Networking for DevOps

Created by SUBBA REDDY SANGHAM

Created time @November 7, 2024 11:14 AM

Tags Networking

What is a Network?
When two or more computers and computing devices connected together with
each other through communication channels, such as cables or wireless media
and sharing some files, then it is called a Network.
A network is used to:

Allow the connected devices to communicate with each other.

Enable multiple users to share devices over the network, such as music and
video servers, printers and scanners.

The Internet is the largest network in the world and can be called "the network
of networks".

Types of Networks
There are different types of networks. But the main two are LAN and WAN

1. LAN (Local Area Network) - interconnects computer within a limited area,

such as residences, schools. e.g.: Wi-Fi, Ethernet

2. MAN (Metropolitan area network) - used in metropolitan area (cities).

3. WAN (Wide Area Network) - extends LAN over a large geographic area.
e.g:- optical fiber cable

4. SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) - used in submarine.

Network Components:
1. Switch:

It is a device which connects two or more computers.

Networking for DevOps 1

 2. Router:

It is a device which is actually used to connect one network

with another.

3. Modem:

It is also a device used for modulation and Demodulation.

4. Hub:

It is just a power extension dummy device that just broadcast

the signals to its connected computers.

5. NIC:

It is known as Network Interface Card which is used to

connect your computer with the internet. It is wireless card
preinstalled on motherboard now-a-days. It has a MAC
(Media Access Control) address.

6. Bridge:

It is also a networking device that connects multiple LANs

(local area networks) together to form a larger LAN. It
reduces the broadcasting part, and it store the MAC address
of the computer but now this device is also obsoleted and
replaced by switch.

What is Protocol?
A network protocol is a set of rules which is set up by people that determine
how a particular data is transmitted between different devices in the same
network. e.g.: HTTP, TCP, IP, FTP, SMTP etc.

IP Address and its Types and Classes:

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 IP Address: An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique number assigned to
each device on a network, allowing them to communicate with each other. It’s
like a device's "address" on the internet or local network.

Types of IP Addresses
1. IPv4:

32-bit address, written as four numbers separated by dots (e.g.,

123.89.46.7 ).

This is a 32-bit IP address, means it contains a combo of 32 (1 and 0's).

In this version of IP address there are 4 groups or Octets (8 bits), and
each octet is represented by a decimal value in the address. It is easy to
remember.

Commonly used, but limited number of addresses (about 4.3 billion).

2. IPv6:

128-bit address, written in eight groups of hexadecimal numbers (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 ).

Provides a vastly larger pool of addresses, designed to replace IPv4 as it

runs out.

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 3. Public IP:

Used to identify devices on the internet.

Assigned by ISPs and accessible globally.

4. Private IP:

Used within private networks (like home or office networks).

Not accessible from the internet; usually in ranges like 192.168.x.x ,

10.x.x.x , or 172.16.x.x - 172.31.x.x .

5. Static IP:

Manually assigned, doesn’t change.

Often used for servers and devices that need a consistent address.

6. Dynamic IP:

Automatically assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol) server.

Changes periodically; commonly used for home devices.

IP Address Classes (IPv4 Only)

There is an organization called IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
who divides the IP address into different classes. You have to know about binary
to decimal conversion to understand this.
IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes based on the starting number,
which determines their usage in networks.

Class Range Purpose

A 1.0.0.0 - 126.0.0.0 Large networks, like big organizations.

B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.0.0 Medium-sized networks.

Small networks, like home or business

C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.0
LANs.

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 224.0.0.0 -
D Reserved for multicasting.
239.255.255.255

240.0.0.0 -
E Experimental, used for research.
255.255.255.255

Note:

Class A addresses in IPv4 officially start from 1.0.0.0 and go up to

126.0.0.0. The address 0.0.0.0 is not part of the Class A range and has a
special purpose in networking.

0.0.0.0 is a special address, not part of the usable IP address range in Class
A.

The 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 range, especially 127.0.0.1, is reserved for

loopback addresses in IPv4.

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 What is Loopback?
Loopback address allows a device to communicate with itself.

It’s often used for testing network software on the local machine.

Key Points:
127.0.0.1 is commonly known as "localhost."

Any IP address in the 127.x.x.x range will loop back to the same device.

Useful for testing networking applications without needing an external

network.

IP address - Network ID and Host ID:

There are two parts to an IP address - Network ID and Host ID (Any device
which gets the IP address is called a Host).

The Network ID portion differs depending on the IP class:

Class A: 1st octet is the Network ID.

Class B: 1st and 2nd octets are the Network ID.

Class C: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd octets are the Network ID.

Direct Connection: Devices with the same Network ID can connect without
a router.

Router Requirement: Devices with different Network IDs need a router to

connect.

We will try to break it with text based structural diagram for a better
understanding:

IP Address Structure and Device Connection

+---------------------+---------------------+-----------------
| IP Address Class | Network ID | Host ID
+---------------------+---------------------+-----------------
| Class A | 1st Octet | 2nd, 3rd, 4th
| | Example: 17.0.0.1 | (0.0.1)
+---------------------+---------------------+-----------------
| Class B | 1st & 2nd Octets | 3rd, 4th
| | Example: 172.16.0.1| (0.1)

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 +---------------------+---------------------+-----------------
| Class C | 1st, 2nd & 3rd | 4th Octet
| | Example: 192.168.1.1| (1)
+---------------------+---------------------+-----------------

Device Connection Scenario:

1. Device A IP Address: 17.0.0.1 (Class A)

2. Device B IP Address: 17.0.4.2 (Class A)

Network ID for Class A: 17 (1st Octet)

Since both devices have the same Network ID (17),

they are in the same network and can connect directly.

Connection Summary:

+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------
| Device A IP | Device B IP | Connec
+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------
| 17.0.0.1 | 17.0.4.2 | Direct
+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------
| 17.0.0.1 | 192.168.1.5 | Requir
+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------

Explanation:
- If Device A and Device B are in the same network (same Netwo
- If they are on different networks (different Network IDs), a

Router Usage:

+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------
| Different Networks | Example: | Connec
+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------
| Device A Network ID | 17 (Class A) |
| Device B Network ID | 192.168 (Class C) |
| Router Needed | Yes | Requir
+-----------------------+---------------------------+---------

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 Subnetting:
Divides a network into smaller, more manageable segments.
Example: A network with IP address 192.168.1.0/24 can be divided into subnets
like 192.168.1.0/25 and 192.168.1.128/25.

Example of Subnetting:
Given network: 192.168.1.0/24

192.168.1.0/24 is a Class C network.

/24 indicates a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, meaning there are 8 bits for
hosts (32 total bits in IPv4 - 24 bits for the network portion = 8 bits for
hosts).

192.168.1.0/24 provides 256 IP addresses (from 192.168.1.0 to

192.168.1.255).

Dividing into Smaller Subnets:

To divide this into two equal subnets, we can use /25 subnet masks, which
allocate 7 bits for hosts (32 - 25 = 7 bits for hosts).

1. Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/25

Range: 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.127

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128

Total IPs: 128 addresses (126 usable for hosts, as the first address is the
network address and the last is the broadcast address).

2. Subnet 2: 192.168.1.128/25

Range: 192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.255

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128

Total IPs: 128 addresses (126 usable for hosts).

Summary Table
Subnet Range Subnet Mask Total IPs Usable Host IPs

192.168.1.0 -
192.168.1.0/25 255.255.255.128 128 126
192.168.1.127

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 192.168.1.128 -
192.168.1.128/25 255.255.255.128 128 126
192.168.1.255

Explanation:
By using a /25 mask instead of /24, we split the network into two subnets
with 128 IP addresses each.

This creates smaller segments within the original network, making it easier
to manage specific groups of hosts separately.

Benefits of Subnetting:
1. Improves Network Performance: Reduces broadcast domains, limiting
broadcast traffic to specific subnets.

2. Enhances Security: Allows segregation of different departments or

functions within an organization.

3. Efficient IP Usage: Prevents wasting IP addresses by only allocating what is

necessary for each subnet.

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) is a method for allocating IP addresses
and IP routing that replaces the older classful network system. It was
introduced to improve IP address utilization and simplify routing.
The table below outlines the most common combination of addresses and
netmasks and important details about them.

Number of Relation to
Prefix Netmask Comment
addresses class

Single host in a
/32 255.255.255.255 1 Class C/256
network

/25 255.255.255.128 128 Class C/2

/24 255.255.255.0 256 Class C

/23 255.255.254.0 512 Class C*2

Class C*256 =
/16 255.255.0.0 65,536
Class B

/15 255.254.0.0 131,072 Class B*2

Class B*256 =
/8 255.0.0.0 16,777,216
Class A

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 0.0.0.0/0
means entire
/0 0.0.0.0 4,294,967,296 Class A*256 internet. Often
used in public
firewall rules

Network Models
There are mainly two types of network model -

1. OSI Reference Model

2. TCP/IP Model

1. OSI Reference Model:

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains
how different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was
developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI
Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions and
responsibilities.

1. Physical Layer: Handles the physical connection between devices,

transmitting raw data as bits over cables, radio signals, etc.

2. Data Link Layer: Manages data transfer between directly connected nodes.
It handles error detection and flow control. Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

3. Network Layer: Manages packet forwarding and routing through the

network. Uses IP addressing. Example: IP (Internet Protocol).

4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer with error correction and
flow control. Examples: TCP, UDP.

5. Session Layer: Establishes, maintains, and manages communication

sessions between applications.

6. Presentation Layer: Translates data formats to ensure compatibility

between systems. Handles encryption and compression. Example: SSL/TLS.

7. Application Layer: Interfaces directly with the user and provides network
services like HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

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 Here’s a
text-based structural diagram that shows the flow through the OSI model from
Person X to Person Y:

START: Person X Sends a Message

│
├── Application Layer (Layer 7)
│ └── Prepare message using messaging app protocol (e.g., SM
│
├── Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
│ └── Encode/Encrypt the message into a suitable format.
│
├── Session Layer (Layer 5)
│ └── Establish a session with Person Y’s device through the
│
├── Transport Layer (Layer 4)
│ └── Break the message into segments and add TCP/UDP header
│
├── Network Layer (Layer 3)
│ └── Add source and destination IP addresses for routing.
│
├── Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
│ └── Convert segments to frames and add MAC addresses for d
│
├── Physical Layer (Layer 1)
│ └── Convert frames into bits (0s and 1s) for transmission.
│
└── Transmit through Physical Medium (e.g., Ethernet/Wi-Fi) to
│
├── Person Y Receives Message
│
├── Physical Layer (Layer 1)
│ └── Receive bits and reassemble into frames.
│
├── Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
│ └── Verify and process frames with MAC addresses.
│
├── Network Layer (Layer 3)

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 │ └── Extract IP addresses and verify routing informatio
│
├── Transport Layer (Layer 4)
│ └── Reassemble segments into data using TCP/UDP.
│
├── Session Layer (Layer 5)
│ └── Verify and maintain the communication session.
│
├── Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
│ └── Decode/Decrypt message into readable format.
│
└── Application Layer (Layer 7)
└── Display the message to Person Y in the messaging a

END: Person Y Reads the Message

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 The infographic below summarizes the seven layers of the OSI reference
model.

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Networking for DevOps 14
 Below is the list of protocols in each layer of the OSI model along with their port
numbers (where applicable):

1. Application Layer (Layer 7)

HTTP (Port 80): Web browsing.

HTTPS (Port 443): Secure web browsing.

SMTP (Port 25): Sending email.

FTP (Ports 20, 21): File transfer.

DNS (Port 53): Domain name resolution.

POP3 (Port 110): Receiving email.

IMAP (Port 143): Receiving email.

2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

SSL/TLS (Port 443 for HTTPS, also used in other protocols): Encryption for
secure data transmission.

MIME: Used for formatting email attachments.

JPEG/PNG: Image formats used to encode multimedia files.

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

PPTP (Port 1723): Tunneling protocol for VPNs.

NetBIOS (Ports 137, 138, 139): Establishes sessions for network

communications.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

TCP: Reliable data transmission with acknowledgment.

UDP: Fast, connectionless data transmission without acknowledgment.

SCTP: Used for applications that require multiple data streams.

5. Network Layer (Layer 3)

IP (IPv4/IPv6): Routing packets between source and destination.

ICMP: Error messaging and diagnostics (e.g., ping).

IGRP: Routing protocol used for sharing routing information.

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 6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
Ethernet: Defines physical addressing and channel access.

PPP: Used for point-to-point connections.

HDLC: For framing and error control on point-to-point links.

ARP: Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.

7. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Ethernet (Physical signaling): Specifies electrical signals, cabling, etc.

USB: Used to physically connect devices.

Summary with Ports

Application Layer (Layer 7) contains the most recognizable protocols with
specific port numbers for communication (e.g., HTTP - Port 80, HTTPS -
Port 443, SMTP - Port 25).

Layers 2 to 6 typically deal with specific network management functions and

do not use port numbers as these layers are responsible for connections
and managing data formats.

Port numbers are used primarily in the Application and Transport Layers to
ensure data is delivered to the correct services and applications running on a
computer.

2. TCP/IP Model:
The
TCP/IP model, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite, is a simplified version
of the OSI model with only 4 layers instead of 7.

This model is a real model which actually works in real. This model consists of 4
layers.

1. Application Layer = (Application Layer + Presentation Layer + Session Layer)

of OSI model

2. Transport Layer

3. Network Layer

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 4. Network Interface Layer = (Data Link Layer + Physical Layer) of OSI
model (remaining all are same like OSI model discussed above.)

Ports and Protocols:

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 1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

It is a client server stateless (means it never stores any data of client) protocol,
and it tells us how it requests any data from the server and also tells us how the
server will send the data back to the client.

- When a client makes a request - HTTP request

- When server sends response to client - HTTP response -- Some HTTP

methods used to make any request

GET :- Get some data from server

POST :- Post some form/data to server
PUT :- Put some data
DELETE :- Delete some data in server

- Status Codes

Status codes are issued by a server in response to a client's request made to

the server.

There are 4 categories of HTTP responses:

1. 200s: Successful responses

2. 300s: Redirects

3. 400s: Client errors

4. 500s: Server errors

Take a look at some of the most common response codes:

Code What It’s Telling What it Means

200 OK Request succeeded.

Found, Temporary The URI of the requested resource has been

302, 307
Redirect changed temporarily.

Moved
Permanently, The URI of the requested resource has been
301, 308
Permanent changed permanently.
Redirect

The server can’t understand the request being

400 Bad Request
sent.

The client must authenticate itself before sending

401 Unauthorized
the request.

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 The client does not have enough permission to
403 Forbidden
access the content.

404 Not Found The server can’t find the requested resource.

The response was sent to an idle connection, and

408 Request Timeout
the server wants to terminate it.

Internal Server The server does not know how to handle a

500
Error request.

The server you are trying to access is a gateway

or a reverse proxy (it sits between the client and
502 Bad Gateway an actual server that serves the page). You get
this error when the gateway gets an incorrect
response from a source server.

Service The server can’t process the request. This usually

503
Unavailable happens when a server is down or overloaded.

Similar to 502, the gateway can’t get a response

504 Gateway timeout
in time.

Find the complete list of status codes with detailed explanations by Mr.
Abhishek Veeramalla (Thank you!):
iam-veeramalla/http-status-codes: Repo to demonstrate HTTP status codes

I have said that HTTP is a stateless protocol, means it never store any data of
client in server. Then suppose when you will search for the second
time amazon.com then it should be logged out from the server, and you have to log
in again for second time visit, but you don't. In second time, it's automatically
logged in, and you can see all of your saved carts 🛒 and all data. So how it is
possible?? Here, cookies come into the picture.

Cookies is a unique string stored as a file in your browser and

when you search for the second time the website you visited
previously, cookies which saved in your browser will send the
details through HTTP to the server and server will check it
and automatically logged you in.

2. SMTP/POP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Post Office Protocol):

SMTP is used in sending and receiving any email from senders SMTP server to
Receiver's SMTP server

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 POP is used to download any email from POP server

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

FTP is used to download, upload and transfer files from one host to another
host.

4. Secure shell (SSH):

Similar to Telnet. It’s used by system administrators to securely access to

access a computer over an insecure network.

5. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

Reliable and connection-oriented protocol.

Ensures data is delivered successfully with acknowledgements and

retransmission if needed.

Used for applications where data integrity is crucial.

Example: HTTP (port 80), SQL (port 1433).

TCP and the Three-Way Handshake:

Before transmitting packets, TCP must ensure that a stable connection has
been set up between the sender and the recipient. This is where the three-
way handshake (or SYN-SYN-ACK) comes in.

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 6. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

Unreliable and connectionless protocol.

No acknowledgements, no retransmission; faster but no guarantee of

delivery.

Used for applications needing speed over reliability.

Example: Video Streaming or DNS queries.

Find the link below for Common Ports and Protocols Cheat Sheet (Thanks to
Stationx):
Common Ports Cheat Sheet: The Ultimate List

Routing:
So how do we get a packet of information from a host on one network to a host
in another? In one word: Routing.

We use tables to help us determine the routes we want to take. This screenshot
demonstrates a typical route table in AWS:

When making a routing decision, more narrow rules are evaluated first:

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 If a packet destination is in a range of 10.21.0.0/16 – it will remain in a local
network (your neighborhood).

If a packet destination is in a range of 10.0.0.0/8 – it will be sent to the transit

gateway (TGW) interface (your state highways).

If a packet destination does not fall in any of these ranges, the widest one is
evaluated which is 0.0.0.0/0 which means it is internet traffic. And the
packet will be redirected to the Network Address Translation (NAT)
interface.

DNS (Domain Name System):

DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses (for example, 192.0.2.44).
Root DNS Server stores all the Top-level domain e.g : - .com, .in, .org, .io etc.

DNS works like the phonebook of the internet, allowing humans to use readable
names while machines use numerical addresses.

How DNS Works

When you type a website address (e.g., www.example.com ) into your browser, it
needs to know the IP address of that server.

The DNS process involves looking up the domain name and finding the
corresponding IP address through multiple DNS servers.

Example: Visiting a Website

1. User Request:

You type www.example.com into your web browser.

2. DNS Query:

Your browser sends a request to a DNS server to get the IP address of

www.example.com .

3. DNS Resolution:

The DNS server checks if it has the IP address cached. If not, it contacts
other DNS servers (root, TLD, and authoritative servers) to find the IP
address.

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 4. IP Address Found:

Once the IP address (e.g., 93.184.216.34) is found, the DNS server

sends it back to your browser.

5. Connecting to the Website:

The browser uses this IP address to connect to the web server, and the
website loads on your screen.

Domains, Zones, and Delegation:

1. Domains: Domains are like branches in a tree-like structure of the internet.
The root domain is the highest level, followed by top-level domains (TLDs)
like .com , .org , etc. Subdomains (e.g., example.com ) branch off from TLDs.

2. Zones: A zone is a portion of the domain that is managed by a specific

organization. For instance, .com is a zone controlled by Verisign. ICANN
manages the root zone at the top of the DNS tree, while different
organizations manage subdomains.

3. Delegation: Delegation allows one organization to hand over control of part

of its domain to another organization. This is done using Nameserver (NS)
records.

For example, ICANN controls the root domain and delegates .com to
Verisign.

Verisign can then delegate control over example.com to "Example Ltd" by

adding an NS record those points to their nameserver.

The NS records direct traffic to the appropriate nameserver that manages a

domain, allowing different parts of the DNS tree to be managed independently
by different organizations.

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 DNS record types:
DNS records, also known as zone files, provide information about a domain. This
includes the IP address that is associated with this domain and how to handle
queries for it. Each DNS record has a time-to-live setting (TTL) which indicates
how often a DNS server will refresh it.
Below are the most commonly used types of DNS records and their meaning:

Type Name Description

The most basic and the most commonly used

A Host address DNS record. It translates human-friendly domain
names into computer-friendly IP addresses.

Same as A but for IPv6 (a host address that can

AAAA IPv6 host address
have more than one IP address).

Maps a name to another name. It should only be

Canonical name for
CNAME used when there are no other records on that
an alias
name.

Maps a name to another name but can coexist

ALIAS Auto resolved alias
with other records on that name.

Specifies the e-mail server(s) responsible for a

MX Mail eXchange
domain name.

Identifies the DNS servers responsible for a

NS Name Server zone. One NS record for each DNS server in a
zone.

TXT Descriptive Text Holds general information about a domain name

such as who is hosting it, contact person, phone

Networking for DevOps 24

 numbers, etc. Widely used for domain ownership
verification.

DHCP
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network management
protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses and other network
configurations (such as subnet mask, gateway, DNS servers) to devices on a
network.

Example:

When you connect your laptop to a Wi-Fi network, a DHCP server assigns it
an IP address automatically, allowing it to communicate with other devices
on the network without manual configuration.

Network Components and Services

Routers and Switches
Routers: Connect different networks and direct data packets between them.

Switches: Connect devices within the same network and use MAC
addresses to forward data to the correct device.

Firewalls
Firewalls control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules.

Load Balancers
Load balancers distribute incoming network traffic across multiple servers to
ensure no single server becomes overwhelmed.

VPN
VPN (Virtual Private Network) provides a secure connection between remote
users and the corporate network over the internet.

Network Troubleshooting Tools:

1. ping

Networking for DevOps 25

 Purpose: Test internet network connections.

How It Works: Uses the ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to get an ICMP

ECHO_RESPONSE from a remote host.

Usage: For basic troubleshooting, you can run ping www.google.com to check
network connectivity and see response times and packet loss.

2. traceroute (or tracert on Windows)

Purpose: Track the route packets take to reach their destination.

How It Works: Sends UDP probes with increasing TTL values, showing each
router along the route and the delay in reaching it.

Usage: Helps find which gateway is causing a delay by showing response

times and where packets fail (indicated by ).

3. telnet
Purpose: Test network connections and protocols.

How It Works: Attempts to establish a connection to a specified IP and port.

Usage: Test if a specific service is reachable, e.g., telnet google.com 443 .

4. curl
Purpose: Transfer data using multiple protocols, often for HTTP requests.

Usage:

Basic GET request: curl http://example.com .

Check headers: curl -I http://example.com .

POST request: curl -X POST http://example.com .

Save response to file: curl http://example.com/file -o output.file .

5. dig (Domain Information Groper)

Purpose: Troubleshoot DNS problems and verify DNS records.

How It Works: Performs DNS lookups and displays information such as IP

addresses.

Usage: dig google.com to get information like IP addresses, TTL, and DNS
record types.

Networking for DevOps 26

 6. netstat
Purpose: Show network connections and port listening information.

Usage:

netstat -lp : List listening servers and their program names.

netstat -a : Show all active ports.

netstat -r : Show routing table.

7. nmap (Network Mapper)

Purpose: Discover hosts and services on a network.

How It Works: Sends raw packets to identify hosts, services, and operating
systems.

Usage:

Discover hosts: nmap -sn 172.31.44.35/20 .

Scan ports on a host: nmap -A 172.31.36.237 .

8. ssh (Secure Socket Shell)

Purpose: Securely connect to remote machines to execute commands.

Usage:

Connect to a server: ssh username@hostname .

Secure and encrypted, used for remote management and file transfers.

9. scp (Secure Copy Protocol)

Purpose: Securely copy files between local and remote hosts.

Usage:

Copy file to a remote server: scp localfile.txt

user@remote:/path/to/destination .

These tools are invaluable for network diagnostics, troubleshooting, and

secure communications, which are critical skills for any DevOps engineer.

Networking for DevOps 27