Professional Education

COMPETENCIES:

1.1. Apply philosophical and sociological principles in teaching-learning situations

1.2. Apply foundation theories of special and inclusive education

LECTURE:
1. PHILOSOPHY
1.1 What is Philosophy?
Philosophy was born in ancient Greece, at the beginning of the 6th century BC Tales of Miletus is recognized as the first philosopher, despite that, it
was another philosopher, Pythagoras, who coined the term “philosophy”, a combination of the words ” philos ” (love) and ” sophia ” (knowledge),
which means “love of knowledge”.

FROM MYTHICAL CONSCIOUSNESS TO PHILOSOPHICAL CONSCIOUSNESS

Mythic consciousness in Greek mythology involved gods, Titans, and other beings, explaining Greek culture and universe. Ancient Greeks sought
better explanations, abandoning belief and focusing on argument, leading to a shift from mythic consciousness to rational thinking.

HISTORICAL CONDITIONS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHY

Often known as a “Greek miracle”, the emergence of philosophy did not depend on a miracle. It was a series of factors that led to the relativization of
thought, disbelief (demystification) and the search for better explanations about reality.

Among these factors are:

 TRADE, NAVIGATION AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY - Due to its construction and geographical location, Greek society has become an
important center of commerce and a maritime power.

 THE EMERGENCE OF ALPHABETICAL WRITING - Alphabetical writing, involving phonemes and words, required greater abstraction due to
its connection to phonemes, requiring the understanding that sounds can be coded and reproduced.

 THE EMERGENCE OF CURRENCY - The currency requires some degree of abstraction from its users. Trade based on direct exchanges
between products (example: chickens for wheat) requires very little imagination.

 THE INVENTION OF THE CALENDAR - Another important factor in demystifying reality is that of the calendar. Its use, it is noticed, the
regularity of some nature events, such as the seasons.

 THE RISE OF PUBLIC LIFE (POLITICS) - With the development of the polis , public life is intensified. More inhabitants share the same
(public) space and, with that, their attention turns to the organization of that space (activity typical of the polis , politics).

 THE RISE OF REASON - The Greek population began to need better explanations that were in line with their degree of abstraction and
demystification.

THE FIRST PHILOSOPHERS

The first philosophers, known as pre-Socratic philosophers, from the end of the 7th century a. C., dedicated themselves to the investigation on
the nature ( physis ). They sought to establish logical principles for the formation of the world. Demystified nature (without the aid of mythical
explanations) was the object of study. Being the main objective, find the primordial element ( arché ) that would have given rise to everything that
exists.

Anthropological Period and the Establishment of Philosophy

The Anthropological Period, marked by philosopher Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, marked the shift from nature-related questions to human activities.
Socrates, considered the "father of philosophy," developed the philosophical attitude and laid the foundation for Western thought. Plato's disciple,
Aristotle, popularized Greek thought and influenced Emperor Alexander the Great.
1.2 Branches of Philosophy
Philosophy comprises seven branches: Metaphysics, Axiology, Logic, Aesthetics, Epistemology, Ethics, and Political Philosophy. It is an academic
discipline that seeks truth and hidden realities, focusing on rigorous investigation and study to understand hidden realities
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What are the 7 Branches of Philosophy?

Experts created different branches of philosophy to simplify the process of studying complex concepts. This blog lists the seven major fields of
philosophy, leading to numerous discussions and discussions in the subject.

 AXIOLOGY - Axiology, a philosophical field, explores the nature and metaphysical dimensions of value, addressing issues related to nature
and what is truly valued.

 METAPHYSICS - Metaphysics in philosophy aims to understand the world's nature, encompassing ontology and cosmology, which focus on
understanding the universe's beginnings, development, and ultimate destiny.

 EPISTEMOLOGY - Epistemology, a key philosophy part, delves into the nature of knowledge, its absoluteness, human learning limitations,
and whether we exist in a simulated world.

 ETHICS - Ethics guide daily life, with definitions of right and wrong central to philosophical schools, causing disagreement among philosophers
due to their subjective interpretations.

 POLITICAL PILOSOPHY - Political philosophy combines philosophy and politics to study political systems, laws, liberty, justice, rights, and
authority, examining the necessity of governments, their functions, and their composition.

 AESTHETICS - Aesthetic philosophy explores beauty's objective and subjective nature, personal preferences, and art, often discussed in
classrooms and performing arts like music.

 LOGIC - Philosophy is crucial in logic, constructing premises for conclusion. Aristotle coined the term "syllogism" to describe this reasoning,
often used in casual conversations.

1.3 What is Philosophy in Education?

A subfield of philosophy known as "education philosophy" examines the nature and objectives of education from both a theoretical and practical
standpoint. It is a subfield of philosophy that is applied or practical and is devoted to examining the purposes, forms, principles, and meaning of
education.

The philosophy of education encompasses a number of topics, but they all generally belong to one of three philosophical traditions or camps:
a) student-focused ideologies.
b) teacher-focused ideologies.
c) philosophies centered on society.

 ESSENTIALISM - Essentialism in education is a conventional method that prioritizes fundamental knowledge and skills for young children, such
as reading, writing, and math, through teacher-student transmission.

 PERENNIALISM - Educational perennialism emphasizes students acquiring significant, relevant knowledge and skills, prioritizing personal
growth over facts, and focusing on principles over necessary skills.
 PROGRESSIVISM - Protractivism, also known as educational progressivism, emphasizes experiential learning, lifelong learning, community
service, and social responsibility, contrasting essentialism with a focus on social skills and critical thinking.

 SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM - Social reconstructionism in education aims to teach children to tackle social issues like racism, poverty,
violence, and climate change, promoting problem-solving skills and social justice awareness.

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 EXISTENSIALSIM - Existentialism in education encourages students to take charge of their education, focusing on subjects that help them
develop their sense of self, character, beliefs, and understanding of life's meaning and purpose.

 POSITIVISM - The teacher-centered philosophy of educational positivism holds that knowledge is the only thing that truly exists and that
students can acquire this knowledge by using effective, teacher-led teaching strategies.

 CONSTRUCTIVISM - Constructivism in education rejects the idea that students just absorb information passively. Rather, it says that
knowledge and skills are built by students through their experiences as well as the information they take in and process.

 BEHAVIOURISM - Educational behaviorism, or behavioral learning theory, suggests that behavior is learned through interactions with the
environment, and pedagogy relies on reinforcement and continuous feedback.

 CONSERVATISM - Educational conservatism is based on traditional teaching strategies, encouraging learners to integrate into established
culture and incorporating religious education.

 HUMANISM - Educational humanism is a student-centered philosophy influenced by social reconstructionism and existentialism, encouraging
students to take charge of their education, focusing on subjects that utilize all senses.

 PRAGMATISM - According to educational pragmatism, students should be taught skills and knowledge that are applicable to their daily lives.
Pragmatists also think that learning should help pupils become better individuals.

1.4 What is education?

Education is a crucial human development process that involves skills creation, training, and knowledge transmission, shaping social behavior and
mental health, and preserving culture, customs, traditions, and laws.

ETYMOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Education, derived from Latin as educatio, refers to the process of exposing an individual to the outside world and supporting their intellectual and
cultural growth. Ancient education was influenced by military principles, with trivium covering rhetoric, grammar, and dialectic, and quadrivium
covering music, astronomy, arithmetic, and geometry.

1.5 Philosophical Theory

A philosophical theory or philosophical position is a view that attempts to explain or account for a particular problem in philosophy.[citation
needed] The use of the term "theory" is a statement of colloquial English and not a technical term. While any sort of thesis or opinion may be termed
a position, in analytic philosophy it is thought best to reserve the word "theory" for systematic, comprehensive attempts to solve problems.

Pythagoras’ Theory
Pythagoras theorem states that “In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse side is equal to the sum of squares of the other two
sides“. The sides of this triangle have been named Perpendicular, Base and Hypotenuse. Here, the hypotenuse is the longest side, as it is opposite
to the angle 90°. The sides of a right triangle (say a, b and c) which have positive integer values, when squared, are put into an equation, also called
a Pythagorean triple.

Pythagoras Theorem Formula

Consider the triangle given above:
Where “a” is the perpendicular,
“b” is the base,
“c” is the hypotenuse.
According to the definition, the Pythagoras Theorem formula is given as:

Hypotenuse2 = Perpendicular2 + Base2

c2 = a2 + b2

The side opposite to the right angle (90°) is the longest side (known as Hypotenuse) because the side opposite to the greatest angle is the
longest.

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A. EPICUREANISM AND ITS CORELIGIONISTS

Epicurus of Samoshis, a 4th century B.C. philosopher, believed in happiness through pleasure and identified three types of ataraxia. He argued that
God does not exist, as bad things continue to happen.

B. SCHOLASTIC THEORY OF ANSELM OF CENTERBURY

Scholasticism, a philosophical theory influenced by Greek-Latin, Arab, and Jewish influences, emphasizes the subordination of reason to faith and
the coordination between the two.

C. THE RATIONALIST THEORY OF RENE DECARTES

René Descartes' famous phrase, "Cogito ergo sum," represents rationalism, a philosophical theory asserting reason as the sole source of truth,
influenced by childhood health issues and methodical doubt in Europe.

D. TWO TYPES OF IDEALISM

Descartes, Berkeley, Kant, Fichte, Leibniz, and Hegel were key figures in idealism, a philosophical theory that views the world and life as perfect
models of harmony, focusing on irrational, traditional, and sentimental values.

E. NIETZSCHE’S THEORY OF NIHILISM

Nietzsche critiques 19th-century nihilism in "God is dead," highlighting the devaluation of values. Despite criticism, he defends himself by using
diverse perspectives to challenge readers to consider multiple aspects.

F. LAO’S THEORY OF TAO

Tsa Lao Tzu, a contemporary of Buddha, Pythagoras, and Confucius, is known for his concept of Tao, a composite of two ideograms: head and
marching. His meaning varies depending on context and can be found in philosophical, cosmological, religious, or moral terms. Tao is based on
dynamism and duality.

2. SOCIOLOGY
2.1 What is Sociology?
Sociology studies human societies, interactions, and processes, including institutions, communities, populations, gender, racial, and age
groups, and overlaps with other social sciences like economics, politics, psychology, geography, education, and law.

ISIDORE MARIE AUGUSTE FRANCOIS XAVIER COMTE

Auguste Comte, the "father of sociology," introduced the term in 1838 to study society's progress through religious, metaphysical, and scientific
stages. Sociology consists of dynamics and statics, with no single definition encompassing various aspects of society.

Definitions of Sociology by Famous Sociologists:

 Auguste Comte defines sociology as “a science of social phenomena, subject to natural invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of
investigation”.

 Emile Durkheim defines sociology as “the science of social institutions”.

 Max Weber defines sociology as “the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social actions”.

 HM Johnson defines it as “the science that deals with social groups, their internal forms or model of organization, the processes that tend to
maintain or change these forms of organization and relations between groups”.

 Kimbal and Young, it is “the science that deals with behavior of men in group”.

 Mac Iver defines sociology as “the science that seeks to discover the principles of cohesion and of order within social structure”.

 Kingsley Davis says that “sociology is a general science of society”.

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 Ogburn and Nimkoff defines it as “the scientific study of social life”.

 Henry Fairchild “it is the study of man and his environment”.

 Moris Ginsberg defines sociology as “the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences”.

2.2 History of Sociology

Sociological reasoning has roots in universal knowledge and philosophy, dating back to ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
The discipline's foundation can be traced back to the Domesday Book in 1086, and ancient philosophers like Confucius highlighted the importance of
social roles.

 Auguste Comte (1798-1857) - Comte's sociology contributions in the late 19th century significantly influenced French sociologists like
Durkheim, who viewed sociology as a distinct science, despite Durkheim's criticism.

 Karl Max (1888-1883) - Comte and Marx aimed to create scientifically justified systems in response to industrialization and secularization, with
Marx being recognized as the founder of sociology.

 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) - Herbert Spencer, a 19th-century sociologist, influenced Émile Durkheim's Division of Labour in Society,
advocating for laissez-faire government and promoting "survival of the fittest."

2.3 What is Sociology in Education?

Sociology in Education is a scientific study of social processes in education, focusing on public institutions, individual experiences, and
outcomes. It examines ideologies, curricula, and pedagogical techniques, as well as teacher-student relationships and sociological issues.

Value of the Sociology in Education

 Stress on Professional or vocational Education: The sociological tendency emphasizes the importance of enabling children to earn their
livelihood through professional education.
 Opposition to Individualism: The sociological tendency was born out of reaction to individualism. It stresses the importance of society as
against the individual.

 Social Progress as the aim of Education: Sociological tendencies suggest that education should focus on social welfare, ensuring children
are trained through both free and compulsory education to become responsible members of society.

 Faith in Democracy: In democracy, education is based on the cooperation between the state and society, and besides the success of
democracy depends upon the education it’s members.

 Classification of Social problems: Sociological tendencies classify social problems and propose solutions through education, which can lead
to social reforms and create a new generation free from defects from the older generation.

 Raising the Standard of Social life: The sociological aim of education is to raise the standard of social life by achieving the child’s
comprehensive development.

 Importance to Social life in the School: Educational sociology is the application of sociological principles in. It is now suggested that
authorities should encourage the formation of committees which train the child for later social life.

 Education as an agency of social progress: According to sociologists education is the best means of social control, social change and thus
finally of social progress.

Education and Kinship

Both educational and kinship are important institutions of socialization in a society. In the kinship system the most important role towards socialization
is performed by parental family. Family is an enduring association of parents and children. It's main functions are:
 Socialization of the child
 Socialization agency for the education and protection of the race.
 Child acquires important qualities like sincerity, sympathy, self-submission and consciousness of responsibilities from family.
 It is the character developed in the family which helps the child in becoming an important responsible member of society.
 It gets an opportunity to the child for free expression of thoughts and development of his entire personality.
 The tendencies and habits which he acquires in the family.

The School a social System

School significantly influences a child's personality and socialization, with teachers serving as models and determining societal status. Discipline can
restrict mental growth and lead to criminal activity.

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Education and Social Stratification

Social stratification governs the type of education which a particular individual will be able to secure. This is clear from the influence of castes,
religious groups and classes upon education in India.
 Influence of castes: The caste which determines the individual’s status and position in the social hierarchy.

 Impact of religious groups: India is home to diverse religious groups like Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and Buddhists, who establish schools
teaching general religions and incorporating specific religious principles into education.

 Impact of Classes:Social class significantly influences a child's perception of their social class, fostering a growing awareness of their
background and intensifying feelings of difference.

Interaction with I Educational System

The most important area in the scope of sociology in education is interaction within the educational system. The deeper analysis of the interactions
within the educational system will give a better insight in the scope of sociology of education.

 Teacher Administrator Relationship: The administrator, acting as an employer, leader, supervisor, and guide for teachers, significantly
influences teaching methods, and a good relationship between administrators and teachers promotes efficiency and interest.

 Teacher-teacher relationship: Teacher relationships can be fraternal or rivalry-based, fostering cooperation and team spirit, but can also lead
to mudslinging, favoritism, and factionism, even in small institutions.

 Student - student interaction: Educational sociologists analyze student interaction, focusing on age, sex, classes, study habits, and extra-
curricular activities, to understand cohesiveness, divisive forces, social change, and control factors.
 Teacher - taught relationship:The teacher-taught relationship has evolved from formalistic to contractual, with rules, syllabi, and schedules
governed by experts or government bodies, age, status, knowledge, and societal image.

2.3 Sociological Theory

Sociology theories have significantly shaped our understanding of societies, relationships, and social behavior. Studying these theories, which can be
widely accepted or rejected, provides a deeper understanding of sociology's past, present, and future, enabling students to gain a deeper
understanding of society, relationships, and social behavior.

I. Symbolic Interaction Theory

Symbolic interactionism theory assumes that people respond to elements of their environments according to the subjective meanings they attach to
those elements, such as meanings being created and modified through social interaction involving symbolic communication with other people
Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological framework that explains how societies are formed and maintained through individuals' repeated actions.

 George Herbert Mead (1934) argued that people develop their self-image through interactions with others, focusing on language and talk

 Charles Horton Cooley (1902) used the term "looking-glass self" to describe how a person's self-concept is largely determined by the
reactions of others around them. Sociologists began to adopt Mead's idea in the 1960s, focusing on how individuals respond to others'
opinions and internalize their own feelings.

 Blumer’s Chicago School of Symbolic Interactionism - Blumer's "Symbolic Interactionism" theory emphasizes self-emergence through
mindful action, arguing that studying human behavior begins with understanding how people associate and interact with each other.

 Iowa School of Symbolic Interactionism - Blumer's logical and empirical methods influenced rigorous behavior studies, with Kuhn and
Stryker focusing on self and social structure, identifying abstract laws applicable to university students.

 Indiana School of Symbolic Interactionism - Stryker, from the Indiana School of Symbolic Interactionism, posits that social structures are
formed through individuals' meanings and role-taking, regulated by social situations.

II. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory, rooted in Karl Marx's work, posits that social order is maintained through domination, with power held by those with the most
resources.
 Conflict theories emphasize looking at the history and events in a society in terms of structural power divisions, such as social class.

 Karl Marx, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons, and Ralf Dahrendorf are prominent sociologists who have developed theories on conflict's causes,
normalcy, and societal impact.

 Marxism, a structural conflict approach, asserts that society is a struggle between classes, with the Bourgeoisie oppressing the Proletariat
through various social institutions without their knowledge.

 Crouch (2001) categorizes conflict theories into momentous vs. mundane and exceptional vs. endemic, reflecting the extent to which theorists
believe conflict is pathological in a society.
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 Conflict theory is utilized by sociologists to enhance discussions on historical events, individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures, and gender
discrimination in the workplace.

III. Functionalist Theory

The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works
of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how social order is possible and how society remains relatively stable.
 The functionalism perspective, influenced by American sociology from the 1930s to the 1960s, has its roots in the work of French sociologist
Emile Durkheim.

 Functionalism is a structural theory that suggests that social institutions and organization within society significantly influence the functioning of
society and individual behaviors.

 Talcott Parsons developed a "grand" sociology theory, extending Durkheim's concept of society as a moral regulator, aiming to explain all
human behavior in relation to institutions.

 Parsons and Durkheim suggest that societies evolve, with formalized structures like families and education serving larger communities, leading
to increased interdependence.

 Functionalist theories, revised by American Sociologists in the 1970s, argue that social problems are beneficial to society rather than a
symptom of societal flaws.

IV. Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of
using that knowledge to better women's lives. Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways
women have contributed to society.

The ancient world

Roman women protested against expensive goods laws in 3rd century BCE, leading to feminist philosopher Christine de Pisan advocating female
education and Jane Anger's Her Protection for Women in England.

Influence of the Enlightenment

The Renaissance's feminist voices did not form a cohesive philosophy until the Enlightenment, when women demanded equal rights and freedom for
both sexes. Playwrights like Olympia de Gouges and Mary Wollstonecraft criticized the lack of inclusivity in reformist rhetoric. Wollstonecraft
proposed equal opportunities for women in education, work, and politics, arguing that women were as rational as men. Louise Otto, a German
feminist, built on Charles Fourier's work and published a daily newspaper, La Voix des femmes, in 1848.

V. Critical Theory
Critical Theory is a type of theory that aims to critique society, social structures, and systems of power, and to foster egalitarian social change.
 Critical theories aim to change and critique society as a whole by finding the underlying assumptions in social life that prevent people from
participating in a “true democracy.”
 Critical Theory developed in the Frankfurt school from scholars such as Horkheimer and Adorno with an emphasis on examining and
deconstructing fascism and mass media.
 Habermas reaffirmed Critical Theory's tradition by arguing that political and economic institutions have encroached on public life, resulting in a
lack of nuanced discourse and hindering genuine democracy.
 Critical Theory morphed into critical legal theory in the latter 20th century, which eventually gave rise to branches such as critical race and
critical gender theory.

VI. Labeling Theory

Labeling theory suggests powerful individuals and the state create crime by labeling inappropriate behaviors, with deviance functionally defining
boundaries and stigmatizing offenders, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies.

VII. Link’s modified labeling theory

Link's modified labeling theory in 1989 expanded the original framework to include a five-stage process for mental illness labeling. This includes the
belief that mental patients will be devalued, the time treatment agencies label them, the patient's response to labeling, the negative consequences,
and the final stage of vulnerability.

VIII. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the development of the self. It looks at the individual learning
process, the formation of self, and the influence of society in socializing individuals. Social learning theory is commonly used by sociologists to
explain deviance and crime.
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:
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 Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

 Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Mediational Processes
Observational learning requires cognitive processes, which mediate the learning process, determining whether a new response is acquired.
This mediational process occurs between observing behavior and imitating it.

Four mediational processes proposed by Bandura (1969, 1971, 1977).

 Attention- Attentional processes are crucial because mere exposure to a model doesn’t ensure that observers will pay attention (Bandura,
1972).

 Retention- Bandura highlighted the retention process in imitation, where individuals symbolically store a model’s behavior in their minds.

 Motor Reproduction- Motor reproduction processes use internal symbolic images of observed behaviors to guide actions (Bandura, 1972).
An observer internally replicates a behavior using these symbols as a reference, even if it’s not externally shown (Manz & Sims, 1981).

 Motivation- Lastly, motivational and reinforcement processes refer to the perceived favorable or unfavorable consequences of mimicking the
model’s actions that are likely to increase or decrease the likelihood of imitation.

IX. Structural Strain Theory

Robert K. Merton's strain theory suggests that societies are composed of culture and social structure, with values, beliefs, goals, and identities
developed in the cultural realm. Merton found that people from lower socioeconomic classes are more likely to commit crimes involving acquisition,
as they lack the means to achieve culturally valued goals. This suggests that the cultural value of economic success can lead to deviant behavior.

Five Responses to Strain

Merton identified five societal responses to strain: innovation, conformity, ritualalism, retreatism, and rebellion. Innovation involves pursuing culturally
valued goals, ritualalism sets realistic goals, and retreatism rejects societal goals, retreating from achieving them.

X. Rational Choice Theory

Adam Smith, the father of rational choice theory, introduced the concept of an "invisible hand" in free-market economies, a fundamental element of
game theory, analyzing individuals' interactions and preferences over outcomes.

Pros of Rational Choice Theory

 Helpful in explaining individual and collective behaviors
 All theories attempt to give meaning to the things we observe in the world.
 Can help to explain behavior that seems irrational

Cons of Rational Choice Theory

 Individuals do not always make rational decisions.
 In reality, people are often moved by external factors that are not rational, such as emotions.
 Individuals do not have perfect access to the information they would need to make the most rational decision every time.
 People value some dollars more than others.

XI. Game Theory

Game theory is a social interaction theory that explains human interaction as a game, focusing on strategic actions of players in situations with set
rules and outcomes, helping determine the most likely outcomes.

Useful Terms in Game Theory

Here are a few terms commonly used in the study of game theory:
 Game: Any set of circumstances that has a result dependent on the actions of two or more decision-makers (players).
 Players: A strategic decision-maker within the context of the game.
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 Strategy: A complete plan of action a player will take given the set of circumstances that might arise within the game.
 Payoff: The payout a player receives from arriving at a particular outcome. The payout can be in any quantifiable form, from dollars to utility.
 Information set: The information available at a given point in the game. The term information set is most usually applied when the game has a
sequential component.
 Equilibrium: The point in a game where both players have made their decisions and an outcome is reached.

Types of Game Theories

 Cooperative vs. Non-Cooperative Games
Cooperative game theory examines how coalitions interact and allocate payoffs, focusing on groups rather than individuals. Non-cooperative
game theory examines how rational economic agents achieve goals, with strategic games being the most common, such as rock-paper-
scissors.

 Zero-Sum vs. Non-Zero Sum Games

A zero-sum game occurs when multiple parties compete for the same outcome, with each winner losing. This is common in sports and
business partnerships. Non-zero-sum games allow all participants to win or lose simultaneously, promoting mutual benefit and value.

 Simultaneous Move vs. Sequential Move Games

Game theory often involves simultaneous decision-making, where companies are simultaneously developing marketing, product development,
and operational plans, requiring continuous collaboration with their opponents.

 One Shot vs. Repeated Games

Game theory can begin and end in a single instance. Like much of life, the underlying competition starts, progresses, ends, and cannot be
redone. This is often the case with equity traders, who must wisely choose their entry point and exit point as their decision may not easily be
undone or retried.

XII. Sociobiology Theory

Sociobiology, an evolutionary theory, posits that certain behaviors are inherited and influenced by natural selection, contrasting with evolutionary
psychology which focuses on mental mechanisms. It suggests that social phenomena can be understood through testing hypotheses.

XIII. Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory interprets society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments. According to this view,
our interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive from others, and all human relationships are formed by the use of
subjective cost-benefit analysis.

XIV. Chaos Theory

Chaos theory, a field of study in mathematics, is applied in social sciences to study complex nonlinear systems of social complexity. It describes the
point at which stability moves to instability or order moves to disorder. Chaotic systems are sensitive to initial conditions, with changes in initial
conditions affecting outcomes, as seen in the 'butterfly effect' and meteorologist Edward Lorenz's work.

XV. Disengagement Theory

 Disengagement theory is a now-discredited theory of aging that posits that successful aging involves voluntary disengagement from the social
roles of active adult life. This disengagement was seen as functional and beneficial for society.

 Disengagement theory is influential in that it was the first comprehensive sociological theory of aging. The theory is also notable for the
controversy it generated, spurring decades of research into the sociology of aging.

 Disengagement theory consists of several postulates that describe how older adults are freed from social norms, disengage in response to
their impending death, experience ego change, and disengage regardless of their place in time and space.

 Most of the postulates of disengagement theory have been disproven by empirical evidence.

 Cummings and Henry's Kansas City aging study supports the Activity Theory of Aging, suggesting that engaging in activities and social
interactions can slow and improve aging in older adults.

Cummings and Henry created several postulates that comprise their disengagement theory. They are (Cummings and Henry, 1961):
 People lose social ties to those around them as they approach death, and their ability to engage with others decreases over time.

 As a person begins to disengage, they are freed from the social norms that guide interaction. This losing touch with norms reinforces and
fields the process of disengagement.

 Disengagement processes differ between men and women in America, with men playing a central instrumental role and women a
socioemotional one, according to Cummings and Henry.

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 Aging and age-grading in modern society require individuals to adapt their knowledge and skills to maintain success, either by
disengaging or being forced to do so.

 Disengagement occurs when both individuals and society are ready, while disjunction occurs when both are ready, leading to a
disconnect between individual expectations and social system members.

 Men's primary role is work, while women's are marriage and family. Abandoning these roles can lead to social demoralization and crisis
unless individuals assume different roles.

 Individuals disengage from society due to the shortness of life, ego energy loss, occupational system requirements, nuclear families, and
differential death rate, affecting all levels of society.

 Fewer interactions and disengagement from central roles alter relationships in remaining roles, leading to more diverse relational rewards
and equal treatment of disengaged individuals.

 Although disengagement theory is independent of culture, the form it takes is bound by culture.

3.SPECIAL EDUCATION
3.1 What is Special Education?
Special education caters to students with disabilities, focusing on learning in the least restrictive environment. Services vary, with some students
attending general education or specialized schools. IEPs provide individualized teaching and resources.

3.2 What to Know About Autism, ADHD and Gifted Children

The mind is a complex, living, and changing phenomenon, with some gifted or challenged individuals. Gifted children diagnosed with ADHD or
Autism, often referred to as "twice blessed," face challenges in understanding, treating, and supporting them as they grow and mature into adulthood.

3.3 The Paradox in School

Gifted children with special needs often struggle in school environments due to high expectations and challenges. Their disability often disguises their
giftedness, making it difficult for parents to identify and support them in schools. Parents must choose schools that can accommodate and support
these children.

3.4 What Classifies a Child as Gifted?

Gifted children demonstrate high intellectual ability and are classified through gifted tests and assessments. The criteria for giftedness depend on
state and school district. Achievement tests like ACT and Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement are used to gauge academic abilities.
Professional assessments, such as IQ tests, are more comprehensive and cost-effective in identifying a child's strengths and educational needs.

What is the IQ of a Gifted Child?

The majority of the population will fall within an IQ of 85 – 115. The mean, or average, IQ is 100.

A gifted child’s IQ will fall within these ranges:

 Mildly gifted: 115 to 130
 Moderately gifted: 130 to 145
 Highly gifted: 145 to 160
 Profoundly gifted: 160 or higher

Gifted IQ ranges are based on a standard bell curve, but test ceilings and terms like "exceptionally" gifted may vary. Students with IQs below
100 need special educational accommodations.

Giftedness and Autism

Autism Syndrome Disorder (ASD) is a communication dysfunction, social interaction, and repetitive behavior disorder, often linked to intellectual
disability and motor coordination issues, with gifted children scoring higher.

3.5 Different types of Learning Disabilities

Hidden disabilities in children often misunderstand as intellectual discrepancies between estimated potential and actual school performance, affecting
various aspects of their learning ability.

Some common examples are:

 Dyslexia - Dyslexia, a Greek word meaning "impaired," is a neurological language-based difficulty affecting fluency and accuracy in reading,
potentially caused by genetic predisposition, affecting students of all intellectual abilities.

Some of the common features for people with dyslexia may include difficulties with:
Learning letters and their corresponding sounds Reading quickly enough to comprehend
Organizing spoken and written language Keeping up with and following longer assignments.
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 Dyscalculia -Dyscalculia is a learning disability affecting understanding numbers, math facts, arithmetic, symbol comprehension, memory,
time telling, and counting. It's determined by the level of difficulty and how students cope with different teaching methods.
Signs of Dyscalculia
In lower primary, signs can include: In mid to upper primary school, signs can In secondary school, signs can include:
include:
difficulties organizing objects and sets of items good counting but poor calculation skills difficulties learning maths concepts
logically
difficulties recognizing printed numbers difficulties with measurement difficulties with mental maths
poor counting skills difficulties remembering common maths facts difficulties finding more than one way to solve a
maths problem
difficulties remembering maths facts. anxiety and a negative attitude towards maths. a poor perception of time and difficulties
following a schedule.

 Dysgraphia - a childhood learning disability, affects handwriting and fine motor skills, causing academic difficulties and illegible handwriting. It
also includes spelling disorders and dyslexia, affecting spatial and spatial abilities.

Signs of Dysgraphia
In lower primary, signs can include: In mid to upper primary school, signs can In secondary school, signs can include:
include:
good reading but poor writing skills writing is slow and hard work hard-to-read handwriting
awkward pencil grip finding the process of writing difficult and tiring slower handwriting than their peers
avoiding writing, drawing, or coloring tasks immature handwriting finding it hard to put thoughts into written words
immature drawing and coloring poor sentence and paragraph structure. an obvious gap between oral and written
language skills.
poorly formed letters
poor spacing and sizing of letters and words in
handwriting.

 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - ADHD is a neurodevelopmental condition. It affects parts of the brain that control attention,
impulses and concentration. In most cases, ADHD is a lifelong condition.
Signs of ADHD can include:
difficulties focusing on or getting started on acting without thinking things through difficulties managing emotions such as
individual tasks frustration and boredom.
being easily distracted losing or misplacing things difficulties planning and organizing

 Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) - Children with developmental disabilities (DCD) often struggle with motor skills and academic
achievement, resulting from genetics, environment, and other developmental disorders. Interventions aim to improve functioning, but typically
do not outgrow the condition, affecting daily tasks and tasks.
Signs of DCD
Students with DCD struggle with handwriting, becomes tired quickly, this may cause poor has difficulty getting changed for sport or
producing less output and deteriorating writing posture swimming activities, or difficulty putting a jacket
quality when trying to write fast or take longer on to play outside
to write well.
has difficulty moving around without bumping avoids tasks they find difficult, such as writing
into other people or objects

 Developmental language disorder (DLD) - DLD, or specific language disorder, is a condition characterized by persistent language issues in
students, affecting social interactions, emotional wellbeing, behavioral regulation, and educational progress.

Problems can occur in different modalities of language:

spoken written signed

 Auditory processing disorder - Parents may suggest their child has an APD diagnosis, which affects the brain's ability to filter and interpret
sounds, typically in school-aged children with normal hearing abilities.
Students with APD may display the following signs:
delayed language development Trouble differentiating between difficulty following instructions
similar sounds
poor ability to listen effectively short attention span poor memory for oral information

6 Types of Giftedness
1) The Successful (Type 1) - Gifted students, accounting for 90% of identified gifted students, are well-adjusted, high-achieving, and obedient.
They are loved by parents and teachers but can become bored, dependent on the system, and lack creativity and autonomy.
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2) The Challenging (Type 2) -Gifted students, with high creativity, often face conflicts with teachers and parents, frustration due to the school
system's lack of recognition, disruptive behavior, and negative self-concepts, which can lead to dropping out for unhealthy activities.

3) The Underground (Type 3) - Gifted students, often females, deny their talents or hide their giftedness to feel included in non-gifted peer
groups, often experiencing insecurity and anxiety due to changing belonging needs.

4) The Dropouts (Type 4) - Gifted are students with long-standing needs, feelings of rejection, and low self-esteem. Counseling is highly
recommended for these angry, frustrated, and resentful students.

5) The Double Labeled (Type 5) - Type 5 students, often overlooked due to their perceived averageness, exhibit stress, frustration, rejection,
helplessness, and low self-esteem, often focusing on their weaknesses rather than their strengths.

6) The Autonomous Learners (Type 6) - Individuals who effectively work within the school system, demonstrating high self-concept, leadership
capacity, and acceptance, are successful, likeable, and able to express their feelings and needs freely.

3.6 History of Special Education

Special education began in the 18th century, with pioneers like Rousseau, L'Epeé, and Haüy establishing schools for disabled individuals. In the 19th
century, Gallaudet and Howe established schools for deaf, blind, and idiotic children. In the 20th century, progress was made with laws like the
intelligence scale.

4. INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
4.1 What is Inclusive Education?
Inclusive education promotes diverse learning experiences by designing schools, classrooms, and programs to accommodate all students, reducing
barriers and fostering a common learning environment.

Effective common learning environments:

 Enable each student to fully participate in the learning environment that is designed for all students and is shared with peers in the chosen
educational setting;
 Provide a positive climate, promote a sense of belonging and ensure student progress toward appropriate personal, social, emotional and
academic goals;
 Are responsive to individual learning needs by providing sufficient levels of support and applying student-centred teaching practices and
principles; and
 Common learning environment: an inclusive environment where instruction is designed to be delivered to students of mixed ability and with
their peer group in the community school, while being responsive to their individual needs as a learner, and used for the majority of the
students’ regular instruction hours.

UNICEF’s work to promote inclusive education

To close the education gap for children with disabilities, UNICEF supports government efforts to foster and monitor inclusive education systems.

UNICEF’s work focuses on four key areas:

 Advocacy: UNICEF promotes inclusive education in discussions, high-level events and other forms of outreach geared towards policymakers
and the general public.

 Awareness-raising: UNICEF shines a spotlight on the needs of children with disabilities by conducting research and hosting roundtables,
workshops, and other events for government partners.

 Capacity-building: UNICEF builds the capacity of education systems in partner countries by training teachers, administrators, and
communities, and providing technical assistance to Governments.

 Implementation support: UNICEF assists with monitoring and evaluation in partner countries to close the implementation gap between policy
and practice.

Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming involves integrating students with disabilities into general education classrooms, either with nondisabled peers or with special
educators, but critics argue it requires addressing a child's limitations.

Inclusion
Inclusion in general education involves systemic reform and individualized instruction for students with disabilities, promoting cognitive and social
development through collaboration between special and general educators.

What is People-First Language?

People-first language promotes respect and dignity for people with disabilities, eliminating stereotypes and prejudices. It encourages understanding
mistakes and behavior change to create a respectful environment.
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4.2 History of Inclusive Education

Inclusive education is a concept aiming for equal opportunities for all students, regardless of ability or race. It's influenced by cultural and historical
constructions of disabilities and national policies. Educators need institutional contexts and school leaders to understand its complexities. It
transcends categorization and can bridge the structural boundaries.

The correct answer is C. Because Max Weber defines the sociology “as the science which attempts the interpretative
understanding of social actions”. Emile Durkeim defines sociology as “the science of social institutions”, Auguste defines it as
“ a science of social phenomena” and Kingsley defines it as “ sociology is a general science of society”

The correct answer is C. Because Raising the standard of social life that the sociological aim of education is to raise the
standard of social life by achieving the child’s comprehensive development. Education must train the individual to fulfill his
social responsibilities. Classification of Social Progress classifies social problems and suggest ways of solving it through education,
Education is an agency of social progress is about social change and social control and the Social progess as the aim of education
that the social welfare is the aim ascribed to education by the sociological tendency.

PRACTICE TEST:
1. Who define the sociology “as the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social actions”?
A. Emile Durkheim C.Max Weber
B. Auguste Comte D. Kingsley Davi

The correct answer is B. because The word "philosophy" derives from Greek, meaning "love of wisdom." Love of Knowledge in Latin
term means “amor cognitionis”, the Love of life means “vitae” and the Love of Science means “ Agapi gia tin epistimi” in Greek.

2. It is the value of the sociology in education that the sociological aim of education is to raise the standard of social life by achieving the child’s
comprehensive development.
A. Classification of Social Problems
B. Education is an agency of social progress
C. Raising the standard of social life
D. Social progress as the aim of education

3. The word “philosophy” derives from_______

A. Latin, meaning “Love of knowledge”
B. Greek, meaning “Love of wisdom”
C. Latin, meaning “Love of life”
D. Greek, meaning “Love of Science

4. In teacher centered philosophy the teachers role is to __________.

A. Keep the students happy
B. Focus on students individual needs, contemporary relevance, and prepare students for a changing time
C. Assert their dominance in the teacher- student relationship and teach whatever interest them
D. Still respect for authority, perseverance, duty, consideration, and practicality.
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The correct answer is D. because The best option among the choices, require that children are educated using certain methods put into
action by their teacher, as opposed to student-centered philosophies, in which teaching methods are formed according to the needs and
learning styles of individual students. Keeping the students happy is the less priority of teacher centered philosophy. And being in teacher
centered philosophy is to be more practical in one self while the teacher with teacher centered philosophy doesn’t teach whatever that interest them.

5. According to Epicurus:
A. Every pleasure is good, and every pleasure is to be chosen.
B. Every pleasure is good, but not every pleasure is to be chosen.
C. Not every pleasure is good, but every pleasure is to be chosen.
D. Not every pleasure is good, and not every pleasure is to be chosen

The correct answer is B. because This is exactly what Epicurus said so this is the correct answer. “every pleasure is good, but not every
pleasure is to be chosen.” This choice doesn’t have the word “not” in it, so close to the correct answer but not the right answer. Not the correct
answer because the word “not” is in the first place and it change the overall sense of what he says. Not also the right answer but close

6. Whose theory is the one who dominated by medieval thought?

A. Epicurus C.Anselm
B. Rene Descarte D. Nietzsche

The correct answer is C. because Some authors have dismissed his theory as too static and say it only deals with memorizatio. This is
due to its some what orthodox educational methods. However, its philosophical aspects are not only a set of strict theological
dogmas, but also a joint work between faith and reason. Its objective is to understand reality from a human point of view. So basically,
this is the right answer. They understand the theory of Epicurus so that it was accepted in those times, Rene Descarte with his help, Europe
started to rise in terms of philosphies in the seventeeth and eighteenth centuries and Nietzsche, philosopher, poet, musician and German
philologist, the world is mired in a deep nihilism. It has to overcome this if it doesn’t want come to an end.

7. What do we call "seekers and lovers of wisdom?"

A. Pries C. Soldiers
B. Doctor D. Philosophers

The correct answer is D. because Philosophers are the people that clarifies concepts, analyze arguments, and
develop rational and coherent worldviews. Priests are ordained minister of the Catholic, Doctors are qualified practitioner
of medicine and Soldiers are person who serves in an army.
8. This is the source of all human action.
A. Sou C. Mind
B. Breath D. Heart

The correct answer is A. because the spiritual or immaterial part of a human being or animal, regarded as source of all
human action. The breath is inhalation or exhalation of air from the lungs of a human, mind is the element of a person that
enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences and the heart is a hollow muscular organ that pumps the blood
through the circulatory system by rhythmic contraction and dilation.

9. What is the focus of special education in terms of helping students with disabilities?
A. Isolating them in separate classrooms
B. Academic excellence only
C. Supporting them in learning
D. Vocational training exclusively

The correct answer is C. because The primary focus is on providing support tailored to the unique learning needs
of students with disabilities, encompassing academic, social, and emotional aspects. The focus is often on inclusion
and providing support within mainstream classrooms to foster social integration and a sense of belonging , the focus also
involves addressing the individualized needs of students with disabilities, including social, emotional, and behavioral aspects
and the Special education aims to provide a comprehensive approach that prepares students for various aspects of life,
including education, employment, and independent living.

10. How is inclusive education related to the design of schools and classrooms?
A. Exclusively focuses on certain students
B. Promotes segregation of students
C. Develops and designs schools for specific age groups
D. Develops and designs schools, classrooms, programs, and activities for the inclusion of all students
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The correct answer is D. because Inclusive education is closely related to the design of schools and classrooms to
eansure that they are accessible, accommodating, and supportive of the diverse needs of all students. This includes
physical accessibility, varied teaching strategies, and the creation of an inclusive culture within the school
environment. Inclusive education is characterized by a focus on the inclusion of all students, irrespective of their abilities or
disabilities. Inclusive education aims to reduce or eliminate segregation and promote the integration of students with diverse
needs in the same learning environments. Inclusive education goes beyond age considerations, emphasizing the design of
schools and classrooms that accommodate the diverse needs of all students.

11. What term is used to describe the risk that "The Challenging (Type 2)" gifted students face in terms of their education?
A. Dropout risk C. Apathy risk
B. Conformity risk D. Complacency risk

12. What must educators have the capacity to do in order to support inclusive education?
A. Provide learning opportunities to specific groups of students
B. Provide learning opportunities to all students in their classroom
C. Limit learning opportunities based on cultural backgrounds
D. Exclude certain students from learning opportunities

13. Comte viewed the science of sociology as consisting of two branches. These are?
A. Dynamics and Mechanics
B. Dynamics and Statistics
C. Statistics and Mechanics
D. Dynamics and Tempo

14. How are subjects like reading, writing, or math handled for students with disabilities in mainstreaming?
A. Taught exclusively by special educators
B. Ignored as part of the curriculum
C. Addressed only in separate classrooms
D. Integrated with nondisabled peer

15. In what century did ideas about education start to arise?

A. 15th century C. 20th century
B. 18th century D. 21st century

16. This is one of the characteristics of 21st century teachers who are able to to adapt to various learning styles and needs of the learners. What is
it?
A. Flexible C. Multi-skilled
B. Multi-specialist D. Multi-litirate

17. Which philosophy recommends that students learn from the Great Books?
A. Progressivism C. Essentialism
B. Existentialism D. Perennialism

18. Behaviorism is ___________________________.

A. the belief that knowledge can be handed from one person to another
B. when spoken language becomes the primary means of instruction
C. belief that free will is an illusion and that human beings are shaped by their enviorment
D. when teachers help their students develop reasoning and draw conclusions

19. He coined the term survival of the fittest.

A. Spencer C. Durkheim
B. Karl Max D. Comte

20. What is the significance of the year 1857 in the history of special education?
A. Opening of the first school for the deaf
B. Establishment of the Perkins School for the Blind
C. Opening of the Institution of the Feebleminded Youth in Ohio
D. Formation of the American Association for Special Education

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PRACTICE TEST - ANSWER KEY

1 C 6 C 11 A 16 A
2 C 7 D 12 B 17 D
3 B 8 A 13 B 18 C
4 D 9 C 14 D 19 A
5 B 10 D 15 B 20 C

TEST:

1. Which of the following statements describe sociology in education?

A. It is the scientific analysis of the social processes and social patterns involved in the educational system.
B. Is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes.
C. A social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change them.
D. Both A and B.

2. In which year the term “sociology” was coined?

A. 1781 C. 1857
B. 1798 D. 1838

3. Epicurus holds that philosophy is:

A. not suitable for the young.
B. not suitable for the old.
C. important, but unpleasant.
D. none of the above.

4. A concept connected to both the functionalist perspective on deviance and Émile Durkheim's theory of anomie.
A. Rational Choice Theory C. Structural Strain Theory
B. Motivational Theory D. Ritualism

5. How did Valentin Haüy's methods influence the education of blind individuals?
A. He focused on physical education
B. He prioritized mathematics and science
C. He emphasized vocational training
D. He developed language and phonetics teaching methods

6. What is the name of the longest side of a right-angled triangle?

A. Pythagoras C. Hipotenuse
B. Hypotenoose D. Hypotenuse

7. What is a key characteristic of effective common learning environments?

A. Enabling each student to fully participate and share the educational setting
B. Isolating students based on individual needs
C. Promoting competition among students
D. Restricting student participation in the learning environment

8. "Everybody likes Friday. Today is Friday. So, everybody likes today". The statement given is the example of __________.
A. Informal Logic C. Symbolic logic
B. Formal Logic D. Mathematical Logic

9. Why does Aristotle refer Metaphysics as first philosophy?

A. First philosophy and the arrangement of things
B. first subject and the principles of things
C. first existence and the foundation of things
D. first causes and the principles of things

10. Uses lessons that both intellectually and emotionally stir students about the inequities that surround them.
A. Social Reconstructionist C. Perennialist
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B. Essentialist D. Progressivist

11. What are the main functions of education and kinship?

A. Child acquires important qualities like sincerity, sympathy, self-submission and consciousness of responsibilities from family.
B. It is the character developed in the family which helps the child in becoming an important responsible member of society.
C. It gets an opportunity to the child for free expression of thoughts and development of his entire personality.
D. All of the above.

12. What is the IQ range for a mildly gifted child?

A.115 to 130 C.145 to 160
B.130 to 145 D.160 or higher

13. It is the value of the sociology in education that the education is based on the cooperation between the state and society, and besides the
success of democracy depends upon the education it’s members.
A. Opposition to individualism
B. Faith in democracy
C. Stress on Professional or vocational education
D. Classification of Social problems

14. Weber believed humans could not be studied purely objectively because they were influenced by:
A. The researcher C. Their culture
B. Drugs D. Their genetic makeup

15. What are some of the complexities, challenges, and innovative practices that must be considered for the successful implementation of inclusive
education?
A. Providing opportunities for specific groups of students
B. Limiting opportunities based on cultural backgrounds
C. Understanding disabilities as solely intra-individual traits
D. Accommodating diverse needs and understanding the intersection of social, cultural, historical, environmental, and intra-individual abilities

16. Helps children find meaning and direction in their lives

A. Social Reconstructionism C. Progressivism
B. Perennialism D. Existentialism

17. Studying sociology helps people analyze data because they learn:
A. To apply statistics.
B. To interview theories.
C. Interview techniques.
D. All of the above.

18. What kind of triangles does the Pythagorean Theorem work with?
A. Right C. Isosceles
B. Left D. Equilateral

19. What does mainstreaming require in terms of exceptional learners?

A. Adapting the general education classroom to their needs
B. Excluding them from the general education setting
C. Adapting to the rigors of the general education classroom
D. Ignoring their needs in the educational environment

20. What is one of the key areas of UNICEF's work in promoting inclusive education to close the education gap for children with disabilities?
A. Building schools C. Providing financial aid
B. Advocacy D. Conducting medical research

21. Give important reason why axiology is important in the field of education
A. It affects why you are learning (motivations, desired outcomes)
B. It affects what you are learning (dominant cultural practices)
C. It affects how you learn (factual recall vs. learning by doing)
D. All of the above

22. Identify which branch of philosophy is best addressed in the question: How can we validate the witness' testimony in the Court trial?
A. Ethics C. Metaphysics
B. Aesthetics D. Logic
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23. Who are often the individuals described as "The Underground (Type 3)"?
A. Males with high confidence
B. Females who are frequently insecure
C. Males who are frequently insecure
D. Individuals with no specific gender

24. Identify which branch of philosophy is best addressed in the question: Which is better, to be right or to be kind?
A. Epistemology C. Ethics
B. Logic D. Aesthetics

25. Identify which branch of philosophy is best addressed in the question: What is truth?
A. Epistemology C. Ethics
B. Logic D. Aesthetics

26. What does "no one size fits all" imply in the context of special education?
A. A uniform approach for all students
B. Tailoring services based on individual needs
C. Exclusive classrooms for all students
D. Limited flexibility in service delivery

27. One of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any
other sociologist at the time.
A. Auguste Comte C. Max Weber
B. Herbert Spencer D. Emile Durkheim

28. What is the dilemma and paradox faced by some children?

A. Having no distinctive traits
B. Being exclusively gifted
C. Being both gifted and challenged
D. Having no learning disabilities

29. A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scare resources. society is characterized by social
change and conflict.
A. Conflict Theory C. Conflict between self
B.Social Conflict D. Conflict knowledge

30. What is the term used to describe children who are both gifted and have learning disabilities?
A. Twice cursed C. Twice challenged
B. Twice gifted D.Twice blessed

31. It is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how
social order is possible and how society remains relatively stable.
A. Functional Theory C. Functional Perspective
B. Functional Requisites D. Functional Ideas

32. What do children in both the giftedness and ASD categories exhibit trouble with?
A. Intellectual disability C.Lack of special interests
B. Verbal and nonverbal communication D. Lack of motor coordination issues

33. Who believed that the sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences?
A. Moris Ginsberg C. Herbert Spencer
B. Karl Max D. Dorothy Smithv

34. How is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) characterized?

A. Solely by intellectual disability
B. Dysfunctionality in verbal or nonverbal communication, social interaction, and repetitive behaviors
C. Only by problems with motor coordination
D. Lack of interest in any specific

35. What approach does essentialism believe in?

A. back-to-basics C. scaffolding
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B. pragmatism D. Behaviorism

36. What does inclusion involve in terms of teaching methods?

A. Altering teaching methods to engage all students with learning materials
B. Exclusively focusing on students with disabilities
C. Removing students with disabilities from the general classroom
D. Ignoring in

37. The word sociology is made up of two words. These are?

A. Socia and Logos C. Socious and Logos
B. Societies and Lougos D. Societies and Logistia

38. How is special education tailored to meet the needs of students with disabilities?
A. Through standardized services
B. By placing all students in special classrooms
C. By adopting a one-size-fits-all approach
D. Through individualized services and support

39. This is a statement of how and why specific facts related

A. Sociological Cannon C. Sociologigal Matters
B. Sociological Theories D. Sociological Sets

40. What does the term "least restrictive environment" (LRE) mean in the context of special education?
A. Maximizing inclusion in general education classrooms
B. Providing exclusive educational settings
C. Placing students in the most isolated setting
D. Creating separate classrooms for students with disabilities

41. This is one of the characteristics of 21st century teachers who cope with the demand for widening learning opportunities by being skillful. What is
it?
A. Flexible C. Multi-skilled
B. Multi-specialist D. Multi-literate

42. What is the primary goal of inclusive education in terms of students' participation?
A. Limiting students' contributions
B. Encouraging students to learn in isolation
C. Supporting students to learn, contribute, and participate in all aspects of school life
D. Excluding students with diverse needs

43. A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience
of women. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share the desire to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome
them.
A.Women Action C.Girl power
B.Feminish Agenda D.Feminist Theory

44. What does mainstreaming involve in terms of integrating students with disabilities?
A. Full-time integration into general education classrooms
B. Integration during specific times of the day
C. Segregation from nondisabled peers
D. Exclusion from general education classrooms

45. This philosophy places the highest priority on students directing their own learning. Learning is self-paced and includes a lot of individual contact
with the teacher.
A.Essentialism C.Progressivism
B.Existentialism D.Social Reconstructionism

46. How does an inclusive classroom differ from mainstreaming in terms of adaptation?
A. It requires the general education classroom to adapt to the needs of individual students
B. It requires individual students to adapt to the general education classroom
C. It excludes students with disabilities from the general education setting
D. It follows the same approach as mainstreaming in terms of adaptation

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47. Which of the following is NOT a key area of UNICEF's work in promoting inclusive education?
A. Advocacy C. Economic development
B. Capacity-building D. Implementation support

48. What is a key characteristic of effective common learning environments?

A. Enabling each student to fully participate and share the educational setting
B. Isolating students based on individual needs
C. Promoting competition among students
D. Restricting student participation in the learning environment

49. How does a common learning environment use instructional design in relation to students' regular instruction hours?
A. By restricting instruction to certain subjects
B. By segregating students based on ability levels
C. By being responsive to individual needs and used for the majority of regular instruction hours
D. None of the above

50. How is giftedness and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) characterized in terms of special interests?
A. Lack of interest in any specific area
B. Obsession with facts or details and expertise in a specific field
C. Trouble with relationships and interacting with peers
D. Sole focus on motor coordination issues

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REFERENCES:

A. INTERNET SITES

What to Know About Autism, ADHD and Gifted Children - Oak Crest. (2016, December 14). Oak Crest Academy.
https://oakcrestacademy.org/autism-adhd-and-gifted-children/

Morin, A. (2023). What Is Special Education? Www.understood.org. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/understanding-special-education

Lee, K. H., MA, & MFT. (2022, December 13). Updated Autism / ADHD / Giftedness Venn diagram. Tending Paths.
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