my
homepage (http://ga.lsu.edu/faculty/fahui-wang/) in support of the book.
The book has 12 chapters. Section I includes the first three chapters, covering
some generic issues such as an overview of data management in GIS and basic spa-
tial analysis tools (Chapter 1), distance and travel time measurement (Chapter 2),
and spatial smoothing and interpolation (Chapter 3). Section II includes Chapters
4 through 8, covering some basic quantitative methods that require little or no pro-
gramming skills: trade area analysis (Chapter 4), accessibility measures (Chapter
5), function fittings (Chapter 6), factor analysis (Chapter 7), and spatial statistics
(Chapter 8). Section III includes Chapters 9 through 12, covering more advanced
topics: regionalization (Chapter 9), a system of linear equations (Chapter 10), linear
programming (Chapter 11), and Monte Carlo simulation (Chapter 12). Sections I
and II may serve an upper-level undergraduate course. Section III may be used for
a graduate course. It is assumed that readers have some basic GIS and statistical
knowledge equivalent to one introductory GIS course and one elementary statistical
course.
Preface xxv

Each chapter focuses on one computational method except for the first chapter.
In general, a chapter (1) begins with an introduction to the method, (2) discusses a
theme to which the method is applied, and (3) uses a case study to implement the
method using GIS. Some important issues, if not directly relevant to the main theme
of a chapter, are illustrated in appendixes. Many important tasks are repeated in dif-
ferent projects to reinforce the learning experience (see “Quick Reference for Spatial
Analysis Tasks”).
My interest in quantitative methods has been very much influenced by my doc-
toral advisor, Jean-Michel Guldmann, in the Department of City and Regional
Planning of The Ohio State University. I learned linear programming and solving a
system of linear equations in his courses on static and dynamic programming. I also
benefited a great deal from the mentorship of Donald Haurin in the Department of
Economics of The Ohio State University. The topics on urban and regional density
patterns and wasteful commuting can be traced back to his inspiring urban econom-
ics course. Philip Viton, also in the Department of City and Regional Planning of
The Ohio State University, taught me much of the econometrics. I only wish I could
have been a better student then.
It has been 8 years since the publication of the previous edition of this book.
Several friends and many users, especially my students, have found some errors and
given me valuable feedback. Several tasks in the previous edition had to be imple-
mented in the deprecated ArcInfo workstation environment (and its associated AML
program). The software, particularly ArcGIS, has advanced with increasing capaci-
ties and more user-friendly interfaces. Numerous people have urged me to automate
some popular tasks in Python. I have also collected a few new tricks from my own
research that I hope to share with a broader audience. The reasons for preparing a
new version just kept piling on. It came to a point that I could not find any more
excuses for not doing it when my sabbatical request was approved by Louisiana State
University in early 2013.
Inevitably I have lost a step or two over the years. The added administrative duty
did not help either. I truly felt that the revision took more work than the previous edi-
tion. I used most of my summer and the sabbatical in the fall of 2013 on the book,
and often found myself working on the book in my office very early in the mornings
of weekdays and weekends for much of the spring semester of 2014. In this version,
several popular tasks such as trade area delineation, spatial accessibility measures
(2SFCA), mixed-level regionalization (MLR), and Garin–Lowry model are auto-
mated as a convenient toolkit in ArcGIS; and some common tasks such as REDCAP
regionalization, wasteful commuting measure, and Monte Carlo simulation are now
implemented in more user-friendly programs. All case studies have been tested mul-
tiple times, and instructions were based on ArcGIS 10.2. I would like to believe that
it was the amount of revision work that merited the investment of so much of time.
It could be an understatement to say that more than 60% of the materials (including
case studies) are new. I hope that the readers will be convinced likewise that it is a
worthy cause.
I am so grateful for the generous help from several individuals in preparing this
second edition. Yujie Hu coded the program TSME used in the case study in Chapter
12 and coauthored Chapter 12. He also tested all case studies and corrected numerous
xxvi Preface

errors. Haojie Zhu implemented the Python programs for three toolkits (trade area
delineation, spatial accessibility measures, and Garin–Lowry model). Both Yujie
and Haojie are PhD students in the Department of Geography and Anthropology,
Louisiana State University. Lan Mu in the Department of Geography, University of
Georgia, implemented the mixed-level regionalization method in Python and coau-
thored Appendix 9B in Chapter 9. Xinyue Ye in the Department of Geography, Kent
State University, coauthored Appendix 10D on cellular automata for urban land use
modeling in Chapter 10. Carmi J. Neiger of Elmhurst College tested the case stud-
ies in Chapters 1 through 4 and edited the four chapters. I thank Michael Batty for
graciously writing the new Foreword on short notice.
Finally, I would like to thank the editorial team at Taylor & Francis: acquisi-
tion editor, Irma Britton; production coordinator, Laurie Schlags; and many others,
including typesetters, proofreaders, cartographers, and computer specialists. Thank
you all for guiding me through the whole process.
This book intends to mainly serve students in geography, urban and regional
planning, public policy, and related fields. It can be used in courses such as (1) spa-
tial analysis, (2) location analysis, (3) quantitative methods in geography, and (4)
applications of GIS in business and social science. The book can also be useful for
social scientists in general with research interests related to spatial issues. Some in
urban economics may find the studies on urban structures and wasteful commut-
ing relevant, and others in business may think the chapters on trade area analysis
and accessibility measures useful. The case study on crime patterns may interest
criminologists, and the one on regionalization and cancer analysis may find the
audience among epidemiologists. Some basic GIS knowledge (e.g., one introductory
GIS course) will help readers navigate through the case studies smoothly, but is not
required.
Additional material including the datasets and program files is available from the
CRC website: http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466584723.
Author
Fahui Wang is James J. Parsons Professor and
Chair of the Department of Geography and
Anthropology, Louisiana State University. He
earned a BS degree in geography from Peking
University, China, an MA degree in economics and
a PhD degree in city and regional planning from
The Ohio State University. His research interests
include GIS applications in human geography
(urban, economic, and transportation), city and
regional planning, and public policy (crime and
health). His work has been supported by the National
Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Energy,
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(Agency for Healthcare Research & Quality and
the National Cancer Institute), U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development, U.S. Department of Justice (National Institute of
Justice and Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention), and the National
Natural Science Foundation of China. He is on the editorial boards of several inter-
national journals including Annals of the Association of American Geographers,
Annals of GIS, Applied Geography, and the Chinese Geographical Science. He has
published over 100 refereed articles.

xxvii
List of Major GIS Datasets
and Program Files*
Case Study Data Folder GIS Dataset Program File Study Area
1 BatonRouge BR.gdb, Census. East Baton Rouge
gdb Parish
2 Louisiana LA_State.gdb, Louisiana
LAState.gdb
3A China_GX GX.gdb Guangxi, China
3B BatonRouge BR.gdb East Baton Rouge
Parish
4A Chicago ChiRegion.gdb Huff Model.tbx Chicago Region
4B Louisiana LA_State.gdb, Huff Model.tbx Louisiana
LAState.gdb
5 Chicago ChiRegion.gdb Accessibility.tbx Chicago Region
6 Chicago ChiUrArea.gdb monocent.sas, polycent.sas, Chicago Urban Area
mono_twnshp.sas
7 Beijing BJSA.gdb PCA_FA_CA.sas, BJreg.sas Beijing, China
8A Chicago ChiUrArea.gdb Chicago Urban Area
8B China_GX GX.gdb Guangxi, China
8C Chicago ChiCity.gdb PCA_FA.sas Chicago City
9 Chicago/ Chizip shapefiles poisson_zip.sas, Mixed- Chicago Region
Chizip Level Regionalizaiton
Tools.tbx
10 SimuCity SimuCity.gdb Garin-Lowry Model.tbx Hypothetical city
11A Columbus Columbus.gdb WasteComm.R, LP.sas Columbus, Ohio
11B BatonRouge BR.gdb East Baton Rouge
Parish
12 BatonRouge BRMSA.gdb TSME.exe, Features To Baton Rouge MSA
Text File.tbx

* http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466584723

xxix
List of Quick References for
Spatial Analysis Tasks
Section First Figure Sections (Steps)
Task Introduced (Step) Illustration Repeated
2SFCA method (automated toolkit) Appendix 5B Figure A5.1
Areal weighting Interpolation Section 3.5.1 (1–3)
Attribute join Section 2.4.1 (5) Figure 2.4 Section 3.3.1 (3),
Section 4.3.2 (6)
Attribute query Section 1.3.1 (1) Figure 1.1 Section 3.3.1 (4)
Dissolve Section 1.3.2 (10) Figure 1.8
Euclidean distance matrix Section 2.4.1 (3) Section 3.3.1 (2),
computation Section 4.3.2 (5)
Geocoding by address locator Section 2.4.1 (1) Figure 2.3
Geocoding by geographic coordinates Section 2.4.1 (1) Figure 2.2
Geographically weighted regression Section 8.7.2 (8)
(GWR)
Getis–Ord general G Section 8.7.1 (3)
Huff model (automated toolkit) Appendix 4B Figure A4.1
IDW spatial interpolation Section 3.3.2 (10) Section 6.5.1 (2)
Kernel density estimation (KDE) Section 3.3.2 (9) Section 6.5.1 (2)
Local Gi∗ Section 8.7.1 (4)
Local Moran’s Ii (LISA) Section 8.7.1 (4)
Mean center Section 8.2 (1)
Moran’s I Section 8.7.1 (3)
Network dataset building Section 2.4.2 (8) Section 10.3 (1, 3)
OLS regression in ArcGIS Section 8.7.2 (5) Section 6.5.1 (4–5)
Projection of spatial data Section 1.3.1 (3) Figure 1.3
Proximal area by Euclidean distance Section 4.3.1 (2–3)
Proximal area by travel time Section 4.4.1 (1–3)
Spatial join Section 1.3.2 (13) Figure 1.10
Spatial query Section 1.3.1 (2) Figure 1.2 Section 6.5.1 (1)
Spatial regression in GeoDa Section 8.7.2 (7)
Standard deviational ellipse Section 8.2 (3)
Standard distance Section 8.2 (2)
Summarize attribute Section 3.3.1 (5) Figure 3.4 Section 4.3.1 (4),
Section 4.3.2 (7)
Travel time O-D matrix computation Section 2.4.2 Section 10.3 (1, 3),
(9–12) Section 11.2.2 (3)
Weighted centroids Section 4.3.1 (1)

xxxi
Section I
GIS and Basic Spatial
Analysis Tasks
 1 Getting Started with
ArcGIS
Data Management and Basic
Spatial Analysis Tools

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that captures, stores,

manipulates, queries, analyzes, and displays geographically referenced data. Among
the diverse set of tasks a GIS can do, mapping remains the primary function. The
first objective of this chapter is to demonstrate how GIS is used as a computerized
mapping tool. The key skill involved in this task is the management of spatial and
aspatial (attribute) data and the linkage between them. However, GIS goes beyond
mapping and has been increasingly used in various spatial analysis tasks as GIS
software has become more capable and also user-friendly for these tasks. The second
objective of this chapter is to introduce some basic tools for spatial analysis in GIS.
Given its wide usage in education, business and governmental agencies, ArcGIS
has been chosen as the major software platform to implement GIS tasks in this book.
Unless otherwise noted, studies in this book are based on ArcGIS 10.2. All chapters
are structured in a similar fashion, beginning with conceptual discussions to lay out
the foundation for methods, followed by case studies to acquaint the readers with
related techniques.
This chapter serves as a quick warm-up to prepare readers for more advanced
spatial analysis in later chapters. Section 1.1 offers a quick tour of spatial and attri-
bute data management in ArcGIS. Section 1.2 surveys basic spatial analysis tools in
ArcGIS including queries, spatial joins and map overlays. Section 1.3 uses a case
study to illustrate the typical process of GIS-based mapping and introduces some of
the basic spatial analysis tools in ArcGIS. The chapter concludes with a brief sum-
mary. In addition, Appendix 1 demonstrates how to use GIS-based spatial analysis
tools to identify spatial relationships such as polygon adjacency. Polygon adjacency
defines spatial weights often needed in advanced spatial statistical studies such as
spatial cluster and regression analyses (see Chapter 8).

1.1 SPATIAL AND ATTRIBUTE DATA MANAGEMENT IN ArcGIS

Since ArcGIS is chosen as the primary software platform for this book, it is helpful
to have a brief overview of its major modules and functions. ArcGIS was released in
2001 by Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI) with a full-featured
graphic user interface (GUI) to replace the older versions of ArcInfo that were based

3
4 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

on command line interface. Prior to the release of ArcGIS, ESRI had an entry-level
GIS package with a GUI called ArcView. ArcView is now referred to as ArcGIS for
Desktop Basic.
ArcGIS contains three major modules: ArcCatalog, ArcMap, and ArcToolbox.
ArcCatalog views and manages spatial data files. ArcMap displays, edits, and ana-
lyzes the spatial data as well as attribute data. ArcToolbox contains various task-
specific tools for data analysis such as data conversion, data management, spatial
analysis, and spatial statistics. ArcCatalog and ArcMap can be launched sepa-
rately from the Start button on the Windows taskbar, and either module can also be
accessed by clicking its distinctive symbol inside the other modules. ArcToolbox is
accessed in either ArcMap or ArcCatalog. ArcMap is used most often, and thus is
the module being referred to in the text unless otherwise noted.

1.1.1 Map projections and spatial data Models

GIS differs from other information systems because of its unique capability of manag-
ing geographically referenced or spatial (location) data. Understanding the manage-
ment of spatial data in GIS requires knowledge of the data’s geographic coordinate
system with longitude and latitude values and its representations on various plane
coordinate systems with (x,y) coordinates (map layers). Transforming the Earth’s
spherical surface to a plane surface is a process referred to as projection. The two
map projections most commonly used in the US are Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) and State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS). Strictly speaking, the SPCS is
not actually a projection; instead, it is a set of more than 100 geographic zones or
coordinate systems for specific regions of the US. To achieve minimal distortion,
north-south oriented states or regions use a Transverse Mercator projection, and east-
west oriented states or regions use a Lambert Conformal Conic projection. Some
states (e.g., Alaska, New York) use more than one projection. For more details, one
may refer to an ArcGIS online documentation, “Understanding Map Projections.”
In ArcGIS, ArcMap automatically converts data of different coordinate systems
to that of the first dataset added to the frame in map displays. This feature is com-
monly referred to as on-the-fly reprojection. However, this may be a time-consuming
process if the dataset is very large. More importantly, one cannot obtain meaningful
measurements such as distance or area on a dataset in a geographic coordinate sys-
tem that is not projected. It is a good practice to use the same projection for all data
layers in one project.
To check the existing projection for a spatial dataset in ArcGIS, one may use
ArcCatalog by right-clicking the layer > Properties > XY Coordinate System, or
use ArcMap by right-clicking the layer > Properties > Source. Projection-related
tasks are conducted under ArcToolbox > Data Management Tools > Projections and
Transformations. If the spatial data are vector based, proceed to choose Project to
transform the coordinate systems. The tool provides the option to define a new coor-
dinate system or import the coordinate system from an existing geodataset. If the
spatial data are raster based, choose Define Projection (or other suitable options).
step 3 in Section 1.3 illustrates the use of transforming a spatial dataset in a geo-
graphic coordinate system to a projected coordinate system.
Getting Started with ArcGIS 5

Traditionally, a GIS uses either the vector or the raster data model to manage
spatial data. A vector GIS uses geographically referenced points to construct spatial
features of points, lines and areas; and a raster GIS uses grid cells in rows and col-
umns to represent spatial features. The vector data structure is used in most socio-
economic applications, and also in most case studies in this book. The raster data
structure is simple and widely used in environmental studies, physical sciences,
and natural resource management. Most commercial GIS software can convert
from vector into raster data, or vice versa. In ArcGIS, the tools are available under
ArcToolbox > Conversion Tools.
Earlier versions of ESRI’S GIS software used the coverage data model. Later,
shapefiles were developed for the ArcView package. Since the release of ArcGIS
8, the geodatabase model has become available, and represents the current trend of
object-oriented data models. The object-oriented data model stores the geometries
of objects (spatial data) also with the attribute data, whereas the traditional cover-
age or shapefile model stores spatial and attribute data separately. Spatial data used
for case studies in this book are provided almost entirely in geodatabases (with rare
exceptions such as for network datasets). Spatial and attribute data in socioeconomic
analysis often come from different sources, and a typical task is to join them together
in GIS for mapping and analysis. This involves attribute data management as dis-
cussed below.

1.1.2 attribute data ManageMent and attribute join

A GIS includes both spatial and attribute data. Spatial data capture the geometry of
map features, and attribute data describe the characteristics of map features. Attribute
data are usually stored as tabular files or tables. ArcGIS reads several types of table
formats. Shapefile attribute tables use the dBase format, ArcInfo Workstation uses
the INFO format, and geodatabase tables use relational database format. ArcGIS can
also read several text formats, including comma-delimited and tab-delimited text.
Some of the basic tasks of data management can be done in either ArcCatalog
or ArcMap, and some can be done in only one or the other. Creating a new table
or deleting/copying an existing table is done only in ArcCatalog. Recall that
ArcCatalog is for viewing and managing GIS data files. For example, a dBase
table is created in ArcCatalog by right-clicking the folder where the new table will
be placed > New > dBase Table. A table can be deleted, copied, or renamed in
ArcCatalog by right-clicking the table > Delete (or Copy, Rename).
Adding a new field or deleting an existing field in a table (e.g., the attribute table
associated with a spatial feature or a standalone file) can be done in ArcCatalog or
ArcMap. For example, to add a field to a table in ArcCatalog, right-click the table (or
the layer) > Properties > click Fields > type the new field name into an empty row
in the Field Name column and define its Data Type; to delete a field, simply choose
the entire row for the field and click the delete key (and click Apply to confirm the
changes). To add a field in ArcMap, right-click the table (or the layer) in the Table
of Contents window > Open (or Open Attribute Table) > in the open table, click the
Table Options dropdown icon Add Field; to delete a field, choose the entire
column of the field, right-click and choose Delete Field. Updating values for a field
6 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

in a table is done in ArcMap: on the open table > right-click the field, choose Field
Calculator to access the tool. In addition, basic statistics for a field can be obtained
in ArcMap by right-clicking the field and choosing Statistics. Step 5 in Section 1.3
demonstrates how to create a new field and update its values.
In GIS, an attribute join is often used to link information in two tables based
on a common field (key). The table can be an attribute table associated with a par-
ticular geodataset or a standalone table. In an attribute join, the names of the fields
used to link the two tables do not need to be identical in the two tables to be com-
bined, but the data types must match. There are various relationships between tables
when linking them: one-to-one, many-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many. For
either one-to-one or many-to-one relationship, a join is used to combine two tables
in ArcGIS. However, when the relationship is one-to-many or many-to-many, a join
cannot be performed. ArcGIS uses a relate to link two tables while keeping the two
tables separated. In a relate, one or more records are selected in one table, and the
associated records are selected in another table. Table 1.1 summarizes the relation-
ships and corresponding tools in ArcGIS.
A join or relate is performed in ArcMap. Under Table of Contents (TOC), right-
click the spatial dataset or the table that is to become the target table, and choose
Joins and Relates > Join (or Relate) > In the Join Data dialog window, choose “Join
attributes from a table,” and select (1) the common field in the target table, (2) the
source table, and (3) the common field in the source table. It is important to under-
stand the different roles of the target and source tables in the process. As a result, the
target table is expanded by adding the fields from the source table.
A join is temporary in the sense that no new data are created and the join rela-
tionship is lost once the project is exited without being saved. To preserve the result-
ing layer (or combined table), right-click it under Table of Contents > Data > Export
Data (or Export) and to save it in a new spatial dataset (table). If it is desirable to
only save the joined attribute table of a spatial dataset, in the open attribute table,
click the Table Options dropdown icon > Export. The latter can be termed “per-
manent join.” Alternatively, one may use the tools in ArcToolbox to implement
attribute joins: ArcToolbox > Data Management Tool > Joins > choose Add Join
for a temporary join or Join Field for a permanent join. These ArcToolbox tools

TABLE 1.1
Types of Relationships in Combining Tables
Relationship Match Join or Relate in ArcGIS
One-to-one One record in the target table → one record in Join
the source table
Many-to-one Multiple records in the target table → one Join
record in the source table
One-to-many One record in the target table → multiple Relate
records in the source table
Many-to-many Multiple records in the target table → multiple Relate
records in the source table
Getting Started with ArcGIS 7

are particularly useful for automating the process in programming (see step 8 in
Section 5.4.1).
Once the attribute information is joined to a spatial layer, mapping the data is
also done in ArcMap. Right-click the layer and choose Properties > Symbology to
invoke the dialog window. In the dialog, one can select a field to map, choose colors
and symbols, and plan the layout. From the main menu bar, choose View > Layout
View to see what the draft map looks like. Map elements (title, scale, north arrow,
legends, and others) can be added to the map by clicking Insert from the main
menu bar.

1.2 SPATIAL ANALYSIS TOOLS IN ArcGIS: QUERIES,

SPATIAL JOINS, AND MAP OVERLAYS
Many spatial analysis tasks utilize the information on how spatial features are
related to each other in terms of location. Spatial operations such as “queries,” “spa-
tial joins,” and “map overlays” provide basic tools in conducting such tasks.
Queries include attribute (aspatial) queries and spatial queries. An attribute query
uses information in an attribute table to find attribute information (in the same table)
or spatial information (features in a spatial data layer). Attribute queries are accessed
in ArcMap: either (1) under Selection from the main menu bar, choose Selection by
Attributes, or (2) in an open table, click the Table Options dropdown icon > Selection
by Attributes. Both allow users to select spatial features based on an SQL query
expression using attributes (or simply select attribute records from a standalone
table). One may also select features on the screen either in a map or a table by using
the option “Interactive Selection Method” under Selection in the main menu bar (or
directly clicking the Select Features graphic icon under the main menu).
Compared to other information systems, a unique feature of GIS is its capac-
ity to perform spatial queries, which find information based on locational relation-
ships between features from different layers. The option Selection by Location under
Selection in the main menu bar searches for features in one layer based on their spa-
tial relationships with features in another layer. The spatial relationships are defined
by various operators including “intersect,” “are within a distance of,” “contain,”
“touch,” etc.
In Case Study 1 (Section 1.3), step 1 demonstrates the use of attribute query,
and step 2 is an example of spatial query. The selected features in a spatial dataset
(or selected records in a table) either by an attribute query or a spatial query can
be exported to a new dataset (or a new table) by following the steps explained in
Section 1.1.2.
While an attribute join utilizes a common field between two tables, a spatial join
uses the locations of spatial features such as overlap or proximity between two layers.
Similar to the attribute join, the source layer and target layer play different roles in
a spatial join. Based on the join, information from the source layer are processed and
transferred to the features in the target layer, and the result is saved in a new spatial
dataset. If one object in the source layer corresponds to one or multiple objects in the
target layer, it is a simple join. For example, by spatially joining a polygon layer of
counties (source layer) with a point layer of school locations (target layer), attributes
8 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

of each county (e.g., FIPS code, name, administrator) are assigned to schools that fall
within the county boundary. If multiple objects in the source layer correspond to one
object in the target layer, two operations may be performed: “summarized join” and
“distance join.” A summarized join summarizes the numeric attributes of features
in the source layer (e.g., average, sum, minimum, maximum, standard derivation, or
variance) and adds the information to the target layer. A distance join identifies the
closest object (out of many) in the source layer from the matching object in the target
layer, and transfers all attributes of this nearest object (plus a distance field showing
how close they are) to the target layer. For example, one may spatially join a point
layer of geocoded crime incidents (source layer) with a polygon layer of census tracts
(target layer), and generate aggregated crime counts in those census tracts.
There are a variety of spatial joins between different spatial features (Price,
2004, pp. 287–288). Table 1.2 summarizes all types of spatial joins in ArcGIS.
Spatial joins are accessed in ArcMap similar to attribute joins: right-click the source
layer > choose Joins and Relates > Join. In the Join Data dialog window, choose
“Join data from another layer based on spatial location” instead of “Join attributes
from a table.” In Section 1.3.2, step 13 illustrates the use of a spatial join, in particu-
lar, a case of a summarized join.
Map overlays may be broadly defined as any spatial analysis involving modifying
features from different layers. The following reviews some of the most commonly
used map overlay tools: Clip, Erase, Intersect, Union, Buffer, and Multiple Ring
Buffer. A Clip truncates the features from one layer using the outline of another. An
Erase trims away the features from the input layer that fall inside the erase layer.
An Intersect overlays two layers and keeps only the areas that are common to both.
A Union also overlays two layers but keeps all the areas from both layers. A Buffer
creates areas by extending outward from point, line, or polygon features over a speci-
fied distance. A Multiple Ring Buffer generates buffer features based on a set of
distances. In ArcGIS 10.2, the above map overlay tools are grouped under different
toolsets in ArcToolbox > Analysis Tools: Clip is under the Extract toolset; Erase,
Intersect and Union are under the Overlay toolset; and Buffer and Multiple Ring
Buffer are grouped under the Proximity toolset. Other common map overlay tools
used in case studies elsewhere in the book include Point Distance (see step 3 in
Section 2.4.1) and Near (see step 2 in Section 4.3.1). In Section 1.3.2, step 7 uses the
multiple ring buffer tool, and step 8 uses the intersect tool.
One may notice the similarity among spatial queries, spatial joins, and map over-
lays. Indeed, many spatial analysis tasks may be accomplished by any one of the
three. Table 1.3 summarizes the differences between them. A spatial query only finds
the information on the screen and does not create new datasets (unless one chooses
to export the selected records or features). A spatial join always saves the result in a
new layer. There is an important difference between spatial joins and map overlays.
A spatial join merely identifies the location relationship between spatial features of
input layers, and does not change existing spatial features or creates new features. In
the process of a map overlay, some of the input features are split, merged, or dropped
in generating a new layer. In general, a map overlay operation takes more computation
time than a spatial join, and a spatial join takes more time than a spatial query.
TABLE 1.2
Types of Spatial Joins in ArcGIS
Source Target
Layer (S) Layer (T) Simple Join Distance Join Summarized Join
Point Point For each point in T, find its closest point in S For each point in T, find all the points in S closer to this
and transfer attributes of that closest point to T point than to any other point in T and transfer the points’
summarized attributes to T
Getting Started with ArcGIS

Line For each point in T, find the closest line in S For each point in T, find all lines in S that intersects it and
and transfer attributes of that line to T transfer the lines’ summarized attributes to T
Polygon For each point in T, find the polygon in S containing For each point in T, find its closest polygon in S
the point, and transfer the polygon’s attributes to T and transfer attributes of that polygon to T
Point Line For each line in T, find its closest point in S and For each line in T, find all the points in S that either
transfer the point’s attributes to T intersect or lie closest to it and transfer the points’
summarized attributes to T
Line For each line in T, find the line in S that it is part of For each line in T, find all the lines in S that intersect it and
and transfer the attributes of source line to T transfer the summarized attributes of intersected lines to T
Polygon For each line in T, find the polygon in S that it falls For each line in T, find the polygon in S that it For each line in T, find all the polygons in S crossed by it
completely inside, and transfer the polygon’s is closest to and transfer the polygon’s and transfer the polygons’ summarized attributes to T
attributes to T attributes to T
Point Polygon For each polygon in T, find its closest point in S For each polygon in T, find all the points in S that fall inside
and transfer the point’s attributes to T it and transfer the points’ summarized attributes to T
Line For each polygon in T, find its closest line in S For each polygon in T, find all the lines in S that intersect it
and transfer the line’s attributes to T and transfer the lines’ summarized attributes to T
Polygon For each polygon in T, find the polygon in S that it For each polygon in T, find all the polygons in S that
falls completely inside and transfer the attributes intersect it and transfer the summarized attributes of
of source polygon to T intersected polygons to T
9
10 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

TABLE 1.3
Comparison of Spatial Query, Spatial Join, and Map Overlay
Basic Spatial Whether a New Whether New Computation
Analysis Tools Function Layer Is Created Features Are Created Time
Spatial query Finds information based No (unless the No Least
on location relationship selected features
between features from are exported to a
different layers and new dataset)
displays on screen
Spatial join Identifies location Yes No Between
relationship between
features from different
layers and transfers the
attributes to target layer
Map overlay Overlays layers to create Yes Yes (splitting, merging Most
new features and saves or deleting features
the result in a new layer to create new)

1.3 CASE STUDY 1: MAPPING AND ANALYZING POPULATION

DENSITY PATTERN IN BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA
For readers with little previous exposure to GIS, nothing demonstrates the value of
GIS and eases the fear of GIS complexity better than the experience of mapping
data from the public domain with just a few clicks. As mentioned earlier, GIS goes
far beyond mapping, and the main benefits lie in its spatial analysis capacity. The
first case study illustrates how spatial and attribute information are managed and
linked in a GIS, and how the information is used for mapping and analysis. Part 1
uses the 2010 US Census data to map the population density pattern across census
tracts in a county, and Part 2 utilizes some basic spatial analysis tools to analyze the
distance decay pattern of density across concentric rings from the city center. The
procedures are designed so that most functions introduced in Sections 1.1 and 1.2
will be utilized.

1.3.1 part 1: Mapping the population density pattern across

census tracts
A GIS project begins with data acquisition, and often uses existing data. For
socioeconomic applications in the US, the Topologically Integrated Geographical
Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) files from the Census Bureau are the major
source for spatial data, and the decennial census data from the same agency
are the major source for attribute data. Both can be accessed at the website
www.census.gov. Advanced users may download (1) various TIGER (mostly
2010) data directly from the TIGER Products website http://www.census.
gov/geo/maps-data/data/tiger.html and (2) the 2010 Census Data Products at
Getting Started with ArcGIS 11

http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2010/glance/index.html, and use other

programs to process the Census Data and then ArcGIS to link them together.
Here for convenience, we use the TIGER/Line® Shapefiles Prejoined with
Demographic Data, available at http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/tiger-
data.html, and specifically the “2010 Census Demographic Profile 1–Geodatabase
Format (County and Census Tract).” The data include more than 200 items such as
total population, age, sex, race, and ethnicity, average household size, total housing
units, housing tenure, and many others (see the file DP_TableDescriptions.
xls under the project folder “BatonRouge” for variable descriptions). The
dataset is available for the whole US at three levels (state, county, and census
tracts) prejoined with attribute variables, and is therefore sizeable. We prepared
the data for Louisiana, and kept all attribute variables for the state and county
levels, but only selected ones for the census tract level to reduce the dataset size.
Another convenient source is the data DVDs that come with each ArcGIS soft-
ware release from the ESRI. For historical census data in GIS format, visit the
National Historical Geographic Information System (NHGIS) website at www.
nhgis.org.
Data needed for Part 1 of the project are provided under the folder BatonRouge:

1. Features State, County and Tract in geodatabase Census.gdb (rep-

resenting the state, county, and census tract level, respectively).
2. Feature BRCenter in geodatabase BR.gdb (representing the city center of
Baton Rouge).

Throughout this book, all computer file names, field names, and also some com-
puter commands are in the Courier New font. The following is a step-by-step
guide for the project.
In many cases, GIS analysts need to extract a study region that is contained in a
larger area. This project begins with deriving the census tracts in East Baton Rouge
Parish (“parish” is a county-equivalent unit in Louisiana). The task is accomplished
by steps 1 and 2.
Step 1. Using an attribute query to extract the parish boundary: In ArcMap, click
the Add Data tab to add all three features in geodatabase Census.gdb and the
feature BRCenter in geodatabase BR.gdb to the project.
From the main menu, choose Selection > Select By Attributes >. In the dialog
window (Figure 1.1), make sure that the Layer is County; in the bottom box, input
NAMELSAD10 = 'East Baton Rouge Parish'*; and click Apply (or OK). The
parish is selected and highlighted on the map. The selection is based on the attributes
of a GIS dataset, and thus it is an attribute query.
In the layers window under Table Of Contents (TOC), right-click the layer
County > Data > Export Data >. In the dialog window, make sure that Selected

* For convenience and accuracy, input a field name such as “NAMELSAD10” by double clicking the
field from the top window. The parish name “East Baton Rouge Parish” is case sensitive.
12 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

FIGURE 1.1 Dialog window for attribute query.

features are in the top dropdown bar; under Output feature class, navigate to geoda-
tabase BR.gdb and name it as EBRP; and click OK.
Click Yes to add the exported data to the map as a new layer.
Step 2. Using a spatial query to extract census tracts in the parish: From the main
menu of ArcMap, choose Selection > Select By Location >. In the dialog window
(Figure 1.2), check Tract under Target layer(s), choose EBRP as Source layer, choose
“are within the source layer feature” under Spatial selection method for target layer
feature(s), and click OK. All census tracts within the parish are selected. The selection
is based on the spatial relationship between two layers, and thus it is a spatial query.
Similar to step 1, return to the layers window, and right-click the layer
Tract > Data > Export Data > export the selected features to a new feature BRTrt
in geodatabase BR.gdb. Use the Add Data tab to add BRTrt to the map.
Step 3. Transforming the spatial dataset to a projected coordinate system: In the
layers window, right-click the layer BRTrt > Properties >. In the Layer Properties
window, click Source from the top bar. It shows the Extent of the feature in decimal
degrees (dd) and its Geographic Coordinate System (GCS_North_American_1983).
Getting Started with ArcGIS 13

FIGURE 1.2 Dialog window for spatial query.

Repeat on other layers (Tract, County and State) to confirm that they are all
in a geographic coordinate system, as are all TIGER data. Now check the layer
BRCenter. It has the Extent measured in meters (m) and a Projected Coordinate
System (NAD_1983_UTM_Zone_15N).*
For reasons discussed previously, we need to transform the census tracts dataset
BRTrt in an unprojected geographic coordinate system to one in a projected coor-
dinate system. For convenience, we use the projection system that is predefined in
the layer BRCenter.
Open ArcToolbox by clicking the icon on the menu bar above the ArcMap
palette. In ArcToolbox, go to Data Management Tools > Projections and
Transformations > double-click the tool Project. In the Project dialog window (as
shown on the left of Figure 1.3), choose BRTrt for Input Dataset or Feature Class;

* In ArcMap, as we move the cursor in a map, the bottom right corner displays the corresponding coor-
dinates in the current map units, in this case, Decimal Degrees. In other words, maps in the data (or
layout) view are in geographic coordinates, which is set by the coordinate system of the first layer
added to the project.
14 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

FIGURE 1.3 Dialog windows for projecting a spatial dataset.

name the Output Dataset or Feature Class as BRTrtUtm (make sure that it is in
geodatabase BR.gdb); under Output Coordinate System, click the graphic icon
to activate the Spatial Reference Properties dialog window >. In this window (as
shown on the right of Figure 1.3), click the Add Coordinate System tab and choose
Import; browse to select BRCenter and click Add*; and click OK to close the dia-
log >. Click OK again to execute the Project tool. Use the Add Data tab to add
the feature BRTrtUTM to the map.
Check the coordinate system of the new dataset BRTrtUtm.
Step 4. Calculating area in census tracts: Under File on the top-level menu, click
New to exit the project, click OK when the New Document dialog appears, and click
No to “Save changes to the Untitled.” Now first add the feature BRTrtUtm obtained
from step 3 and then the other layers. Maps now change to the projected coordinate
system in meters.
Under Table Of Contents, right-click the layer BRTrtUtm >. Open Attribute
Table >. In the table, click the Table Options tab (the first at the upper left cor-
ner) > Add Field >. In the Add Field dialog window, enter Area for Name, and
choose Double for Type, and click OK. A new field Area is now added to the table
as the last column.
In the open table, scroll to the right side of the table, right-click the field
Area > choose Calculate Geometry, and click Yes on the warning message >. In the
Calculate Geometry dialog window, choose Area for Property and “Square Meters
[sqm]” for Units, and click OK to update areas (click Yes again on the warning
message).
Step 5. Calculating population density in census tracts: Still on the open attribute
table of BRTrtUtm, follow the above procedure to add a new field PopuDen (choose

* Alternatively, expand Layers in the middle box > choose “NAD_1983_UTM_Zone_15N,” which is the
projection used in the layer BRCenter.
Getting Started with ArcGIS 15

Float for Type) >. Right-click the field PopuDen > choose Field Calculator >. In the
dialog window (Figure 1.4), under “PopuDen =,” input the formula [DP0010001]/
([Area]/1000000), and click OK to update the field.* Note that the map projection
unit is meter, and thus the area unit is square meter. The dominator in the formula
converts area unit in square meter into square kilometer, the numerator DP0010001
is total population, and the unit of population density is persons per square kilometer.
(In project instructions in other chapters of this book, the bracket signs for each vari-
able may be dropped in a formula for simplicity, for example, the above formula may
be written as PopuDen = DP0010001/(Area/1000000).)
It is often desirable to obtain some basic statistics for a field. Still on the open
table, right-click the field PopuDen > choose Statistics. The result includes count,
minimum, maximum, sum, mean, standard deviation, and a frequency distribution.
Close the table window.
Step 6. Mapping population density across census tracts: In the layers window,
right-click the layer BRTrtUtm > choose Properties. In the Layer Properties win-
dow, click Symbology > Quantities > Graduated Colors to map the field PopuDen

FIGURE 1.4 Dialog window for calculating a field.

* Similar to step 1, field names such as [DP0010001] and [Area] in the formula are entered by double-
clicking the field names from the top box to save time and minimize typos.
16 Quantitative Methods and Socioeconomic Applications in GIS

FIGURE 1.5 Dialog window for defining mapping symbols.

(as shown in Figure 1.5). Click Apply to see the changes. Experiment with different
classification methods, number of classes, and color schemes.
From the main menu bar, choose View > Layout View to preview the map. Also
from the main menu bar, choose Insert > Legend (Scale Bar, North Arrow, and
others) to add map elements. When you are satisfied with the map, go to the main
menu bar > File > Export Map to save the map product in a chosen format. The
population density map shown in Figure 1.6 uses a manual classification for density
classes.
Save the project with the final map by going to the main menu bar > File > Save as.

1.3.2 part 2: analyzing the population density pattern across

concentric rings
A general observation from the population density map in Figure 1.6 is that densities
near the city center are higher than more remote areas. This is commonly referred
to as the distance decay pattern for urban population densities. Part 2 of this case
study analyzes such a pattern while illustrating several spatial analysis tools, mainly
spatial join and map overlay, discussed in Section 1.2.
In addition to the datasets used in Part 1, we will use the “2010 Census Population
and Housing Unit Counts—Blocks” data, available from the same TIGER data
website. The dataset at the block level delivers population information at a finer
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Kalaimoku and the Hawaii Kalaimoku a me ka poe koa o
soldiers were distinguished by Hawaii, he poe okoa ia, ua paa o
being surrounded by a fine- waho i ka upena nae, oia ka pa o
meshed net, which was the waho o na kanaka, ina mawaho
outside enclosure for the men; if ke kanaka, alaila, he Oahu ia, ina
a man was on the outside, then maloko o ka upena he Hawaii ia.
he was an Oahuan; if within the Ma keia hana ana ku mai o
net enclosure, he was a Hawaii Pihana me kona mau koa eiwa, a
man. On account of this action, hoouka me Kalaimoku, ma ia
Pihana and his nine men stood hoouka ana, aole i hee o Pihana
up and fought Kalaimoku, in me kona mau koa.
which engagement Pihana and
his men were not defeated.

Therefore Kalaimoku asked Nolaila, nonoi aku o Kalaimoku ia

Pihana to cease his resisting and Pihana, e hooki i kona kaua ana
to cede Oahu to Kamehameha. mai a e haawi mai ia Oahu nei
Pihana replied: “I will not give no Kamehameha. Olelo mai o
you the land until I have Pihana: “Alia au e haawi aku ia
bathed 38 myself in Hawaii’s oe i ka aina, aia a pau kuu auau
medicine (weapons). In three ana i ka laau a Hawaii, ekolu la i
days I shall leave the land in koe, alaila, waiho aku au i ka
your hands.” Then Pihana stood aina i kou lima.” Alaila, ku mai o
alone before the soldiers from Pihana hookahi imua o na koa o
Hawaii. They cast their spears Hawaii, hou na kanaka i ka ihe a
and lances and javelins, and me ka pololu, a me ka elau, nou
threw stones at him, but Pihana ka pohoku, alaila, he alo wale no
simply dodged them. ka Pihana hana. Pela kona ku
ana a maloeloe, moe ilalo, a pau
Thus he stood until tired when ia, huli iluna ke alo, a pau ia,
he laid down, face downward, hoopohopoho ka lemu iluna, hou
and then on his back. He then no o Hawaii i ka ihe a me ka
stooped and exhibited his pololu, aka, aohe ku o Pihana.
posterior in vulgar defiance, and
in all that time the men from
Hawaii were casting their spears
and javelins at him without
hitting him. The men from
Hawaii, looking at him found no
one among many equal to him in
agility and daring.

After two days had passed Ma ka nana ana a na koa o

Pihana joined his forces, which Hawaii, aole e loaa kona lua, i ke
was the time of the great battle. akamai a me ke koa luaole i loko
He tore the surrounding net and o ka lehulehu. A hala elua la,
stood at the opening. No spear nee aku la o Pihana a hiki i ka
nor lance was hurled, the dread poe, oia ke kaua nui loa, hahae
of Pihana being so great. On the aku la o Pihana i ka upena o
third day Pihana again came waho, a ku aku la ma ka waha,
forward to fight with the warriors aole nae he ihe hou mai a me ka
from Hawaii. He went up to pololu, no ka makau ia Pihana. I
Kalaimoku and ceded the land to ke kolu o ka la, ku hou o Pihana
him. Therefore Kalaikupule was e kaua me na koa o Hawaii, a
vanquished. hele aku la o Pihana a loaa o
Kalaimoku haawi aku la i ka aina
ia Kalaimoku, nolaila, pio ai o
Kalaikupule.

SEVENTH BATTLE BY KAUA AHIKU A

KAMEHAMEHA. KAMEHAMEHA.
After Kamehameha had fought Mahope o ko Kamehameha kaua
Kalaikupule on Oahu, ana ma Oahu me Kalaikupule,
Namakaeha, a chief who was kipi o Namakaeha ma Hilo, he ’lii
residing at Hilo, raised a no e noho ana malaila, a
rebellion there, and made hoomakaukau ihola oia e kaua
preparations to war upon me Kamehameha. Ia wa, e noho
Kamehameha. At that time ana o Kamehameha ma Oahu,
Kamehameha was on Oahu, and alaila, hoi aku la ia i Hawaii no
he immediately returned to ke kaua me Namakaeha. Ma keia
Hawaii 39, to fight Namakaeha. In kaua ana, ua make o
the battle which ensued Namakaeha ia Kamehameha ma
Namakaeha was slain by Kaipalaoa ma Hilo. O keia kaua,
Kamehameha at Kaipalaoa, in ka hope loa o ko Kamehameha
Hilo. This was the last battle by hooponopono ana i kona aupuni
Kamehameha when he assumed holo okoa, mai Hawaii a Niihau,
the administration of his whole a mahope o laila, noho ihola ia
kingdom from Hawaii to Niihau, me ka maluhia a hiki i kona la
in which he reigned peacefully to make. Ma keia kuikahi ana o keia
the day of his death. On the pae aina mai Hawaii a Niihau,
consolidation of these Islands hookahi alii nui o Kamehameha,
from Hawaii to Niihau under one a malalo na ’lii aimoku a pau loa.
great ruler, Kamehameha, with A ua kukulu oia i kona noonoo a
all the chiefs under him, he me kona naauao maluna o kona
established his policy and mau aina a pau me ka pololei.
wisdom over all his kingdom with
uprightness.
 THE ADMINISTRATION KO KAMEHAMEHA
OF KAMEHAMEHA. HOOPONOPONO ANA I
KONA AUPUNI.

Kamehameha was a very wise He ’lii naauao loa o

king, and was honest, kind, Kamehameha, he ’lii hana
charitable and humane. This is pololei, he ’lii oluolu, he ’lii
how he arranged the work of his lokomaikai, he ’lii malama
kingdom: Kamehameha was the kanaka. Penei kona
great ruler over all. There were hoonohonoho ana i kana mau
four chief executives under him: hana i loko o kona aupuni.
these were Keeaumoku, Hookahi alii nui maluna, o
[478]Keaweaheulu, Kameeiamoku Kamehameha. Eha kuhina malalo
and Kamanawa. 40 There were ona, o Keeaumoku, [479]o
also advisors and counselors in Keaweaheulu, o Kameeiamoku, o
the affairs of the kingdom. There Kamanawa. Eia hoi kona poe imi
were four of them: Kai, manao, a hoa kukakuka i na mea
Kapalaoa, Kaaloa and pono ai ke aupuni, eha lakou, o
Kauakahiakaola. With these Kai, o Kapalaoa, o Kaaloa, o
people Kamehameha carried out Kauakahiakaola. Mai loko mai o
all of his works, and through keia poe, ka mea e holo ai ka
them important laws were made, Kamehameha mau hana a pau
which carried great influence loa, a mai loko mai o lakou na
upon the people, such as the kanawai ano nui, a kau ka
Mamalahoa 41 and the Maumae, 42 makau o ka lehulehu, oia ka
“that the old and the infirm mamalahoa, ka maumae: “E hele
might lie down in the road and ka elemakule a me ka luahine a
not be molested.” moe i ke ala.”
Here are also the names of Eia hoi na kanaka akamai i
certain men whom Kamehameha laweia mai e Kamehameha e
brought together to be with him; noho pu meia, he poe akamai i
men who were skillful in all kela mea keia mea, a he poe
things, and who were noonoo me ka naauao. Eia ko
considerate and intelligent. Here lakou mau inoa a me ka lakou
are their names and their mau hana:
offices:

Kalaimoku, a favorite, a chief Kalaimoku, he punahele, he

warrior; Hewahewa, a priest; pukaua; Hewahewa, he kahuna;
Kaumiumi, a fortune-teller; Kaumiumi, he kilokilo;
Kapoukahi, a statesman; Kapoukahi, he kuhikuhipuuone;
Kaaloakauila, an advocate; Kaaloakauila, he kakaolelo;
Kekakau, a surf rider; Kekakau, he heenalu;
Kekuhaupio, a celebrated Kekuhaupio, he koa kaulana;
warrior; Kepaalani, a canoeist; Kepaalani, he hoewaa; Waipa,
Waipa, a shipwright; Palake, a he kapilimoku; Palake, he
canoe builder; Kapueuhi, a kalaiwaa; Kapueuhi, he hula;
dancer; Kamakau, a chanter; Kamakau, he olioli;
Keaweaheulu, a lua-apana Keaweaheulu, he luaapana;
(jester); Hoomakaukau, a Hoomakaukau, he aipuupuu;
steward; Wahahee, a masseur; Wahahee, he lomilomi;
Kalaimamahu, the law-giver or Kalaimamahu, he kanawai;
judge; Kamaalo, god Kamaalo, he akua; Kanihonui, he
impersonator; Kanihonui, aikapu; Kaikioewa, he kikoola.
observer of the kapu restrictions; No ka hua olelo luaapana eia ke
Kaikioewa, an extortioner (thief). ano: he nohowale, he hoopau i
The word lua-apana means ka molowa. No ka huaolelo
doing nothing, spending time in kikoola, eia ke ano, he haowale i
laziness. The word kikoola ka hai waiwai, a me na olelo
means robbing others of their lalau.
property, and perjuring.
He took care of the people as Ua malama oia i na makaainana
though they were children, and mehe keiki la, a me kana mau
his wives he placed as wahine, ua hoonoho i mau kiaiai.
guardians. He, with his chiefs A ua mahiai oia i ka ai me kona
and the men of his court, mau alii, a me na kanaka aialo,
cultivated the land and the result oia kela mala kaulana loa o
of which was that most noted Kuahewa, mauka o Kailua ma
field of Kuahewa, in upper Kona akau, Hawaii. Ua kaulana
Kailua, North Kona, Hawaii. It loa ia no kona nui loa a me kona
was most noted for its great size loihi ke nana aku. Ua komo
and length. It comprised eight ewalu ahupuaa i loko ona, ua
divisions of land, about seven like me ahiku mile.
miles.

The most valuable commodity O ka waiwai nui i loko o ko

during Kamehameha’s reign was Kamehameha noho aupuni ana,
the iliahi, 43 a very fragrant wood o ka iliahi, he laau aala loa ia, a
and very valuable, which he laau waiwai loa, ua ulu ia
flourished in the mountains, and laau ma na mauna, a ma na aina
in places thickly covered with nahelehele loa. O ka hulu o na
vegetation. The feathers of the manu, o ka oo a me ka manu e
birds, of the oo and other birds, ae, oia ka ahuula o na ’lii a me
were made into feather cloaks na koa.
for the chiefs and the warriors.

The extent of Kamehameha’s O ka nui o ko Kamehameha mau

reign was seven 44 years, and he makahiki o ka noho aupuni ana,
died at the commencement of ehiku ia, a make ihola ia i ka
the eighth, in the year of the walu o na makahiki, oia ka
Lord, 1819. 45 He died at Kailua, makahiki o ka Haku 1819. Ma
in Kona, Hawaii, and it was there Kailua, i Kona Hawaii kahi i make
that Liholiho 46 was set apart as ai o Kamehameha, a malaila i
heir to his (Kamehameha’s) hoolilo ia ai o Liholiho i hooilina
kingdom. no kona aupuni.

OF THE CHIEF NO KE ’LII O

KEKUAOKALANI, AND KEKUAOKALANI; KONA
HIS INSURGENCY. KIPI ANA.

The cause for this insurgency of O ke kumu o keia kipi ana o

Kekuaokalani 47 was on account Kekuaokalani, o ka noa ana o ka
of the raising of the restrictions, ai kapu, o ko Liholiho ae ana i ka
and Liholiho allowing the same ainoa, oia ke kumu i huhu ai o
to be done; this angered Kekuaokalani a manao ai e kaua,
Kekuaokalani, who threatened to e luku [481]i ka poe ainoa. Eia ke
make war and destroy the ano o ka ai kapu; ai okoa ke
reformers. Here is the meaning kane, hale okoa, imu okoa, a
48
[480]of Aikapu: The husband pela aku; ka wahine, pela no, he
ate by himself, had a separate kaawale laua ma na pono o ke
house, a separate oven, and so kino. Ainoa, eia ke ano; he ai pu
forth; so did the wife. They were ke kane me kana wahine, he
separated in their social life. nohopu i ka hale hookahi, a pela
Ainoa 49 means: The husband aku.
and his wife eat together, dwelt
in the same house, and so forth.

When Kamehameha died the A make o Kamehameha, ili ke

kingdom fell to Liholiho. aupuni ia Liholiho. A o
Kekuaokalani did not want Kekuaokalani hoi, aole ona
Liholiho to remove the makemake ia Liholiho e ainoa ke
restrictions of the kingdom; he aupuni, makemake oia e aikapu,
was in favor of aikapu, therefore nolaila, aua oia ia Liholiho, aka,
he opposed Liholiho, but hoole o Kaahumanu a me na ’lii,
Kaahumanu 50 and the chiefs aohe makemake e aikapu. O ke
refused to continue the kumu o ka ainoa ana, o ka make
restrictions. The cause of this ana o Kamehameha, nolaila,
reformation was the death of kumakena na mea a pau loa, a i
Kamehameha. All the people loko oia wa, ai pu ke kane me ka
went into mourning, and it was wahine, ai i na mea kapu a pau
during that time that the loa, a nolaila, ua laha mai ia noa
husband and wife ate together, ana a hiki i ke kaua ma Kuamoo,
eating all foods that were me Kekuaokalani.
restricted, and thus ainoa spread
down to the battle at Kuamoo
with Kekuaokalani.

When Kekuaokalani heard that A lohe o Kekuaokalani ua ainoa o

Liholiho and all the chiefs had Liholiho a me na ’lii a pau loa,
acceded to the ainoa, he went holo aku la ia a noho ma
and resided at Kaawaloa with his Kawaaloa, me kana wahine o
wife, Manono. He then prepared Manono. A hoomakaukau ihola ia
to rebel and to fight against the e kipi, a kaua me ka poe e ainoa
ainoa people. Then two chiefs, ana, alaila, holo aku la kekahi
Naihe and Hoapili, set sail from mau alii mai Kailua aku a
Kailua to Kaawaloa. They said to Kaawaloa, oia o Naihe a me
Kekuaokalani: “We have come to Hoapili. I aku laua ia
bring you back to your nephew Kekuaokalani: “I kii mai nei
and reside at Kailua, and it shall maua ia oe, e hoi me ko keiki i
be as you desire whether the Kailua e noho ai, a aia no hoi i
restrictions be continued or kou manao, e ainoa paha, e
raised. But that shall be as you aikapu paha, aka, aia no i kou
desire.” Kekuaokalani then said: manao.” I aku o Kekuaokalani:
“You two tarry here until Manono “Pela iho olua, a lohe o Manono,
hears about it. Tomorrow I will apopo hai aku au ia olua.”
tell you.”

They rested there, and in the Moe ihola lakou a ao aela, hele
morning Kekuaokalani came to maila o Kekuaokalani a ma ke
the presence of Hoapili and alo o Hoapili a me Naihe, olelo
Naihe. They then asked, “Are we aku laua: “O ka holo keia o
going?” Kekuaokalani said “Yes,” kakou?” ae aku o Kekuaokalani,
but his assent was not real. He “Ae.” Aka, aole ona ae io, he
was bent on war. Wherefore manao kaua kona. Noia mea,
Naihe and Hoapili said: “The olelo aku o Naihe me Hoapili:
navel is cut then, companion.” “Wehe i ka piko la e na
hoahanau.”

After this Naihe and Hoapili Mahope olaila, hoi maila o

returned and arrived at Kailua, Hoapili me Naihe, a hiki ma
and told Kalaimoku to prepare Kailua olelo akula ia Kalaimoku:
for war. Nine war canoes were “E hoomakaukau no ke kaua, a
made ready. Kalaimoku marched makaukau na waa eiwa, hele
overland, and when he came to maila mauka.” A hiki o Kalaimoku
Lekeleke, the battle commenced ma Lekeleke, hoomaka ke kaua
with Kekuaokalani’s scouts. In na kiu o Kekuaokalani, ma keia
this battle Kalaimoku was kaua ana, hee o Kalaimoku a
defeated and a number of his make kekahi mau kanaka ona. A
men were killed. They again met mahope, halawai me
at Kuamoo, where they fought Kekuaokalani ma Kuamoo.
from morning till evening when Malaila lakou i kaua ai, mai ke
Kekuaokalani was killed. He was kakahiaka a ahiahi, make o
hit in the leg by a bullet, the Kekuaokalani, ku kona wawae i
effects of which rendering him ka poka a nawaliwali loa; koe
very weak. His wife Manono kana wahine o Manono.
remained safe.
Manono was a very beautiful He wahine maikai loa o Manono,
woman and her face very fair to a he nani kona helehelena ke
look upon. She called to nana aku, oia kai hea mai ia
Kalaimoku and the men thus: “O Kalaimoku a me na koa, penei:
spare us two! There is no safety Kahea mai o Manono, “E ola
before the mouth of a gun.” maua e! Aole e ola i ka waha o
Kalaimoku then said: “You shall ka pu.” I aku o Kalaimoku: “Aole
not live, because the chief has oe e ola, no ka mea, ua make ke
been killed.” Therefore she was ’lii,” nolaila, ki ia aku la i ka pu, a
shot and died soon after. make ihola.

After the death of Kekuaokalani A make o Kekuaokalani ma

and his wife Manono at Kuamoo, Kuamoo, me kana wahine o
Kalaimoku returned with the Manono, hoi maila o Kalaimoku
warriors to Kailua. They held a me na koa a hiki ma Kailua,
consultation and decided to ahaolelo ihola lakou a holo, e kii
make war upon that other e kaua i kela kipi ma Waipio, i
insurgent, Kainapau, a Hamakua, oia o Kainapau
commoner, residing at Waipio, in makaainana. A holo aku la o
Hamakua. Kalaimoku and his Kalaimoku me na koa, a pae ma
men then set sail and arrived at Kawaihae, pii aku la lakou a hiki i
Kawaihae. From here they Waimea, ma Pahupahua e
marched up to Waimea, arriving kokoke ana ma Mahiki, loaa ke
at a place called Pahupahua, kaua. Ma keia kaua ana, ua luku
near Mahiki, where the fighting ia ka poe kipi a ua hee o
occurred. In the melee the Kainapau [483]a holo aku la ia
rebels were annihilated and mai Mahiki aku a uka loa o
Kainapau overthrown. He fled to Waipio, pee. Ma keia pee ana, ua
the uttermost backwoods of loaa i ka poe huli, a malaila ua
Waipio, hiding there, and pepehi ia o Kainapau, a o kona
[482]while so doing, was found by naau, ua uu ia a kaulai i ka la.
the searchers. Kainapau was Oia ka hope weliweli o ka poe
killed on the spot, and his
intestines strung out to dry in lokoino, kipi a hana pono ole. He
the sun. That is the dreadful end make hoomainomaino ia.
of the evil-minded, the rebellious
and the wrong-doer, a horrible
death.

OF HEMA. NO HEMA.

Hema was one of the most Oia kekahi koa kaulana loa i loko
famous warriors in the days of o ko Kamehameha mau la, a he
Kamehameha, and a man who kanaka makau ole i ko hai koa a
was not afraid of the bravery me ka ikaika. O Hema, aole oia i
and strength of others. Hema ao ia i ke koa a me ke kaua, aole
was not trained to be a warrior, i maa ma na hoouka kaua, aole
or in the art of war. He was not no hoi oia he koa. Aka, he
accustomed to the waging of aipuupuu o Hema na
wars, and was never a warrior. Kamehameha, o kana hana o ka
He was a steward of lawe a me ka malama i wahi ai
Kamehameha, and his duties na ke ’lii i na la a pau loa. I ka
were to take and keep in charge wa hele mao a mao, i ka wa
rations for the king every day. kaua, oia ka mea lawe ai, i ka
While going abroad in war times wa e kaua ai o Kamehameha a
he was the bearer of food, and pololi, alaila lawe aku o Hema i
when a battle was in progress ka ai a me kahi ia.
and Kamehameha became
hungry, then Hema would bring
him provisions.
In all these works pertaining to a Ma keia mau hana a pau loa i pili
steward Hema was an expert, i ka aipuupuu, ua makaukau loa
and was satisfactory to o Hema, a ua kupono i ko
Kamehameha, but he had not Kamehameha makemake, aka,
received a chiefly term, nor aole i loaa kona inoa alii, a me
fame, nor was he a favorite, but ke kaulana a me ka punahele. A
on the day that he chose to be a i kona la i lalau ai i ke koa a luku
warrior and destroyed the aku i na enemi o Kamehameha,
enemies of Kamehameha, that ia la oia i lilo ai i alii, a punahele
day he became a chief and a na Kamehameha, a pau kona
favorite of Kamehameha, and lawe ana i ka oihana aipuupuu.
abandoned his stewardship.

When Kamehameha was fighting Ia Kamehameha e kaua ana me

against Keoua at Koapapaa, in Keoua, ma Koapapaa, i
Hamakua, at a place called Hamakua, aia kela wahi ma
Kealakaha, near to Kaula, and in Kealakaha e pili la me Kaula, ma
a deep valley called Kekualele, kela kahawai nui hohonu, o
there a fight occurred between Kekualele kona inoa, ilalo o laila i
the strongest warriors of Keoua hoouka ai na koa ikaika o Keoua
against Kamehameha. At that me Kamehameha. No ka mea, o
particular place the standing ka honua olalo e ku ai, hookahi
room was only a fathom in anana wale no ke akea, a maia
width, and it was there wahi i noke ai o Kamehameha
Kamehameha fought against me na koa o Keoua, he kanaha a
forty 51 or more of Keoua’s oi aku. Mahope o keia noke ana,
warriors. ua pau loa ke aho o
Kamehameha, a ua nui mai na
After considerable fighting koa o Keoua, ia wa huli o
Kamehameha was very much out Kamehameha i hope, aohe alii,
of breath, and the men of Keoua aohe koa mahope ona, hookahi
were being reinforced. Just then wale no o Hema, o ka aipuupuu.
Kamehameha expectantly turned Ia Kamehameha e olelo ana me
to the rear; but there were no Hema, ia wa i makaukau ai na
chiefs, nor warriors behind him, koa o ka enemi e lawe i ko
only Hema the steward. Kamehameha ola, alaila, lele o
Hema me kona makau ole a
While Kamehameha was talking pepehi i na koa o Keoua. Ma keia
to Hema, the enemies were lele ana o Hema e pale i na
preparing to take Kamehameha’s enemi, ua lanakila o
life, but Hema fearlessly leapt Kamehameha ia la, a ua pakele
forward and slew the warriors of kona ola a ua hee o Keoua.
Keoua. By this work of Hema in Nolaila, oia kela inoa o Koapapaa
leaping forward to repulse the a hiki i keia la; ke ano oia, ua lilo
enemies, Kamehameha was na koa i papaa na ka make, o ka
victorious that day, and his life pololu a me ka ihe, i alanui hele
was saved, and Keoua defeated. mao a maanei, ua waiho ia lakou
Hence the name Koapapaa until he ahua lepo ma ia kahawai ia
this day, which means that the la.
warriors became a storehouse of
death and the lance and the
spear the pathway, here and
there. The warriors were left
there in that valley, a pile of
earth.

When Kamehameha witnessed A ike o Kamehameha i ke koa lua

the matchless bravery of Hema, ole o Hema, olelo aku la ia: “I
he said: “Today you become a keia la oe e lilo ai i alii elike me
chief as I am, and today you a’u, a i keia la e waiho oe i ka
refrain from carrying and lawe, a me ke amo i ka ukana, a
shouldering baggage, and you e lilo oe i punahele ma ko’u alo a
shall be a courtier in my me kona ’lii, a pela na
presence, and in the presence of makaainana. O ka mea hoole i
the chiefs and the people also. kau olelo, e make ia, ina he ’lii
He who disobeys your word shall ka mea hoole, e hemo kona
die. If the delinquent be a chief aina.” Nolaila, ua kiekie o Hema
he shall lose his lands.” 52 a hala ia i ka make, a ua kaulana
Therefore Hema was exalted loa no hoi iloko o ko
until his death, and was very Kamehameha mau la. Nolaila,
famous in the days of ma ka noonoo ana, aole paha he
Kamehameha. kanaka e noho ana ma na aina
puniole, a me na moku o ke kai i
On reflection, therefore, perhaps ao ole i ke akamai o ke koa, a
there never was a man on the hele e kaua e like me Hema, ka
continents, or on the Isles of the mea ao ole ia. [485]
Sea, who had never studied the
requirements of a warrior, and
who did go to war as Hema was,
the unlearned. [484]

OF NALU. NO NALU.

Nalu was a very celebrated Oia kekahi koa kaulana loa i ko

warrior during Kamehameha’s Kamehameha mau la, a he koa
reign, and was an accomplished akamai loa no hoi. Ua olelo ia, i
soldier. It is said that in his loko o kona mau la kaua, he hiki
fighting days he could stand and no ia ia ke ku imua o ka lehulehu
fight fearlessly against an e kaua ai me ka makau ole, ina
overwhelming number of his he nui, a he lehulehu kona mau
enemies and beat them, because enemi ma kekahi aoao, he hiki
he gloried 53 in the use of the no ia ke pale aku. No ka mea, o
lance, the spear, the javelin, the ka pololu a me ka ihe, ka elau,
cudgel, the stone ax and the ka newa, ka pahoa, a me ka
encircling pikoi rope. Nalu was pikoi lua, he wai auau ia no
therefore greatly feared in his Nalu. Nolaila, ua makau loa ia o
warrior days and fighting in Nalu i loko o kona mau la e noho
battles. No land division chief ana i koa, a e hele ana i ke
would dare and fight him; no kaua; aohe alii aimoku e aa ia ia,
warrior, no land, or island 54 a e kaua mai; aohe koa, aohe
would dare and fight Nalu, his aina, a moku e aa mai ia Nalu,
great strength being the source no ka mea ua makau loa ia kona
of fear among all. Kamehameha ikaika e na mea a pau loa. A ua
was also apprehensive of Nalu makau no hoi o Kamehameha ia
on account of the latter’s Nalu, no keia mea i ke koa a me
accomplishments in bravery and ke akamai o Nalu.
skill. [465]

[486]

1 This somewhat historic series

unfortunately presents several
incidents in the life of Kamehameha not
borne out by facts in the case, notably
the account of his early arrival at and
conquest of Oahu, and the length of his
reign. Pihana and possibly other
celebrities are also tinged with like
inaccuracies. The collection, as
gathered, is therefore presented as
illustrative of Hawaiian narrative
literature pure and simple, irrespective
of wide variance from known facts,
without attempt to alter or amend such
to agree with the historical record. ↑
2 Kalaiopuu, known also as

Kalaniopuu, was the ruler of Hawaii

at the time of Cook’s discovery of the
islands, in 1778. ↑
3 Kiwalao and Kamehameha were first
cousins. ↑
4 “Your lord” refers to Kiwalao. ↑
5 Kamehameha’s first battle for the
throne. ↑
6 This refers to Keoua of Kau and
Keawemauhili of Hilo, who
accompanied Kiwalao with the remains
of Kalaiopuu to Kona for burial. ↑
7 Keeaumoku was one of the four
principal chiefs of Kona at that
time. ↑
8 Kekuhaupio belonged to Keei, Kona,
and was reputed to be the greatest
warrior of his time. ↑
9 At this place, Honaunau, is the most
famous “city of refuge,” which is still
in a good state of preservation, its
temple and enclosure having been put
in repair some ten years ago. ↑
10 This first victim of an authorized
skirmish was placed in sacrifice upon
the altar at Honaunau by Kiwalao,
thereby assuming the responsibility of
the war. ↑
11 These four named, as also
Kamanawa, mentioned later, were
the most powerful chiefs of Kona, all of
whom espoused Kamehameha’s
cause. ↑
12 Leiomano, not leiomanu, was a

small shark-toothed weapon, termed

by some a dagger, though its use
seems to have been with more of a
saw purpose than a thrust. ↑
13 Kamehameha’s second battle, pitted
against the forces of Keoua of Kau
and Keawemauhili of Hilo, resulting
indecisively, was in the windward
section of Hawaii, not in the southern
district of Kau, for on his defeat
Kamehameha fell back upon
Laupahoehoe. ↑
14 Kaua awa is virtually “bitter war,”
and may or may not have been
caused by excessive rains, suggested
by a division of the word into the
phrase ka ua awa, though in fact this
would be misty rain. ↑
15 Kamehameha’s famous mamalahoa
law was given by him after recovery
from his serious situation and the
capture of his assailants, when he
uttered this decree to protect them and
their people against the penalty, of the
then law, of stoning to death. ↑
16 This refers to the famous saying,
“The old men and women and
children shall lie in safety on the
highway,” which antedates the
mamalahoa decree several
generations. ↑
17The incident here referred to is
given in the sketch of Hema, a few
pages further along. ↑
18 There had been raids on Maui by
Kamehameha’s forces on two or
three occasions previous to this battle
of Iao valley. ↑
19 Kalaikupule, known also as
Kalanikupule, a son of Kahekili. ↑
20 Kepaniwai, the water dam. ↑
21 Kauwaupali, the precipice climbers. ↑
22 Alexander’s Brief History says of this
war with Keoua that “two bloody but
indecisive battles were fought near
Paauhau, Keoua falling back to Hilo,
while Kamehameha recruited his losses
at Waipio.” On Keoua’s return to Kau
from this engagement, by way of
Kilauea, a large portion of his army was
destroyed by a volcanic eruption of
cinders and sand. This took place in
November, 1790. ↑
23 Koapapaa, parched warriors. ↑
24This famous heiau, which takes the
name of its location, was finished in
1791. ↑
25The two emissaries sent on this
mission were Keaweheulu and
Kamanawa. ↑
26 The native historian Kamakau says
Keoua was killed by Keeaumoku with
a spear as he was leaping ashore to
greet Kamehameha. ↑
27Keoua and others were said to have
been offered up as sacrifices at the
Puukohola heiau, in celebration of
Kamehameha’s victory. ↑
28 This was a sea fight from a fleet of
canoes and one or two small vessels
off the Hamakua coast in which
Kamehameha’s men, aided by some
foreigners, with firearms and a
mounted gun, won the day over the
combined Maui and Kauai invaders. The
flame from the mouth of the cannon in
this action gave the name of “the red-
mouthed gun” to the battle. ↑
29 Kahekili, king of Maui and Oahu, and

Kaeo, king of Kauai, had joined

forces for the invasion of Hawaii to
overcome Kamehameha’s rising power.
Not being under the sway of Hawaii’s
king they could not be termed
“rebels.” ↑
30 This is an error. Kaieiewaho is the
name of the channel between the
islands of Oahu and Kauai. The battle
that was fought on Oahu that ended at
the pali, is known as the Battle of
Nuuanu. This occurred in 1795. ↑
31 Kauai was not a conquered island
and did not come under the sway of
Kamehameha by this Oahu victory, for
the following year he was twice
thwarted in his intended invasion of
Kauai, first by the refusal of Captain
Broughton in the Providence to assist
him with arms and ammunition; and
again, two months later, in attempting
to cross the channel a storm arose
which wrecked many canoes and drove
the rest back to Waianae. Kauai was
ceded to Kamehameha by Kaumualii in
1810. ↑
32 This account precedes the Battle of
Nuuanu. ↑
33 Kapua, at Diamond Head point,
Waikiki. ↑
34 Ten warriors to oppose an army of
three hundred and twenty men,
shows this to be very much of a
partisan story. ↑
35 Puowaina, Punchbowl hill. ↑
36 Maemae, above Judd hill, Nuuanu
valley. ↑
37Waolani is that section of Nuuanu
valley on the north side, above the
Country Club. ↑
38 “A pau kuu auau ana i ka laau a
Hawaii” is the figurative expression
again of “bathing” enjoyment in
exercising with weapons. ↑
39 Four months after the Kauai failure
Kamehameha was called to Hawaii
by the Namakaeha rebellion, which he
quickly subdued, capturing the rebel
chief whom he sacrificed on the altar of
the heiau at Piihonua, Hilo. ↑
40 These were the four principal chiefs
of Kona that espoused
Kamehameha’s cause at the outset. See
note 11. ↑
41 Mamalahoa, known as
Kamehameha’s beneficent law. See
note 15. ↑
42 Maumae was also the name of a
heiau that stood on the right hand,
or southern, side of Palolo hill at
entrance of the valley. ↑
43 Iliahi, sandalwood (Santolum
freycinetianum). ↑
44 This is a grave error. Kamehameha’s
reign, from his victory over Kiwalao
in the battle of Mokuohai, in 1782, till
his death in 1819, was thirty-seven
years. ↑
45 Kamehameha I died May 8th,
1819. ↑
46 Liholiho came to the throne on the
death of his father as Kamehameha
II, at the age of twenty-two years. ↑
47 The Kekuaokalani rebellion was in
defense of the ancient kapu system
which the new king had thrown down
with the abolition of idolatry. ↑
48 Aikapu was not only the eating apart
by husband and wife, but it included
restrictions upon women on many
articles of food which the men were
free to indulge in. ↑
49 Ainoa was to eat free from all
restraint; a release from kapu. ↑
50 Kaahumanu, the favorite queen of
Kamehameha I, and appointed
premier of the kingdom shortly before
his death. ↑
51Narrow quarters this for an
encounter of forty or more men
against two. ↑
52 In this as in other incidents the
decree of a death penalty seems to
have been applicable only to the
common people, for in many cases, as
here, it states that if a chief be the
culprit he shall lose his lands as the
penalty, thus making one law for the
rich and another for the poor. ↑
53 Gloried is given here as a definition
for the phrase he wai auau ia,
literally, “it was bath water,” i.e.,
something he fully enjoyed, or
delighted in. ↑
54 “No land, or island,” refers to a
collective body of men of a land
division, or of an island. ↑
[Contents]
Famous Men of Early Days. Poe Kaulana o ka Wa i

Hala.

Of Kekuawahine. No Kekuawahine.

Kekuawahine was a master hand He kanaka maalea loa o

at deceiving and falsifying; he Kekuawahine i ka pahele, a me
could turn an untruth into a ka hoopunipuni. He hiki ia ia ke
reality; from correct to incorrect, hoolilo i ka oiaio ole i oiaio, i ka
and so forth. When pololei i pololei ole, a pela aku
Kamehameha was residing at no. I ka wa e noho ana o
Pakaka, 1 Kona, Oahu (that is the Kamehameha ma Pakaka, Kona,
place where “White man Jim” Oahu (oia kahi a Kimo haole e
lives), at the time that the noho nei), i ka wa i puni ai na
islands from Hawaii to Niihau aina ia Kamehameha mai Hawaii
were subjugated by him, he was a Niihau, e noho ana ia me kana
living with his wife, Kaahumanu. wahina o Kaahumanu. O
Kanaihalau was an uncle of Kanaihalau, he makuakane ia no
Kaahumanu, whom she placed in Kaahumanu, hoonoho aku la o
power over Hamakua, Kawaihae Kaahumanu ia Kanaihalau
and Waimea. These lands are on maluna o Hamakua, Kawaihae,
Hawaii, and of course, Waimea. O keia mau aina, aia
Kanaihalau became very much ma Hawaii, lilo aela o Kanaihalau
favored by his niece, i punahele imua o kana
Kaahumanu. On this account kaikamahine o Kaahumanu. Ma
Kekuawahine and all the chiefs keia lilo ana o Kanaihalau i
were very envious of him, and punahele, ua huahua loa o
could not get along together at Kekuawahine a me na ’lii a pau
Waimea and Kawaihae. loa, a ua pono ole ko lakou noho
Therefore Kekuawahine ana ma Waimea a me Kawaihae,
meditated on a plan of action. nolaila, noonoo ihola o
Kekuawahine i kana mea e hana
ai.

Kanaihalau was then with his O Kanaihalau, aia no oia e

deputy, superintending the hooponopono ana i ka aina me
lands. There were two of them, kona hope. Elua nae laua, o
however, Kanaihalau and Malaihi, Kanaihalau, o Malaihi, oia na ’lii
who were chiefs over Hamakua, maluna o Hamakua, Waimea,
Waimea and Kawaihae. Malaihi Kawaihae. O Malaihi, ma Oahu
was at Oahu, residing with nei no ia kahi i noho ai me
Kekuawahine, and while thus Kekuawahine. Ia laua e noho pu
living together, Kekuawahine said ana, olelo aku la o Kekuawahine
to Malaihi: “Let us go until we ia Malaihi: “E hele kaua a kokoke
come near to the presence of aku i ke alo o Kamehameha,
Kamehameha; you will then stay noho iho oe, owau ke hele aku e
behind, and I will go forward kamailio pu me Kamehameha,
and have conversation with alaila, nana ae oe i ku’u
Kamehameha, while you will kamailio.” Mahope o keia
watch me talk.” After this kamailio ana, hele aku la laua a
conference they set forth, and kokoke, noho ihola o Malaihi.
when they were near enough,
Malaihi remained behind.

As Malaihi did so, Kekuawahine Ma keia noho ana a Malaihi,

spoke as follows: “I am now olelo aku o Kekuawahine, penei:
going to have a talk with “Eia au ke hele nei a kamailio me
Kamehameha. Keep your eyes Kamehameha, e nana pono ko
on me, and do not wander, maka ia’u, mai lalau oe, no ka
because on this day we will seal mea, o ka la keia make o
Kanaihalau’s death. If I stretch Kanaihalau ia kaua. Ina i kuhi
out my hand, that is the signal ku’u lima o ko Kanaihalau make
for Kanaihalau’s death. If I bow ia, ina i kulou ku’u poo a kunou i
down and nod back toward here, hope nei, alaila o ko kii ia a
then that is a sign for you to go pepehi ia Kanaihalau. Nolaila, e
and kill Kanaihalau. So you noho oe e nana, e hele au e
remain and watch while I go and kamailio me Kamehameha.” Hele
talk with Kamehameha.” aku la o Kekuawahine a hiki ma
waho o ka pa o Kamehameha,
Kekuawahine then proceeded to ku aku la nana i ke kamailio a
the outside of Kamehameha’s Kamehameha me na ’lii. Ia lakou
fence and stood there watching e kamailio ana, kuhi aku la ko
Kamehameha chatting with the Kekuawahine lima i kai, a pau ia,
chiefs. And while they were nana maila ihope nei a kunou
talking Kekuawahine stretched maila, a pau keia mau mea ia ia i
his arm toward the sea, and ka hana, hoi maila ia a hiki imua
afterwards looked to the rear o Malaihi.
and nodded. After performing
these movements, he returned
to Malaihi.

When he had come before A hiki o Kekuawahine imua o

Malaihi, he said: “Well, you saw Malaihi, i aku la ia ia Malaihi:
me perhaps stretch my hand “Ea, ua ike ae nei no paha oe
toward the sea?” Malaihi ia’u i ke kuhi o ku’u lima i kai?”
answered: “Yes.” “And you saw “Ae” aku o Malaihi, “ae.” “A ua
me nodding my head to the rear ike ae nei no oe ia’u i ke kunou o
here?” Malaihi answered: “Yes.” ku’u poo i hope nei?” “Ae” mai o
Then Kekuawahine said to Malaihi, “ae.” Alaila, olelo aku o
Malaihi: “You go back to Hawaii Kekuawahine ia Malaihi: “E hoi
today, and when you arrive kill oe i Hawaii i keia la, a hiki oe,
Kanaihalau.” pepehi oe ia Kanaihalau a make.”

After these instructions Malaihi Mahope o keia mau olelo, hoi la

went back to Hawaii, and landed o Malaihi a hiki i Hawaii, a pae
at Kawaihae. He then went up ma Kawaihae, pii aku la ia a hala
and passed Waimea, arriving at o Waimea, hiki i Hamakua, loaa
Hamakua. He found Kanaihalau o Kanaihalau e noho ana ma
residing at Eleio, in Waikoekoe. Eleio i Waikoekoe. Pepehi ia ihola
Kanaihalau was then murdered, o Kanaihalau a make, holehole ia
the bones were stripped of the na iwi a wahi ia i ka ahu moena,
flesh and bundled up in mats, nolaila kela inoa, “Kanaihalau
hence the expression Paahu,” a hiki i keia la. Ma keia
“Kanaihalau Paahu” [488]to this make ana [489]o Kanaihalau, ua
day. The death of Kanaihalau lohe o Kaahumanu i Oahu nei,
was reported to Kaahumanu in nolaila, makena oia a hiki i ke alo
Oahu, who thereupon began to o Kamehameha, a lohe o
wail until she came into the Kamehameha kena aku la ia e kii
presence of Kamehameha, and e pepehi ia Malaihi, pela i make
when Kamehameha heard of the ai ia mau alii.
occurrence, he commanded that
Malaihi be killed. Thus died those
chiefs.

OF MAKAIOULU. NO MAKAIOULU.
Makaioulu was one of Oia kekahi koa kaulana o
Kamehameha’s celebrated Kamehameha, i ke kaua ana
warriors in the war between Oahu nei me Kamehameha ma
Oahu and Kamehameha, at Nuuanu. O Kaalamakaoikuwa ko
Nuuanu. Kaalamakaoikuwa was Oahu nei koa, e noho ana ia ma
the warrior of Oahu, and resided Luahenewai, ma Waikiki kai.
at Luahenewai, Waikiki-kai. Hele maila o Makaioulu me kona
Makaioulu with a companion hoahele, he koa no, o
warrior, Naaimokuokama by Naaimokuokama, a halawai laua
name, came and met me Kaalamakaoikuwa, ia wa,
Kaalamakaoikuwa. Instantly hopu ia maila o Makaioulu a paa,
Makaioulu was seized and held holo o Naaimokuokama. Ia
prisoner, while Naaimokuokama Naaimokuokama e holo ana,
ran away. And while he was kahea mai o Makaioulu: “O ka
running, Makaioulu called after holo ka kau, haalele oe ia’u?” ia
him: “Do you run away and kahea ana, ku o
leave me?” When Naaimokuokama. Olelo aku o
Naaimokuokama heard this he Makaioulu, “O ko ihe e paa ala i
stopped. Makaioulu then said: ko lima, pahu oe a pololei i ku’u
“Hurl that spear that you hold in piko.” Ia wa, pahu o
your hand straight to my navel.” Naaimokuokama i kana ihe. Ma
Naaimokuokama did so, and at keia pahu ana, e alo ae ana o
the same time that he did, Makaioulu loaa o
Makaioulu dodged to one side, Kaalamakaoikuwa i ka ihe, a ku
the spear striking ihola, a make loa, pakele aku la
Kaalamakaoikuwa and killing o Makaioulu, a hele aku la laua
him. Makaioulu escaped, and mai laila aku, a hiki ma
they went thence to Puowaina. Puowaina.

Here were ten soldiers, who Ilaila e noho ana he umi koa, ike
when they saw the two, pointed maila lakou ia laua, hou like
their ten spears at them at the maila lakou i na ihe he umi. Ia
same time. And while they were lakou e hou ana, huli ae la o
doing this, Makaioulu turned Makaioulu i hope, a olelo aku i
rearward and said to his kona kokoolua: “E! hou lakou la i
companion: “Say, if they hurl ku’u alo, kunihi oe; i hou lakou i
their spears to my front, you ku’u aoao, ma ka akau oe o’u e
stand sideways; and if they hurl ku ai, mai imo oe o ku oe.”
at my side you stand at my right. Alaila, huli aku la o Makaioulu
Do not wink or you will be hit.” hele imua, a hiki ia io lakou la he
Makaioulu then faced about and umi, ia lakou e hou ana, alo ae
went forward. And when he la o Makaioulu hala, a hala ka
came near to the ten men they lakou ihe, e huelepo iho ana o
hurled spears at him. He dodged Makaioulu i kana laau palau, loaa
and the spears missed him. As eono kanaka, pakele aku eha.
their spears missed him,
Makaioulu made a sweep with
his war club which caught six
men, four escaping.

They went thence to Niuhelewai Malaila aku laua o ka hele ana a

where Kupaka was stopping. He hiki i Niuhelewai, e noho ana o
was a celebrated warrior of Kupaka ilaila, he koa kaulana no
Kahahana, the great chief of Kahahana, ke ’lii nui Oahu nei
Oahu, before the reign of mamua aku o Kalaikupule. A hiki
Kalaikupule. When the two laua ilaila, hou maila ia ia
arrived at the place, Kupaka Makaioulu i kana ihe, aole i ku,
made a lunge with his spear at aka, pakele nae o Makaioulu mai
Makaioulu without result; make, no ka mea, ma ka lima
Makaioulu, however, had a hema kana laau. A make ihola o
narrow escape from death, Kupaka ia Makaioulu.
because he had his club in his
left hand. Kupaka was, however,
killed by Makaioulu.
The two continued on to Hele aku la laua a hiki ma
Kalauao, at Ewa, where they met Kalauao i Ewa, ilaila i halawai ai
with a large number of warriors laua me ka poe koa he nui loa, a
who surrounded Makaioulu. He puni o Makaioulu, alaila, noonoo
considered a way for his escape ihola ia i mea nona e pakele ai i
from the hands of these people, loko o ka lima o ka lehulehu, a
and at last found it. He said to loaa ihola. I aku o Makaioulu ia
them: “If you all were to fight lakou: “Ina oukou e kaua me
me, it will be to your shame. The a’u, alaila, he mea hilahila ia no
best way is that one of you oukou, eia wale no ka pono, i
engage me, that is right; but if hookahi o oukou i hookahi a’u,
you mob me you will be alaila, pono, aka, ina e alu oukou
ashamed, because I am only ia’u, alaila, hilahila oukou, no ka
one.” They consented and stood mea, he hookahi a’u.” Ae lakou,
up one by one. By so doing they ia wa ku pakahi, ma ia hana ana,
were all killed by Makaioulu. ua pau loa lakou i ka make ia
Makaioulu.

When Makaioulu left Ewa, he A haalele o Makaioulu ia Ewa,

went toward Waianae. At the hill hele aku la ia ma Waianae a ka
of Kapolei, on its western side, puu o Kapolei, ma kona aoao
he met a robber who was sitting komohana, halawai oia me
on the edge of the road, with a kekahi kanaka poa, e noho ana
kuia 2 stick in his hands, a war ma kapa alanui, he kanaka me
weapon of Hawaii nei. When he ka laau kuia, kekahi mea make o
came up to the man Makaioulu Hawaii nei. A hiki o Makaioulu i
uttered his greetings, but the mua o ua kanaka ala, aloha aku
other would not respond. la keia, aole oiala aloha mai, huli
Makaioulu turned and proceeded aku la o Makaioulu hele. E pahu
on his way. The man then hurled aku ana ua kanaka ala i ke kuia,
his kuia which Makaioulu noticed ike o Makaioulu ma ke aka, i ka
by the shadow which passed malu ana iho o ke aka maluna o
over his head. He parried the ke poo. Ia wa o Makaioulu i pale