Science of the Total Environment 670 (2019) 1095–1102

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Science of the Total Environment

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Renewable energy in Southeast Asia: Policies and recommendations

Erdiwansyah a,b, R. Mamat a, M.S.M. Sani a, K. Sudhakar a,c,⁎
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600, Malaysia
b
Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Serambi Mekkah, Aceh, Indonesia
c
Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Southeast Asia countries significantly

rely on fossil resources.
• Renewable energy development is
constrained by strong economic
growth.
• Social, political and economic pressures
hinder the implementation of renew-
able energy policy.
• The paper suggests the exchange of
ideas and increased cooperation as a
mechanism for development.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Southeast Asian countries stand at a crossroads concerning their shared energy future and heavily rely on fossil
Received 8 October 2018 fuels for transport and electricity. Within Asia, especially India and China lead the world renewable energy gen-
Received in revised form 9 January 2019 eration undergoing a period of energy transition and economic transformation. Southeast Asian countries have
Accepted 18 March 2019
huge potentials for sustainable energy sources. However they are yet to perform globally in renewable energy de-
Available online 20 March 2019
ployment due to various challenges. The primary objective of the study is to examine the renewable energy
Editor: Deyi Hou growth and analyse the government policies to scale up the deployment of renewables for power generation sub-
stantially. The study also offers policy recommendations to accelerate renewable energy exploitation sustainably
Keywords: across the region. To achieve the ambitious target of 23% renewables in the primary energy mix by 2025, ASEAN
Southeast Asia Governments should take proactive measures like removal of subsidies of fossil fuels, regional market integration
Sustainability and rapid implementation of the existing project. Eventually, each of this strategy will necessitate sustained lead-
Energy policy ership, political determination, and concrete actions from stakeholders, in particular, increased cooperation
Renewable energy across the region.
ASEAN
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author at: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia

Pahang, 26600, Malaysia
Energy holds a central role and strategic position in the social, eco-
E-mail addresses: rizalman@ump.edu.my (R. Mamat), mshahrir@ump.edu.my nomic, cultural and political sectors moving the wheel of civilisation
(M.S.M. Sani), sudhakar.i@manit.ac.in (K. Sudhakar). by sustaining all the needs of society. Energy can be utilized for activities

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.273
0048-9697/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1096 Erdiwansyah et al. / Science of the Total Environment 670 (2019) 1095–1102

related to electricity generation, cooling and heating (Faninger, 2012; 3. To provide a recommendation for the future growth of renewable
Park, 2017). Energy is also used for various household needs, supporting energy in this region.
businesses and industry, and commercial trade. The role of energy in
meeting the needs of households, businesses, and industries, as well 3. Overview of energy scenario in Southeast Asia
as traded goods, encourages its use on a large scale. Thus, the increasing
need of the energy community requires an unlimited and abundant The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional
supply of energy. However, the increase in the needs of the community group that promotes the cooperation among ten member countries:
is not matched by the limited supply of energy resources, because it has Indonesia, Laos, Brunei, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,
been massively exploited to meet human needs. Vietnam, Singapore, and Cambodia (Fig. 1). The energy generation sce-
Moreover, energy sources in South Asian countries today still rely on nario in south-east Asia is shown in Table 1.
conventional energy sources that are limited and non-renewable. In the Southeast Asian countries energy demand has grown by 60% over
context of the national energy mix, energy sources are derived from two the past 15 years. They share a common challenge of alarming resources
primary sources, i.e. conventional energy and renewable energy. Con- availability, energy security, and environmental problems in the last
ventional energy like coal, oil and gas are very much limited and cannot few years. The policy to support the development of renewable energy
be regenerated. These energy sources will deplete sooner or later and has been explicitly made to determine the nationally supported com-
are harmful to the environment while sustainable energy is energy pro- mitment. The targets for renewable energy set by each country are
duced from natural sources (solar, biomass, wind, and water) which are shown in Table 2. Singapore has set a target to reduce its energy inten-
always available and doesn't harm the environment (Adams et al., sity by 35% in 2030; this reduction is made by initiating the use of
2018). One of the main problems encountered in meeting national en- energy-efficient standard lamps with labelling as introduced in 2015.
ergy needs is the over-reliance on fossil energy sources as some previ- The Philippines has targeted to reduce energy intensity by 40%, in
ous researchers have pointed out that the primary energy supply is 2030. It has also introduced the energy efficiency roadmap from 2014
mostly from fossil energy such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal. If to 2030. Action plans that have been made include generating code for
summed the total portion of the energy source reaches up to 90% energy efficiency, efficiency standards, and labelling of the equipment.
(Šahović and Da Silva, 2016). This fact becomes a common challenge Some countries in Southeast Asia have strengthened their respective
and threat to meet national energy needs. The production capacity of targets. Vietnam has set the target to increase renewable power to 21%
energy sources is not proportional to the level of national energy con- by 2030 from the total installed capacity to achieve a 43% reduction in
sumption which is increasingly sharply (Dimzon et al., 2018; Park, coal capacity by 2030. Like other countries, Thailand has also set a target
2017; Xu et al., 2018). for 2030 to use 30% renewable energy. This target is to be realised by
adopting a feed-in (FiT) tariff as a whole. Vietnam has also previously
adopted feed-in (FiT) tariffs for solar photovoltaic, solid waste, biomass,
2. Literature review
wind and small hydro, in 2017. In 2017, Indonesia has updated its en-
ergy policy and modified its power purchase agreements. To use Electric
Today, Southeast Asian countries have experienced a significant gap
Vehicle (EV) in transportation, Indonesia has promoted 14 related poli-
between the amount of energy production and consumption when
cies. Thailand has built the Electric Vehicle manufacturing industry to
compared to previous years. In this context, the governments of South-
spur its economic development, by providing tax incentives. While
east Asian countries are promoting to develop new and renewable en-
Malaysia has targeted to have as much as 100,000 EVs in 2020 operating
ergy sources as the region has been blessed with a rich and abundant
on the road, and the national charging station as much as 125,000. The
energy source (Chang et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2017; Kumar, 2016). At
overall targets set by all countries are summarised in Table 2.
present, renewable energy technologies have been widely recognised
The total installed capacity of RE in various south-east Asian coun-
as a tool for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and providing integrated
tries is summarised in Table 3.
solutions in most countries (Geng et al., 2016; Morita and Matsumoto,
2018; Quirapas et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2017). Renewable energy is
4. Salient features of renewable energy policies in Southeast Asia
considered as environmentally, cleaner, friendly, and more affordable
energy (Hu et al., 2018; Kahouli, 2018; Nasreen et al., 2017). It is also
Although most Southeast Asian nations are still heavily dependent
presumed to boost the economic growth of the nation. The ever-
on traditional energy for domestic needs, the government has made ef-
increasing population, rapid economic growth and abundant energy
forts to cope with the increasing energy demand. More recently, gov-
sources, encourage adopting renewable energy in Southeast Asian
ernments in some countries are responding to the growing pressures
countries (Biyik et al., 2017; Jakica, 2018; Obeidat, 2018; Shukla et al.,
on energy demand to develop sustainable and environmentally friendly
2016). Several countries of Southeast Asia are now working to increase
energy sources. The region of Southeast Asia is still stable regarding en-
the share of renewable energy sources to reduce dependence on fossil
ergy because the existing policy is used to stabilise energy and secure
fuels (Assoa et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2017; Tripathy et al., 2017). The
economic growth.
more significant gap between the potential supply and energy demand
Various policies have been adopted in Southeast Asian countries for
may hinder the economic and social development in Southeast Asia
the development of renewable energy. The policy includes agreements
(Ahmed et al., 2017; Shaikh et al., 2017; Tongsopit et al., 2016; Wang
and unregulated laws for the generation of renewable energy along
et al., 2018). Renewable energy is the preferred inevitable source of
with incentives and carbon taxes. However, the policies and regulations
electricity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the region (Sarkodie
made are highly fragmented, requiring a comprehensive analysis.
and Strezov, 2018; Tan et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2016; Zhu et al.,
2016). Renewable energy sources include geothermal, solar, wind, hy-
4.1. Energy policies in Indonesia
dropower, biomass, and other new energy which will have a lower car-
bon footprint.(Ahmed et al., 2017; Ismail et al., 2015; Petinrin and
Indonesia has a population growth rate of 1.9% and 238 million in
Shaaban, 2015; Rana et al., 2016).
2010, and growth continues to increase. The population is estimated
The primary aim of this paper is
to be around 265 million by 2020 and 306 million by 2050. As the pop-
ulation grows, domestic energy consumption will triple by 2030 from
1. To examine renewable energy policies in Southeast Asia.
2010. In 2006 the Government of Indonesia had enacted a national en-
2. To analyse their merits and limitations for renewable energy devel- ergy policy. The policy has established various laws, regulations, actions,
opment, and and targets for effective implementation (Mujiyanto and Tiess, 2013;
 Erdiwansyah et al. / Science of the Total Environment 670 (2019) 1095–1102 1097

Fig. 1. ASEAN countries.

Purba et al., 2015). The target set by the Indonesian government is the organisations such as the Energy Efficiency Conservation Committee
achievement of optimal renewable energy use at the national level by (EECC), the Brunei Energy Association (BENA), and Brunei's National
2025. The increase of renewable energy is aimed at reducing depen- Energy Research Institute (BNERI) for conducting joint research on re-
dence on oil, gas, and coal that are running low. The reduction is esti- newable energy sources. The policy includes both renewable energy
mated at 20% for oil, 30% for gas and 33% for coal. The share of on land and ocean. However, at present ocean, renewable energy is
renewable energy such as biofuel and geothermal will increase by 5% not fully utilized in Brunei Darussalam (Ahmed et al., 2018).
each and for biomass, hydropower, wind power, solar power, and nu-
clear about 5% and for liquid fuels about 2%. The energy policy targets 4.3. Energy policies in Myanmar
to maximize the use of sustainable energy sources at the national
level. It is expected that the consumption of domestic energy demand Myanmar has made several national-level energy policies aimed at
is expected to triple or increase by 15% compared to 2005 in 2025 maintaining the country's energy dependence and increase use of re-
(Kusumadewi and Limmeechokchai, 2017; Mendoza et al., 2019; newables to meet domestic household needs (Kyaw et al., 2011;
Mujiyanto and Tiess, 2013; Pambudi, 2018; Purba et al., 2015; Sovacool, 2013). Myanmar has undertaken to facilitate the ongoing
Sugiawan and Managi, 2016). costs of development and environmental integration (Kyaw et al.,
2011; Newcombe and Ackom, 2017; Pode et al., 2016). To ensure the
4.2. Energy policies in Brunei development of energy sector, the Myanmar government has
established an Energy Development Committee (EDC) and the National
The Brunei Government has prepared a roadmap “Brunei Vision in Energy Management Committee (NEMC) to oversee all activities carried
2025” on the use of renewable energy. Brunei Darussalam supports out on the use and development of renewable energy under one um-
the execution of sustainable energy strategies which includes energy ef- brella. Only 34% of Residents in Myanmar have access to grid-quality
ficiency, energy security, diversification of supply, and energy conserva- electricity (Kim and Jung, 2018; Riva et al., 2018). Several activities re-
tion. The Government is proposing to diversify the energy mix through lated to renewable energy for rural power generation are being under-
a concerted effort in developing renewable energy sources for power taken by several organisations including the Union of Myanmar
generation. The government has also involved non-governmental Federation of Commerce and Industry Chamber (UMFCCI) and

Table 1
Energy mix in Southeast Asia countries.

Countries Coal (%) Natural Gas (%) Oil (%) Hydro (%) Geothermal (%) Other renewable (%) Diesel (%) Ref

Malaysia 43.7 43.7 1.3 8.7 – 0.7 2 (Izadyar et al., 2016)

Indonesia 51 24 13 8 4 – (Kumar, 2016)
Brunei – 99 1 – – – – –
Singapore – 95 1 – – – – –
Myanmar – 20.5 – 74.7 – – – –
Thailand 14 41 43 1 – 1 – (Kumar, 2016)
Philippines 42.8 24.2 7.4 11.8 13.3 0.5 – –
Cambodia – – – – – – – –
Vietnam 28.94 21.89 0.21 40.04 – 5.63 –
Laos – – – 56 – 44 – –
1098 Erdiwansyah et al. / Science of the Total Environment 670 (2019) 1095–1102

Table 2 Table 2 (continued)

Southeast Asian Energy target for future.
(Blazquez et al., 2018; Duc Luong, 2015; Dutu, 2016; Mujiyanto and Tiess, 2013; Shukla Region/country Use sector Policies and target for future
et al., 2017a). Renewables Increase the share of non-hydro
renewables-based power generation capacity
Region/country Use sector Policies and target for future
to 12.5% by 2025 and 21% by 2030.
Malaysia Efficiency Support energy efficiency measures in the Efficiency Increase financial electricity savings to more
building, industry and domestic sectors. The than 10% of total power consumption by 2020
energy efficiency standard, labelling, energy relative to BAU.
audits and building design are developed. Laos Efficiency Reduce final energy consumption from BAU
Renewables Increase the capacity of renewables to 2.080 level by 10%.
MW by 2020 and 4.000 MW by 2030. Renewables Achieve 30% share of renewables in primary
Climate Reduce the GHG intensity to 35% by 2030 from energy supply by 2025.
change 2005 level with the increase to 45% reduction Electrification Achieve the electrification rate of 98% by 2025.
with enhanced international support.
Notes: MW = megawatts; BAU = business-as-usual; GW = gigawatts.
Transport Introduce 100,000 electric vehicles by 2020
with 125,000 charging stations.
Indonesia Electrification Achieve electrification ratio of 99.7% by 2025.
Climate Reduce GHG emissions by 26% and 29% from Myanmar Engineering Society (MES) to address the shortage of the
change BAU level by 2020 and by 2030, respectively, electricity in the region (Apergis and Apergis, 2017; Kim and Jung,
and 41% by 2020 with international support.
2018; Kyaw et al., 2011; Riva et al., 2018; Sovacool, 2013; Suman, 2018).
New and Increase share of new and renewable energy in
renewable primary energy supply to reach 23% by 2025
energy and 31% by 2050.
Efficiency Reduce energy intensity by 1% per year to 2025. 4.4. Energy policies in the Philippines
Brunei Climate Reduce CO2 emissions and Vehicle use during
change morning peak-hour by 40% from BAU level by
2035.
In 2008, within their overall framework, Philippine government did
Efficiency Reduce total energy consumption by 63% from an Act to promote the use of renewable energy (Kies et al., 2017). This
BAU levels by 2035. framework is designed to accelerate the development of state renew-
Renewable Achieve 10% of electricity generation from able energy sources, the establishment of renewable energy manage-
renewables by 2035.
ment bureau to support the implementation. Various legislations have
Singapore Renewable Increase solar photovoltaic capacity to 350 MW
by 2020. been made especially for the energy department.
Climate Reduce GHG emissions by 16% below BAU level On the other hand, the national renewable energy board has cre-
change by 2020. Stabilise GHG emissions around 2030 ated sub-committees as well as several working groups to facilitate
without reaching peak limit.
the formulation of mechanisms, guidelines, and rules on renewable
Efficiency Reduce energy intensity to 36% by 2030 from
2005 levels.
portfolio standards (RPS), Clean Metering, Renewable Energy Repre-
Myanmar Efficiency Reduce primary energy demand to 8% by 2030 sentative Funds, FITs, and Options for Green Energy (Larsen et al.,
from 2005 level. 2018). The Philippines' renewable energy roadmap has featured in-
Electrification Achieve total electrification rate of 100% by dustrial, energy and development (PCIERD) as the foundation for re-
2030.
search. In 2014, the roadmap incorporated all research activities
Thailand Renewables Rise in the growth of renewable energy
consumption to 30% by 2036; This includes conducted by several institutes as well as individuals from academic
increasing the share of renewables-based sources. The Philippine government established a renewable energy
power generation capacity to 20.11% and share framework in 2008. This framework has collaborated internationally
of renewables in transport fuel consumption to on technological assessment of renewable energy technologies
25.04% by 2036.
Efficiency Reduce energy intensity by 30% in 2036
which include wave energy and tidal energy (Cabalu et al., 2015).
compared to 2010 level. In 2011, the government of the Philippines had incorporated their
Climate Reduce GHG emissions by 20% from BAU level framework into a roadmap with the theme of Green Energy
change by 2030, increase to 25% with enhanced Roadmap 2011. The National Renewable Energy Program (NREP)
international support.
aimed at achieving the target of installing renewable energy capacity
Transport Increase to 1.2 million EVs and 690 charging
stations by 2036. of 15,304 MW by 2011 (Matsuda, 2016).
Nuclear Install nuclear power plants of 2 GW by 2036.
Philippines Renewables Triple the installed capacity of
Climate renewables-based power generation from 2010 4.5. Energy policies in Cambodia
change level to 15 GW by 2030. Reduce GHG emissions
by 70% from
Electrification Achieve 100% electrification by 2022. In Cambodia, there is no specific policy on development for renew-
Climate Reduce GHG emissions by 70% from BAU level able energy. However, the policy to target the use of renewable energy
change by 2030 with the condition of international at power plants in remote areas is framed. Moreover, the Cambodian
support.
government has made another policy that is more strategic for the elec-
Efficiency Reduce energy intensity by 40% in 2030 from
2010 level. Decrease energy consumption by tricity sector where it encourages the use of renewable energy as a part
1.6% per year against baseline forecasts by of the energy mix in the region. A framework for planned renewable en-
2030. ergy development is made for rural areas. It aimed at providing electric-
Cambodia Renewables Increase capacity of hydropower to 2.241 MW ity from reliable renewable energy technology through Renewable
by 2020.
Climate Reduce GHG emissions by 27% from baseline
Electricity Action Plan (Mahapatra et al., 2017; Terabe et al., 2017).
change emissions by 2030 with international support. The Government of Cambodia in 2013 has created and developed a re-
Electrification Universal electrification for all villages by 2020 newable energy plan for national strategy developers with a goal vision
and 70% electrification for households by 2030. of 2030. By 2030, 70% of the total number of households in all villages
Vietnam Climate Reduce GHG emissions from BAU level by 8% by
has to be fully powered, through the grid electricity. The Government
change 2030 and by 25% with international support.
Electrification Ensure most rural households have access to has proposed a “Strategic Plan for green growth by 2030” which has
electricity by 2020. been established a national Roadmap. (Mahapatra et al., 2017;
Matsuda, 2016; Terabe et al., 2017).
 Erdiwansyah et al. / Science of the Total Environment 670 (2019) 1095–1102 1099

Table 3
The total Installed capacity of RE in Southeast Asia.
(Gielen et al., 2017; Kumar, 2016; Lee et al., 2013; Renner et al., n.d.; Shukla et al., 2017b; Zhang et al., 2017).

Region/country Renewable energy potential/resource data for Southeast Asia

Solar (MW) Wind (MW) Biomass Hydro (GW) Geothermal (GW) Gas (Mtoe) Oil (Mtoe)

Malaysia 182 – – 5.47 – 1.05 471

Indonesia 12 1 – 5.26 1.41 2.56 498
Brunei 1 – – – – 248 150
Singapore 57 – – – – – –
Myanmar – – – 3.14 – 475 3
Thailand 1.610 223 – 4.51 1.29 198 49.2
Philippines 132 387 – 4.24 1.93 88.7 15
Cambodia 6 1 – 1.27 – – –
Vietnam – 135 – 15.2 31.2 555 595
Laos 1 – – 4.17 – – –

4.6. Energy policies in Laos had been assigned the task to regulate the growth of renewable energy.
For the development of Renewable energy, Feed-In Tariffs (FIT) has
Similar to other countries, the Laotian government has planned a been introduced to benefit the developer. The Directorate of National
comprehensive renewable energy development policy. However, the Authority (NOD) has been assigned to conduct marine surveillance on
plans made do not include renewable energy sourced from the ocean renewable energy potential from the Malaysian seas. In 2016,
and have also set a 30% share of renewable energy and 10% energy con- Malaysia undertook the preparation of Renewable energy technology
sumption through biofuel (Phoualavanh and Limmeechokchai, 2015; roadmap including the land and ocean potential (Le Lim and Lam,
Smits and Bush, 2010). Laos has also built a project for village electrifi- 2014; Oh et al., 2017, 2018; Ren et al., 2018; Yah et al., 2017)
cation that serves to cope with the increase of electrical energy for re-
mote areas of the country (Riva et al., 2018). 4.10. Energy policies in Thailand

4.7. Energy policies in Singapore The law drafted by the Thai government to promote energy conser-
vation (ENCON) with renewable portfolio standards (RPS) aimed to set
Singapore government targeted to reduce GHG emissions by 16% in a target of 3–5% of renewable energy use for all power generation capac-
2020 by making a global agreement [89]. Nevertheless, several strategic ity projects [92]. The Alternative energy development planning (AEDP)
and efficient steps have been initiated by the Singapore government to has categorised geothermal energy and also the energy from the tidal
achieve efficient renewable energy, so the impetus for emissions reduc- wave of the sea as a renewable energy source. Power generation from
tions at the BAU level is achieved between 7% and 11% by 2020 wave energy and tidal current is estimated to reach 2 MW. However,
(Gasbarro et al., 2017). Although at the national level, policy on renew- until now it could not be utilized for power generation (Calvo-silvosa
able energy regulation, has not been established, research institutes and et al., 2017; Delina, 2017; Kusumadewi et al., 2017).
academics continue to study and conduct research on renewable energy The policy features on renewable energy in Southeast Asian coun-
potential (Ali et al., 2018; Dogan and Seker, 2016; Narayan and Doytch, tries as summarised in Tables 4 and 5.
2017). In Southeast Asia, the sector that has the highest share of renewable
There is rapid progress in Singapore regarding development activi- energy use is transportation. Also, biofuels have the higher demand-
ties of renewable energy. In 2013, the Government of Singapore had driven potential for urban transport and sustained power supply. The
held discussions with various Energy Market Authorities during an in- main preferred focus area of the transportation policy is the increased
ternational energy week focusing on renewable energy. More recently, use of biofuel. However electric vehicles (EV) and public transport are
signatories concerning an international cooperation agreement with also included in the policy.
the Institute's energy research institute at University Technological The transportation sector is becoming more dominant especially in
Nanyang (de Andres et al., 2017). Subsequently, the National Research Southeast Asia and the fastest growing economic sector in all countries.
Foundation announced a call for a competitive research grant to support Furthermore, with many industries engaged in the development of re-
the Energy Innovation Research program that focuses on electrical en- newable energy especially geothermal energy, wind, solar, hydropower,
ergy development systems from renewable energy except solar (de and biomass employment opportunities for the community can
Andres et al., 2017; De Paulo and Porto, 2017). increase.

5. Sustainable energy policy implications

4.8. Energy policies in Vietnam
One of the ways for the government to improve the economy is by
Vietnam targets to increase the share of renewable energy by 5% in providing opportunities to investors in developing renewable energy
2020 and estimated to increase by 11% in 2050 (Chang et al., 2016; (Gabriel and Kirkwood, 2016; Sen and Ganguly, 2017). The govern-
Quirapas et al., 2015). The Vietnamese government has undertaken sev- ments of Southeast Asian countries are expected to overcome energy
eral activities for biofuel development. Many research institutes, as well shortage issues by formulating appropriate energy policies. Access to lo-
as academic organisations and individuals, are interested in researching calized renewables can extensively improve the economic condition by
renewable energy in the country (Duc Luong, 2015). way of empowering people and groups to realize control over the en-
ergy supply, lessen their energy price and enhance their occupation.
4.9. Energy policies in Malaysia The financial advantages of the localized, sustainable power source in
rural regions, particularly among poor people and remote islands of
Malaysia has targeted 5% renewable energy use for nationwide elec- Southeast Asia must be assessed. There is an increasing indication that
trical energy needs by 2030 (Oh et al., 2018, 2017; Sarkodie and Adams, renewable energy solutions lessen fuel usage and facilitate revenue gen-
2018). By 2012 the authority of sustainable energy developers (SEDA) eration and job creation, both in the renewable electricity supply chain
1100 Erdiwansyah et al. / Science of the Total Environment 670 (2019) 1095–1102

and in other connected undertakings. Despite ambitious energy targets, Table 5

poor regional coordination and strong economic growth have been one Southeast Asia policy landscape.

of the reasons for the persistently small share of renewables in the Countries Policy landscape
region's energy mix. Malaysia RE target, FiTs, RPS, biofuels obligation, fiscal incentives,
Key Barriers: public financing
Indonesia RE target, FiTs, RPS, biofuels obligation, fiscal incentives,
– slow implementation of supporting policies; public financing, public tendering
– non-existent enabling policies in some countries Singapore Public financing, public tendering, net metering
– the long and complicated permitting process Thailand RE target, FiTs, biofuels obligation, fiscal incentives,
– perverse fossil fuel subsidies public financing
Philippines RE target, FiTs, RPS, biofuels obligation, fiscal incentives,
– social, economic and political pressures
public financing, public tendering, net metering
Vietnam RE target, tradable REC, fiscal incentives
Laos Cambodia Brunei N/A
The following recommendations are provided to realize the large- Myanmar N/A
N/A
scale development of renewables, in Southeast Asia: N/A
• Formulate sustainable energy policies which can be predictable and
reliable with the general energy policy framework.
• National policy should offer a trajectory for the long-term energy mix 6. Conclusions
which must contain a target for renewable energy; a renewable en-
ergy power regulation or strategy; or application. This study examines the renewable energy policy and target of
• Design focused, coherent and complete renewable energy guidelines Southeast Asian countries. The following are the primary conclusion
complementing global climate change regulations to derive maxi- from the study.
mum benefit from climate change financing alternatives.
• Decrease non-economic limitations which include governing bodies’ • The ASEAN governments have set a target for renewable energy usage
hurdles, grid access problems, fuel subsidies, and lack of awareness by 2025 to speed up the pace of sustainable energy development.
and skill. • Despite the fact all of the ASEAN countries have recognised renewable
• The continuing expansion of the ASEAN Power Grid will play an effec- energy targets, the region has yet to harness its vast renewable energy
tive role besides the development aid and renewable energy incentives. potential strictly.
• The policymakers must look beyond the consumptive uses of electricity • The major obstacle faced in implementing RE is affordability, accessi-
(for family lighting and cookery, among others) to additionally take bility and awareness.
into consideration its productive uses. • Regional and global trends influence the energy markets and energy
• Regulative units to offer incentives for capital finance in renewables via policies in each of the countries. Governments should devise effective
the implementation of energy policies, inclusive of feed-in cost, feed-in policies and regulations following the market trends.
charges, auctions, internet metering, and quotas. • Governments and Policymakers should take note of the benefits of-
• Set up systems to exchange expertise in developing and enforcing sus- fered by decentralised renewable energy system and should consider
tainable energy policy, and in lowering hurdles for utilisation of renew- more investment in renewable energy as a pillar of sustainable devel-
ables. opment.
• Economic incentives and financial policy instruments, similar to ex- • Proper implementation and support mechanism will help to meet cli-
emptions of the VAT, import, income tax, export obligations, native mate, energy security, socio-economic and environmental objectives.
taxes, carbon tax and accelerated depreciation will decrease the upfront • The expansion of Southeast Asia's energy supply through direct in-
cost. vestments in sustainable energy offers more extensive socio-
• Grid access aims to offer project developers assurance to invest through economic and environmental benefits.
grid access priority and a transmission discount policy if electricity is • International and regional organisations like ADB, World Bank, and
made from renewable energy. APEC plays a serious role in the sustainable green energy development
• Finance targets to lessen the threat for investors through the use of cur- in the ASEAN region, and grass root organisations should use appro-
rency hedging, a dedicated budget, eligible finance, and assurances. priate business models for utilising these welfare schemes.

Acknowledgements
Table 4
Salient features of Renewable Energy policies in Southeast Asia.
(Gielen et al., 2017; Quirapas et al., 2015; Renner et al., n.d.; Sakah et al., 2017; Vidadili This research was supported by the Universiti Malaysia Pahang
et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2017). (UMP) Flagship Research Grant (RDU1703314) and (RDU1803100)
Region/country Electric Sustainable Biofuels Fiscal Fuel economy and UMP Research Grant (RDU 1703147).
vehicle public blending incentive standards or
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