ASSIGNMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY

Name- Manish Kumar

Enrolment no-

CUSB2113125059 Section-

“A”

Topic- “Sociological theory of crime”

Introduction

This school offers a sociological explanation of crime. An attempt is made to establish

various social factors correlative of various types of crimes. The sociological school of
criminology focuses on the social and structural factors that contribute to crime and
criminal behaviour. It examines how social institutions, such as family, education, and the
economy, influence individuals’ behaviour and their
likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. The sociological approach is concerned with effects
of group patterns of behaviour, as well as the social status, the role the individual plays in the
society, and the
individual’s conceptions of it, and of various other types of social situations and
relationships. The sociological school focuses on how factors such as neighbourhood
characteristics, community cohesion, and social control can influence crime rates. The
sociological school emphasizes the
importance of social bonds, such as family, school, and community, in preventing crime. It
argues that individuals with strong social bonds are less likely to engage in criminal activities1.

Sutherland2 held the view that crime is basically a learned activity. It is only by association
with criminals that one learns the nature of crimes and its modus operandi. No one invents
crime it has to be learnt and its techniques mastered. This learning and training one receive
by associating with the group of criminals. According to D. R. Taft social disorganization is at
the root of all crimes. By disorganization it is meant that there is a breakdown of the
traditional social structure, rejection of old values and loosening of social
control upon human behaviour.

Modern criminology is unthinkable without the contributions of sociology and sociological

theory3.Criminology is considered a sub-discipline of sociology, a field that deals with studying
social structures and how they function. Criminology delves into human behaviour to discover
the drivers, thought processes, and motivations behind criminal acts, with the aim of
understanding and ultimately, preventing them. Crime is a violation of law for which formal
penalties are applied by some government authority or crime can also be seen as deviation
from formal social norms4 administered by the state. And sociological theory of crime suggests
how a person is a criminal and how his acts come in the preview of crime.

There are various theories of causation of crime like biological theories of crime, psychological
theories of crime, and sociological theories of crime. Above all the theories of causation of
crime sociological
theories of causation of crime were found suitable to understand the criminology or causation
of crime because as Émile Durkheim5 stated that crime is a learned behaviour and the criminal
behaviour of

1
Adv Hemant more, school of criminology, the legal quotient (September 29,
2023), https://thelegalquotient.com/criminal-laws/criminology/schools-of-
criminology/2731/
2
Edwin Hardin Sutherland an American sociologist is considered as one of the most influential
criminologists of the twentieth
3
7Mathieu Deflem, sociological theory crime, law and deviance page no-01
4
Norms means established standards of behaviour maintained by society.
5
David Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist. Durkheim formally established the
academic discipline of sociology and is commonly cited as one of the principal architects of
modern social science, along
with both Karl Marx and Max Weber.
humans is decided by the social surroundings and living conditions of the person both physical
and psychological. Society provides an environment for every children where they learn
about various things like what constitutes good?, and what constitutes bad. The value system
of children is highly
influenced by their surroundings and what type of norms prevail in society. Which constitutes
to form the value system of a child.

The legal approach to the causation of crime prescribes a course of conduct under which
violations of law are met with penal consequences. But the sociologists go a step further and
suggest that crime- causation to a large extent, depends on social interactions, and at times
persons violate the law
deliberately knowing it fully well that they are liable to face penal consequences for their
unlawful act. Many times the delinquents develop a peculiar habit of committing crimes
reason for which is to be found in the fact that either these people have seen their parents or
other members of the family or they are encouraged by their seniors to commit various
crimes. Hence, environmental factors such as family relationships may also at times
contribute to delinquent behaviour.

The sociological viewpoint about the concept of crime is more realistic than its legal definition.
The sociologists assert that every crime involves three essential elements, namely,

(i) Values that are appreciated by the law-makers who are politically dominant ;

(ii) Conflict of interests in society due to environmental variations; and

(iii) Use of force and coercive measures by the offenders.

Sociologists contend that like any other social behaviour criminal behaviour also results
from certain environmental conditions. Therefore, the variations in crime rate are due to
variations in the social
organization under different systems. Enumerating some of the specific factors, Prof
Sutherland suggests that variations in mobility, culture conflicts, family background,
ideologies, population density, employment and distribution of wealth, etc., have a close
bearing on crime causation. It may, however, be pointed out that the above list is not
exhaustive but only illustrative and these are some of the main
conditions which directly influence the crime rate.

Sociological Theory of Criminal Behaviour

This theory presupposes that criminals are a product of society. The impact of sociological
factors is so great on persons that they either shun criminality or embrace it, depending on
their environment and
immediate social conditions and social integration of all social organizations that must possess
some degree of integration. Although both the quality and quantity of integration may vary
from person to person among different kinds of social systems.

Durkheim approach to criminal behaviour.

Durkheim understanding of criminal behaviour is based on norms and values 6 of society.

According to Durkheim, norms are the unwritten rules that dictate what is acceptable or
unacceptable in a group/society. The norms and values of society can be traced from

1) Folkways- folkways are a type of social norm that refers to the customs and
conventions that guide everyday behaviour within a society. Folkways are often
described as unwritten rules or
conventions. They are socially accepted and passed down through generations,
becoming part of a society's social heritage
6
Values mean the highest belief of society, deeply held beliefs that guide individual and
collective behaviour in society.
 2) Mores- mores are the customs, norms, and behaviour that are acceptable to a
society or social group.
3) Laws- Norms that are formally inscribed by the state.

There are two theories of how social organizations made and achieved integration. These
integrations are normally labelled as normative integration and functional integration7.

1) The normative integration began with the assumption that a minimum number of
basic values that are shared by a population is the result of a common or similar
common heritage. In order to achieve these values more effectively the individual
evolves institutionalized normative structure and establishes various types of social
organizations. And the establishment of these social
organizations based on normative order.
2) Functional integration began with the assumption of minimum division
among labour, population, group, community, and other units.

The functionalist perspective on crime and deviance starts with society as a whole. It seeks to
explain crime by looking at the nature of society, rather than at individuals. Most functionalist
thinkers argue that crime contributes to social order and Durkheim views society as an
organization, with different parts functioning to ensure society's smooth and orderly operation
and evolution8.

Edwin Southerland Approach to Criminal Behaviour.

According to Southerland primitive societies are simple and there is very little division of
labour in such societies they are characterized by harmony solidarity and consensus over basic
values and beliefs. Such societies have little conflict over appropriate behaviour therefore they
have little number of crimes. But
with the evolution of society, the division of labour advanced. And there is the emergence of
a market economy and an increase in the conflict. Such societies become segmented into
groups that conflict over basic interests, values, and behaviour patterns. As regards the
historical or generic explanation of criminal behaviour, Sutherland drew the following
conclusions:

1)Criminal behaviour is learnt and not inherited.

2)The process of learning criminal behaviour operates through inter-action of the

criminal with other persons and his association with them.

3)The greatest influence on the individual is that of his intimate personal group which
moulds his conduct in many ways.

4)Criminality in human society can best be explained through Sutherland's principle of

Differential
Association which presupposes that there are criminal as well as noncriminal associations and
these two forces are constantly counteracting. The criminal behaviour results in when the
circumstances
favourable to violations of law outweigh those which are unfavourable to law-breaking9.

5)The association with regard to criminal behaviour and anti-criminal behaviour may vary in
respect of its duration, priority or intensity.

7
Functionalism is a framework in sociology that sees society as similar to a biological
organism, with
interrelated parts that have needs functions, and structures that ensure that these parts work
together to create a well-functioning society.
8
Charlott Nickerson, Emile Durkheim theory, simply psychology,
(February ,13,2024)
http://www.simplypsycholgy.org/emiledurkheims,theories.html
9
6 Sutherland and Cressey: The Principles of Criminology (6th Ed.) p.77.
6)Some criminologists have attempted to explain criminal behaviour in terms of
economic needs, acquisitive tendencies of men and urge for gaining social status and
seeking pleasure in life.

Multiple Factor Approach to Crime Causation

Criminologists have propounded different views to formulate a singular theoretical explanation

for
criminal behaviour, but no hypothesis could answer the issue satisfactorily. Eventually, the
sociologists made use of the 'multiple-factor approach' to explain the causation of crime. The
supporters of this view believe that crime is a product of a combination of a variety of factors
that cannot be narrated in terms of general propositions. American criminologist William
Healy, expressing his views on multiple causation theory, observed that it is not one or two
factors that turn a man delinquent, but it is a combination of many more factors that
cumulatively influence him to follow criminal conduct10.

From the foregoing analysis it is evident that sociologists consider crime as a product of
environmental deviations and varying social conditions. The inter-relation between criminality
and some of these
conditions may be discussed under the following heads

(1) Mobility: The surge in industrialization and urbanization has significantly

boosted communication and travel, and spread views widely through
media platforms. This
heightened connectivity, however, has also diluted intimate social bonds and
increased migration. When people relocate to unfamiliar places, they often find
greater opportunities for crime due to the reduced risk of being caught. This
mobility can lead to social
disorganization and deviant behavior, primarily due to weakened family control.
The impact of crime reports in newspapers further complicates this issue.
According to Barnes & Teeters, such reports can encourage crime and
delinquency in two ways. Firstly, they may attract individuals with unstable minds
and psychopaths to imitate these acts. Secondly, the persistent coverage of crime
can erode public trust in law and law enforcement agencies.
This dual influence highlights the need for addressing the underlying causes of
deviant behavior and reevaluating how crime news is disseminated to the public11.
That apart, the deviants learn new techniques of crime through crime news which
are published in newspapers or magazines.
(2) Culture Conflicts: Cultural conflicts often arise when individuals or groups with
differing cultural backgrounds and values come into contact, potentially
leading to
misunderstandings and tension. These clashes can stem from varying beliefs,
traditions, or social norms, and can create environments where individuals feel
alienated or marginalized. When people feel that their cultural identity is
threatened or undervalued, it can lead to frustration and resentment, sometimes
escalating to criminal behaviour. This is particularly evident in areas with
significant immigration or ethnic diversity, where integration challenges and socio-
economic disparities exacerbate tensions. Moreover, cultural conflicts can strain
community cohesion and social control mechanisms, weakening the ability of
communities to collectively enforce norms and deter deviant behaviour. In such
contexts, crime can
become a form of resistance or a means to cope with the perceived injustices and
inequalities. Addressing cultural conflicts involves promoting mutual
understanding, respect, and inclusive policies that recognize and value cultural
diversity. Nowadays, crimes such as female genital mutilation, forced marriages,
 and other behaviors grounded in

10
William Healy: “The Individual Development”, pp. 456-460
11
Barnes & Teeters: New Horizons of Criminology (3rd Ed.) p.186
 “culture or tradition” form the object of several international human rights
instruments and media reports12.
(3) Family Background: Sutherland holds that out of all the social processes, the family
background has perhaps the greatest influence on criminal behaviour of the
offender. Family background plays a pivotal role in shaping an individual's
propensity for criminal behaviour.
Various elements within a family environment can contribute to this. Firstly,
parental
influence is critical; children tend to emulate the behaviours and attitudes they
observe in their parents. If parents engage in or condone criminal activities,
children may come to view such behaviour as acceptable. Secondly, the economic
status of a family is also significant. Families experiencing financial hardship may
struggle to meet basic needs, pushing some members towards crime as a means
of survival. Additionally, experiences of abuse and neglect within the family can
have profound psychological impacts, often leading individuals to commit crimes
either as a form of coping or retaliation. Lastly, lack of supervision plays a crucial
role. When parental supervision is inconsistent or absent, children and
adolescents are left without proper guidance and discipline, making them more
vulnerable to negative
influences and criminal behaviour. To mitigate these risks, it's essential to
strengthen family support systems, provide economic assistance, and ensure
access to mental health resources. These measures can help address the
underlying issues that contribute to
criminal behaviour within a family context, fostering a more stable and supportive
environment.
(4) Political Ideology: Criminality evolves with changing political ideologies,
reshaping laws and social norms. What was illegal yesterday may become legal
today, influenced by legislative changes such as abortion liberalization,
prohibition laws, anti-dowry measures, and
protection against domestic violence. These shifts are justified by lawmakers as
beneficial for society, reflecting evolving cultural norms. For instance, live-in
relationships, once deemed immoral, are now socially accepted, with even the
Supreme Court deferring to
societal judgment. Additionally, political changes can introduce new offences, and
excessive political interference in government functions can demoralize
administrators and police,
potentially leading to increased crime rates.
(5) Religion and Crime: Religion and crime intersect in multifaceted ways,
influencing both the deterrence and facilitation of criminal behavior. On one
hand, religious teachings often emphasize moral conduct and adherence to
laws, promoting virtues like honesty,
compassion, and respect. These values can act as a deterrent to criminal activities,
guiding adherents towards law-abiding behavior. Many religious communities also
provide social support systems that can reduce the likelihood of individuals turning
to crime due to social isolation or economic hardship. However, the relationship
between religion and crime is not solely positive. Religious differences can lead to
conflicts, violence, and even terrorism.
History and contemporary events are replete with examples where religious discord
has escalated into criminal behavior, as seen in sectarian violence and religiously
motivated terrorism. When religious groups perceive themselves as oppressed or
marginalized, this can foster radicalization and criminal acts as a form of resistance
or revenge. Additionally, some
individuals manipulate religious doctrines to justify their criminal actions, claiming
divine endorsement for their behavior. This is particularly evident in cases of
 religious extremism,
where violent acts are committed under the guise of faith. Addressing these issues
requires a balanced approach that acknowledges both the positive and negative
influences of religion on crime. Promoting interfaith dialogue, fostering tolerance,
and implementing inclusive

12
Clara Rigoni, crime, diversity, culture, and cultural Défense, Oxford University Press (July ,30,
2018) https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.409
 policies are crucial steps in mitigating the potential for religion to incite criminal
behavior. Efforts to strengthen the social fabric and support systems within
religious communities can also help prevent crime by addressing the root causes of
deviant behavior. Ultimately, a nuanced understanding of how religious beliefs and
practices intersect with criminality is essential for fostering a more harmonious and
law-abiding society.
(6) Influence of Media: The media wields significant influence over public perceptions
of crime, shaping attitudes and behaviours in multifaceted ways. By reporting on
criminal activities, the media educates the public about potential dangers and
preventive measures, which can help deter crime through increased awareness.
However, media often sensationalizes crime stories to attract viewership, creating
a distorted perception of crime prevalence and nature.
This sensationalism can lead to heightened fear and anxiety within society,
fostering a climate of insecurity. Additionally, the glamorization of crime
through detailed and
dramatized reporting can make criminal behaviour seem enticing or heroic,
particularly to
impressionable individuals seeking recognition or excitement. Constant exposure
to violent crime reports can also desensitize the public, reducing the emotional
impact of such
incidents and potentially normalizing violence in society. This desensitization can
erode the social stigma associated with criminal behaviour, making it seem more
acceptable.
Furthermore, detailed coverage of specific crimes, including the methods used,
can inspire copycat behaviour among individuals who identify with the
perpetrators or seek to emulate their actions for notoriety. Media coverage also
plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion and influencing policy decisions.
Intense focus on certain types of crime can pressure
policymakers to enact tougher laws or allocate resources to specific areas,
sometimes neglecting broader systemic issues. While the media has the power to
educate and inform, it must balance this with responsible reporting to avoid
inadvertently encouraging criminal behaviour or fostering undue fear. Promoting
media literacy is essential in helping the public critically assess and interpret
crime-related news, reducing the risk of sensationalism and misinformation.
Ultimately, the media's portrayal of crime can have profound implications for
public perceptions, social behaviour, and policy, underscoring the need for careful,
balanced, and ethical journalism13.

Conclusion

Delinquent behaviour is an outcome of the combination of a variety of factors which

create situation conducive to crime. With the widening of social interaction due to the
impact of
industrialisation, urbanisation, modernisation and democratisation, there is greater
need for community control because law alone cannot repress the rising trend in
criminality in modern times. Crime must be understood on the basis of human
behaviour, and the social and emotional needs of the person
13
Aditi Anand & MS. Mohini Taneja , the influence of media on public perception of crime, IJFMR,
March- April 2024,at 4&5