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jntuk java unit 1 reference 3

java programming (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada)

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UNIT-1
I. Program Structure in Java:
1. Introduction
2. Writing Simple Java Programs
3. Elements or Tokens in Java Programs
4. Java Statements
5. Command Line Arguments
6. User Input to Programs
7. Escape Sequences
8. Comments
9. Programming Style.
II. Data Types Variables and Operators :
1. Introduction Data Types in Java
2. Declaration of Variables Data Types
3. Type Casting
4. Scope of Variable Identifier
5. Literal Constants, Symbolic Constants
6. Formatted Output with printf() Method
7. Static Variables and Methods
8. Attribute Final
9. Introduction to Operators
10. Precedence and Associativity of Operators
11. Assignment Operator ( = )
12. Basic Arithmetic Operators
13. Increment (++) and Decrement (- -) Operators
14. Ternary Operator Relational Operators
15. Boolean Logical Operators
16. Bitwise Logical Operators.
III. Control Statements:
1. Introduction
2. if Expression
3. Nested if Expressions
4. if–else Expressions
5. Ternary Operator?:
6. Switch Statement
7. Iteration Statements
8. while Expression
9. do–while Loop
10.for Loop
11. Nested for Loop
12. For–Each for Loop
13.Break Statement
14. Continue Statement.

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I. Program Structure in Java:

1. Introduction
Java is an Object Orient and high-level programming language, originally developed by
Sun Microsystems and released in 1995. Java runs on a variety of platforms, such as
Windows, Mac OS, Linux etc.

In Java, there are three types of programs as follows:

Stand- aline application programs : These programs are made and run on users
computers
Applet programs : These programs are meant to run in a web page on the Internet.
Java Servlets : These programs run in computers that provide web services. They are
also oftern called server isde programs or servlets.

2. Writing Simple Java Programs

Java is an Object oriented language. Every java program imports packages which
are provides necessary classes and interfaces.
For example:
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;

After import statement, every java program starts with the declaration of the class.
A program may have one or more classes.

A class declaration starts with the keyword class, followed by the identifier or name of the
class. Giving the name of a package at the top is optional.

Class declarion contains name of the class and body of the class. The body of the
class may consist of several statements and is enclsed between the braces {}.

A sample of class declarions is as follows.

Here:
public is access specifier. This class is accessible to any ouside code. Otherwise the
class is accessibe to only same package classes.
class is a keyword of java language which is used to declare the class.
The class body starts with the left brace { and ends with the right colsing brace }.
// are comments which are neglected by the compiler.

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A class body may comprise statements for declaration of variables. constants,

expressions, and methods.

Simple program in Java. Save this code in Text Document as “Start.java”

public class Start()

{
public static void main()
{
System.out.println(“Hello World”);
}
}

Here:
class is a keyword
Start is a name the class. Here class is declared as public, so it is available to
all the classes.
main() is the method which initiate and terminate the program ( in java
functions are called as Methods)
println() is method of object “out”. “out” is the object of class “System”.
println() prints the string “Hello World” on the screen/monitor.

Compiling and Running Java program

Java compiler first converts the source code into an intermediate code, known as
bytecode or virtual machine code. To run the bytecode, we need the Java Virtual
Machie (JVM). JVM exists only inside the computer memory and runs on top of
the Operating System. The bytecode is not machine specific. The Java interpreter
converts the bytecode into Machine code. The following diagram illustrates the
process of compiling and running Java programs.

For compiling the program, the Java compiler javac is run, specifying the name of
the source file on the command line as depicted here:

javac Start.java

The Java compiler creates a file called Start.class containing the bytecode version
of the program. The java interpreter in JVM executes the instructions contained in
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this intermediate Java bytecode version of the program. The Java interpreter is
called with “java” at the command prompt.

C:\> java Start

Output:

Hello World

Here java command calls the Java interpreter which executes the Start.class
(bytecode of Start.java).

3. Elements or Tokens in Java Programs

Java program contains different types of elements like white spaces, comments and
tokens. A token is the smallest program element which is recognized by the
compiler and which treats them as defined for the compiler. A program is a set of
tokens which comprise the following elements:

Identifiers or names: Identifier is the name of variables, methods, classes etc.

Rules for framing Names or Identifiers.

• It should be a single word which contains alphabets a to z or A to Z, digits 0 to 9,

underscore (_).
• It should not contain white spaces and special symbols.
• It should not be a keyword of Java.
• It should not be Boolean literal, that is, true or false.
• It should not be null literal.
• It should not start with a digit but it can start with an underscore.
• It can comprise one or more unicode characters which are characters as well as digits.

Conventions for Writing Names

• Names of packages are completely in lower-case letters such as mypackage,
java.lang.
• Names of classes and interfaces start with an upper-case letter.
• Names of methods start with a lower-case character.
• Names of variables should start with a lower-case character.

Keywords: These are special words defined in Java and represent a set of
instructions.
• The keywords represent groups of instructions for the compiler.
• These are special tokens that have a predefined meaning and their use is
restricted.
• keywords cannot be used as names of variables, methods, classes, or packages.
• These are written in the lower case.
• Keywords of Java Language are as follows:

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Literals: These are values represented by a set of character, digits, etc.

• A literal represents a value which may be of primitive type, String type, or null
type.
• The value may be a number (either whole or decimal point number) or a
sequence of characters which is called String literal, Boolean type, etc.
• A literal is a constant value.
Types of Literals:
i. Integer literals
• Sequences of digits.
• The whole numbers are described by different number systems such as decimal
numbers, hexadecimal numbers, octal numbers, and binary numbers.
• Each number has a different set of digits.
Decimal Integer Literals
• These are sequences of decimal digits which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
• Examples of such literals are 6, 453, 34789, etc.
Hex Integral Literals
• These are sequences of hexadecimal digits which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
A, B, C, D, E, and F.
• The values 10 to 15 are represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F or a, b, c, d, e, and
f.
• The numbers are preceded by 0x or 0X. Examples are 0x56ab o0X6AF2, etc.
Octal Integer Literals
• These are sequences of octal digits which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
• These numbers are preceded by 0. Examples of literals are 07122, 04, 043526.
Binary Literal
• These are sequences of binary digits.
• Binary numbers have only two digits—0 and 1 and a base 2.
• Examples of such literals are 0b0111001, 0b101, 0b1000, etc.

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ii. Floating point literal

• These are floating decimal point numbers or fractional decimal numbers
with base 10. Examples are 3.14159, 567.78, etc.

iii. Boolean literal

• These are Boolean values. There are only two values—true or false.
iv. Character literal
• These are the values in characters.
• Characters are represented in single quotes such as ‘A’, ‘H’, ‘k’, and so on.

v. String literal
• These are strings of characters in double quotes. Examples are “Delhi”,
“John”, “AA”, etc.

vi. Null literal

• There is only one value of Null Literal, that is, null.

Separators: These include comma, semicolon, period(.), Parenthesis (), Square

brackets [], etc

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Operators: Operators are mostly represented by symbols such as +, -, *, etc

Types of Operators:

Arithmetic Operators:
Operator Description
+ Addition or Unary plus
- Subtraction or Unary minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus

Relational Operators:
Operator Description
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

Logical Operators:
Operator Description
&& Greater than
|| Greater than or equal to
! Less than

Assignment Operators:
Operator Description
+= Add and assign to
-= Subtract and assign to
*= Multiply and assign to
/= Divide and assign to
%= Modulus and assign to

Increment / Decrement Operators:

Operator Description
++ Increment by one
-- Decrement by one

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Bitwise Operators:
Operator Description
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~ Bitwise compliment
>> Shift Right
<< Shift Left
>>> Shift right with Zero fill

Conditional Operators:
Operator Description
?: Used to construct Conditional expression

4. Java Statements
A Statement is a instruction to the computer. A program is a set of statements or
instructions. The statements specify the sequence of actions to be performed when
some method or constructor is invoked. The statements are executed in the sequence
in the specified order. The important Java statements are as follows.

Statement Description
Empty statement These are used during program development.
Variable declaration It defines a variable that can be used to store the values.
statement
Labeled statement A block of statements is given a label. The labels should not
be keywords, previously used labels, or already declared
local variables.
Expression statement Most of the statements come under this category. There are
seven types of expression statements that include
assignment, method call and allocation, pre-increment, post
increment, pre-decrement, and post decrement statements.
Control statement This comprises selection, iteration, and jump statements.
Selection statement In these statements, one of the various control flows is
selected when a certain condition expression is true. There
are three types of selection statements including if, if-else,
and switch.
Iteration statement These involve the use of loops until some condition for the
termination of loop is satisfied. There are three types of
iteration statements that make use of while, do, and for
Jump statement In these statements, the control is transferred to the
beginning or end of the current block or to a labeled
statement. There are four types of Jump statements including
break, continue, return, and throw.
Synchronization These are used with multi-threading
statement
Guarding statement These are used to carry out the code safely that may cause
exceptions (such as division by zero, and so on). These
statements make use of try and catch block, and finally

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5. Command Line Arguments

• A Java application can accept any number of arguments from the command line.
• These arguments can be passed at the time of running the program. This enables a
programmer to check the behavior of a program for different values of inputs.
• When a Java application is invoked, the runtime system passes the command line
arguments to the application's main method through an array of strings.
• It must be noted that the number of arguments
•
• in an array. To ensure this, we can make use of the length property of the array. This is
illustrated in

Program 2.2: Example showing command line argument

class vehicle
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x = args.length;
for(int i=0; i<x; i++)
{
System.out.println(args[i]);
}
}
Output

(After compiling, type the following lines on the command prompt. It produces the output as)

C:\> Java vehicle “Car Cycle Motorbike"

Car
Cycle
Motorbike

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Program 2.3: Illustration of command line

class Sum
{
public static void main{String args)

int s=1;

for(int i e; icargs length; 1++){

s=s+Integer.parseInt(args(1]);

System.out.prinln(" The addition of passed arguments 15" );

Output

After compiling, the following lines are typed on the command

prompt: It produces the output as

C:\> Java Sun 20 15 17

Declaration of Variables

• A program may involve variables: variables are objects whose values may change in the
program.
• A variable is declared by first writing its type, followed by its name or identifier as
illustrated here.

• However, a variable should also be initialized, that is, a value should be assigned to it
before it is used in an expression. The line ends with a semicolon (:) as shown in the
above figure.

Examples:

double price = 28.5;

char ch = "C":
String name - "John";

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Program 2.4 illustrates the declaration and output of some data types

class PrintOut
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
String name = "Sunita"; //"name" is variable, value is "Sunita"
String str = "Hello"; //String set has value- "Hello!"

int length = 50; // Variable name "length", value 50

int width = 8; // Variable name "width" value 8

System.out.print("Name= " + name);

System.out.print("Str = "+ str); //print statement

System. out.println();

System.out.println("Length "+ length);

System. out.println("Width " + width);

System.out.println(str + name); // println statement

}
}

c:\>javac PrintOut.java

c:\>java PrintOut
Name= SunitaStr = Hello
Length 50
Width 8
HelloSunita

6. User Input to Programs

• The class Scanner of package java.util to carry out input to the program.
• Java Scanner class is a text scanner that breaks the input into tokens using a delimiter.
The delimiter is whitespace by default.
• Importing the class is the first step.
import java.util.Scanner;
• The object of the class Scanner is declared as follows.
Scanner scaninput = new Scanner (System. in);
• The object “scaninput” invokes the method nextInt() which reads the value typed
by the user. This value is assigned to n. The value of m is similarly obtained.
• The other useful methods of Scanner class are nextDouble() and nextLine().

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Program 2.6: Illustration of a user's input from keyboard into

program

import java.util.Scanner;
public class Arithmetic
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Scanner scaninput = new Scanner (System. in);
int n;
int m;
System.out. print( "Enter the value of n : ");
n=scaninput.nextInt();
System.out. print( "Enter the value of m : ");
m=scaninput.nextInt();

System.out.println("Sum of two numbers is ="+(n+m));

System.out.println("Product of two numbers is ="+ n*m);

System.out.println("Modulus of (n % m) is =" + n%m);

System.out.println("Division of two numbers is =" + n /m );

}
}

Output
C:\>javac Arithmetic.java

C:\>java Arithmetic
Enter the value of n : 10
Enter the value of m : 3
Sum of two numbers is =13
Product of two numbers is =30
Modulus of (n % m) is =1
Division of two numbers is =3

C:\>

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7. Escape Sequences
Escape Sequences character is preceded by a backslash (\)has a special meaning to
the compiler. Escape sequences are as follows.

Program 2.9: Program on Escape Sequences

class Escape
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int n=256, a=0, b=70;
System.out.println("Value of a =" + a + "\n b= "+b +"\n");
System.out.println("\u0041 \t" + " \u0042 \t"+"\132");
System.out.println("\"Value of b\" = "+b);
System.out.println("\'Value of n\' = " +n);
}
}

Output:

C:\>javac Escape.java

C:\>java Escape
Value of a =0
b= 70
A B Z
"Value of b" = 70
'Value of n' = 256

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8. Comments
• Comments are Line of Text which is not a part of the compiled program.
• Comments are used for documentation to explain source code.
• They are added to the source code of the program.
• Java supports three types of comments as:
1. Single-line comment: These comments are started with two front slash
characters (//)
Example:
// This is Single line comment

2. Multi-line comment : These comments are enclosed with /* and */

Example:
/* It is Multi line
Comments */

3. Documentation comment: These comments are enclosed with /** and */. It
is different from multi line comments in that it can extracted by javadoc utility
to generate an HTML document for the program.
Example:
/** It is documentation
Comments */

9. Programming Style.

• An analysis of the programming exercises will throw some light on the look and feel of a
program. The team members should easily understand each other's code.
• For a beginner, it is better to develop a habit of writing a program in a proper style so that
there is no conflict between the current habits and the company's imposition of style rule
at a later stage.
• There are no set patterns of good style and bad style: however, if the programmer takes
care of a few requirements on the programs as discussed, the resulting style will be better

1. The program should present a clean and orderly look. In order to develop a clean
program, the programmer can adapt the following measures:

(a) The white spaces are neglected by the compiler.

(b) Indenting is another method often used to improve the looks and readability

(c) Use of Lambda expression and method reference of Java 8 enhances the look

(d) Include a space before and after operators

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2. The program should be easy to understand. The programmer should take care of the
following aspects:

(a) If it is team work, certain conventions about naming should be preset so that a team
member can easily identify an item.

(b) The makers of Java have a set of rules which are followed in the Java library. The same
rules or an even better convention may be set.

(c) Judicial use of comments can increase understandability. Use of too many comments
makes confusion in the program.

(d) It is better to use already defined and tested library methods rather than user-defined
methods

(e) Expressions like z = x++ + - - c*++k; should be avoided.

3. Debugging should be easy. The programmer may adopt the following measures to
ensure easy debugging.

(a) The vertical alignment of a similar item enhances the ability to find errors.

(b) The code line should not be too long.

(c) The variables should be declared close to the places of their use

(d) If it is a big program, it should be divided into small segments. In Java, it is easy because
the program may comprise separate classes.

(e) The methods should not be too big.

(f) Each source code file should have one class.

(g) The braces should be vertically aligned, if possible.

4. The program should be easy to use. The following points

(a) The input into program should be easy,

(b) The output should be self-explanatory should be taken care of

(c) The names used should imply the output type such as price, weight, length, and so on.

(d) Confusing and long names must be avoided.

5. The program should be easy to maintain

(a) The program should be easily modifiable to ensure simplicity in fixing errors.

(b) The comments can help in modification of the program, fixing errors.

6. The program should be fail-safe. The failure of a program should not be catastrophic.

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II. Data Types Variables and Operators :

i. Introduction Data Types in Java

The Java language programs deal with the following entities:

I. Primitive data

2. Classes and objects

3. Interfaces and their references

4. Arrays

5. Methods

The primitive data and their types are defined independent of the classes and interfaces, and
the arrays and methods derive their types from the first three entities.

An array is n collection of items that may be of primitive type, class objects, or references.
The type of an array can be determined from the type of elements present in it.

Data Types in Java

• Data Type is the type of the data which computer accepts. Every variable and expression
has a data type that is known at the compile time.
• The declaration of data type with a variable or expression limits the types of values that a
variable can have or the expression it can evaluate.
• Java is an object-oriented programming language based on classes and interfaces.
• Java defines some primitive (basic) data types that are not reference types of any class or
interface. Eight primitive (basic) types of data are defined in Java. The type names are
also the keywords shown here in bold letters
1. Integral types—byte, short, int, long
2. Floating point types - float, double
3. Character type -char
4. Boolean type – Boolean values – True, False

There is a non-data type called void and no data can be of type void. This type is used for
methods that do not return any value.

Java is a case-sensitive language. This means that it takes Area, area, and AREA are three
different objects.

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2. Declaration of Variables - Data Types

A variable is declared by first declaring its type followed by its identifier or name, which is
given as follows:

type Identifier;

Here type is the primitive data type and Identifier is the name of the variable.

Declaration and Initialization of the variable is as follows.

type identifier = value;

Ex:

byte n; // declares a variable of type byte.

short m = 67; // declares and initiates a short number

int length; //declares length-a variable of type int

length - 50; // value is re-assigned after declaration

char ch = ‘A’; // declares a character variable ch.

Non-primitive Types

These are the class and interface types. The name of a class or interface is the name of type.
A class object is declared as

Class_identifier object_identifier;

Similarly, an interface reference is declared as

Interface_identifier reference_identifier;

Example:

String str "Delhi":

Data Types

i. Integers

Integers are whole numbers, that is, they represent numbers that do not have a fractional part.
The integers can be declared in four types according to the size of memory allocated for them

byte

short

int

long

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Program 3.1 illustrates the integer data types.

class DataType
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
byte a= 4, b=8 ;// variables of type byte
short c = 67, d = 98; // variables of type short
int e = 7000, f = 20000; // variables of type int
long secondsInYear = 365 * 24 * 60 * 60; // long type
//e=d+f;
System.out.println("(b + a) = " + (b+a));
System.out.println("b + a = " + b + a);
System.out.println("c = "+ c + " \td = " + d);
System.out.println("e = " + e + "\t f= " + f);
System.out.println("Seconds in a year = "+ secondsInYear);
}
}
Output:

C:\ >javac DataType.java

C:\ >java DataType
(b + a) = 12
b + a = 84
c = 67 d = 98
e = 7000 f= 20000
Seconds in a year = 31536000

ii. Characters
• A variable may have value in terms of a character in which the type of variable is char.
• These characters represent integer values.
• Java supports Unicode for the representation of characters.
• Unicode supports all the character sets of all the major languages of the world.
• The initial version of Unicode allocated 2 bytes for storing characters.
• The range of values for characters in the initial version of Unicode comprised from
‘\u0000’ to ‘\uffff ’ that is from 0 to 65535 both end values inclusive.
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Program 3 2 illustrates anthmetic operations on character constants and variables

class Datachar {
public static void main (String args[])
{
char ch1='E', ch2, ch3 ;

System.out.println("ch1 =" +ch1); // printing ch1

ch2=ch1++;
System.out.println("ch2 =" + ch2); // printing ch2

ch3=++ch1;
System.out.println("ch3 =" + ch3); // printing ch3
}
}
Output:
C:\ >javac Datachar.java
C:\ >java Datachar
ch1 =E
ch2 =E
ch3 =G
iii. Floating Point Numbers

• The numbers that are not whole numbers, or those that have fractional part, Examples are
3.141, 476.6, and so on.
• Java supports two types of such numbers.
Float: This type is used for single-precision decimal floating point numbers, that is, 7 digits
after the decimal point. These numbers are stored on 4 bytes.

Program 3.4: Illustration for working with float and double data
class FloatType
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
float width =20.0f, length = 40.5f;
float rectArea = length * width;

System.out.println("Width = "+ width);

System.out.println("Length = "+ length);
System.out.println("Rectangle Area = "+ rectArea);

double dia=10.0, pi=3.14159;

double areaCircle = pi* dia * dia / 4;

System.out.println("Diameter " + dia);

System.out.println("Area of Circle = " + areaCircle);
}
}
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Output

C:\>javac FloatType.java
C:\>java FloatType
Width = 20.0
Length = 40.5
Rectangle Area = 810.0
Diameter 10.0
Area of Circle = 78.53975

iv. Boolean Type - Data

• For dealing with logical statements, variable of type boolean is supported.

• The value of boolean type variable is either true or false.
• The boolean type variables are unsigned as similar to char type variables.
• The variable may be declared as follows :
boolean a;
a = x > y;

If the aforementioned logical statement is correct, The value of a is true, otherwise the value
of a is false. In Java true and false are not converted into numerical values, which is
the case in other Languages. A boolean type variable is allocated to one byte, that is, 8 bits
for storing its values Program

3.5 illustrates the application of boolean type variables,

class Boolean
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
double x= 5.5, y=10.5, p=4.0;
int n=40, m=50;
boolean a,b,c,d;

a= x>y;
b= y>p;
c= y==x;
d= x<=y;

System.out.println("a = " + a +" and b =" +b);

System.out.println("Now c= "+c+ " and d = "+d);
}
}

C:\>javac Boolean.java

C:\>java Boolean
a = false and b =true
Now c= false and d = true

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3. Type Casting
Converting one data type to another data type is called as Type Casting. There are two types
of type casting. They are,
i. Implicit Type casting
ii. Explicit Type casting
i. Implicit Type casting
Implicit type casting is done automatically by a compiler when we assign a value to the
variable.
Example:
int a=10;
double b;
b=a;
Here a is integer and d is double variables. Integer value is automatically converted into
double by the compiler.

ii. Explicit Type casting

The explicit type casting is carried out by the following code:
type variable = (new_type) variable;
• It is illustrated by the following code lines:
double D = 6.865;
int A = (int) D;
• In such a conversion, there is loss of data

Program 3.7: Illustration of type casting.

class TypeCast
{
public static void main (String args[])
{

int a=4, b = 8, c = 9, d,e;

double x= 3.0, y=6.5, z,k;

d=c/a;
k=a+y;
e = a + (int)y;
z=(double)c/a;

System.out.println("k = " + k +" and e =" +e);

System.out.println("d= "+ d + " and z = "+ z);
}
}

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Output

C:\ >javac TypeCast.java

C:\ >java TypeCast

k = 10.5 and e =10
d= 2 and z = 2.25

4. Scope of Variable Identifier

The scope and lifetime of a variable is the part of the program in which it is visible and holds
the last entered value In Java, there are distinctly two types of scopes.
(a) class scope and
(b) method scope
• A variable declared in a class has class scope and scope of a variable declared in a
method has method scope.
• The variables declared in a block have block scope.
• Thus, the variables defined in main() at the beginning have scope in entire main() method,
however, those defined in a block have block scope.
• A block starts with the left brace ( { ) and ends with the right brace ( } ).
In the case of nested blocks of statements, the scope of variables is governed by the following
rules.

1. The scope starts from the point the variable is defined in the block (declared and value
assigned to it).

2. Although the variable may be defined anywhere in a block, it can be used only in the
statements appear ing after its definition Therefore, there is no use in defining a variable at
the end of block.

If there are nested blocks, a variable defined in the outer block is visible in the inner blocks
also and it cannot be redefined with the same name in the inner blocks

Program 3.10: Illustration of block scope

public class ScopeA

{
static int x = 5; // Variable scope within the Class
public static void main (String args[])
{
System.out.println("Class Scope variable - outside main() x = " + x);
int y = 10;
System.out.println("Variable y Scope within main() y = " + y);
{ // Anonymous Block
int z = 20;
System.out.println("Variable z Scope within Anonymous Block z = " + z);
}
}
}

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E:\>javac ScopeA.java

E:\>java ScopeA
Class Scope variable - outside main() x = 5
Variable y Scope within main() y = 10
Variable z Scope within Anonymous Block z = 20

E:\>java ScopeA

5. Literal Constants, Symbolic Constants

i. Literal Constants

Literal Constants are as follows.

• Each character is a constant value.
• An array of characters or a string also represents a constant value.
• The digits in decimal system, octal system, or hexadecimal system represent constant
values.
• The char literals are enclosed in single quotes (‘ ’). The examples ‘A’ and ‘B’. These may
also be written as \u0041 and \u0042.
• The string literals are enclosed in double quotes.
Examples : "Delhi”, "I am going out."
• The decimal integral literals examples are 5417, 684
• The octal number literals are prefixed with 0 (Zero). Example. 072 , 042
• The floating point literal examples are 684.62f, 5.245E+ 2f
• The literal of Boolean data type are true and false. In Java, neither true is converted to 1
nor

ii. Symbolic Constants

A Symbolic constant is a variable whose value does not change throughout the program.
Some of the examples include PL NORTH, EAST etc.

It is usually preferred to declare the symbolic constants using all the capital letters in a
program as follows:

public static final int c =299792458;

public static final double PI = 3.21415;

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Program 3.13 illustrates the use of symbolic constant

public class SymbolicConst

{
public static final double PI = 3.1415926535;
public static void main (String args[])
{
double r = 25.0, perimeter;
perimeter = 2*PI*r;
System.out.println("radius=" + r);
System.out.println("Perimeter of circle = " + perimeter);
}
}

C:\>javac SymbolicConst.java

C:\>java SymbolicConst
radius=25.0
Perimeter of circle = 157.079632675

6. Formatted Output with printf() Method

In Java, the formatting of output may be carried out in two ways:

1. By using class Formatter 2. By method printf()

• The Formatter class is used to format the output.

• The printf() method is easy and simple to use, and hence, it is mote popular than other
methods.
• The following formatting objectives may be realized by using print method
i. Right and left justification
ii. Precision of floating point numbers by regulating the number of digits after the
decimal point
iii. Aligning a number of numbers in a column
iv. Controlling the placement of characters and strings at desired locations
v. Representing integers in octal and hexadecimal systems
vi. Representing floating point numbers in exponential form or regular form
vii. Representing the time and date in different formats.

The syntax of the method printf () method is as follows

System.out.printf("Formatting string" variables separated by comma);

• The formatting string specifics the output format for each variable that consists of
percent (%) sign followed by a conversion letter.
• Thus, the format string for output of an integer and character is "X" and or
respectively.
• The order of variables in variable list should match with the list of formats in
formatting string.
• The following Table lists the conversion letters for different types of variables.
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Program 3.14: illustration of formatting strings for output of different types of variables

class FormatPrintf
{
public static void main(String args[])
{

int n = 713;
float x = 45.86f;
double d= 56.754;

String str = "Delhi";

char ch = 'A';
System.out.printf( "%d %f %f %c \t %s \n", n, x, d,ch,
str);

//for conversion into hexadecimal number

System.out.printf("Hexadecimal value of 163 = %X \n", 163);

//for conversion into octal

System.out.printf("Octal value of 163 = %o\n", 163);
}
}

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Output

C:\>javac FormatPrintf.java

C:\>java FormatPrintf
713 45.860001 56.754000 A Delhi
Hexadecimal value of 163 = A3
Octal value of 163 = 243

7. Static Variables and Methods

Static Variables:
• The static variables are class variables. Only one copy of such variables is kept in the
memory and all the objects share that copy.
• The static variables are accessed through class reference, whereas the instance
variables are accessed through class object reference
• The variables in a class may be modified by modifier static.
• The non-static variables declared in a class are instance variables Each object of the class
keeps a copy of the values of these variables.
Static Methods:
• The static methods are similar to class methods and can be invoked without any reference
of object of class, however, class reference (name of class) is needed, as in the following
example The method like sart() is declared as static method in Math class and is called

Math.sqrt(5); // Finds square root of 5

The static method is called using the method name that is preceded by the class name; in this
case. Math and period ().

Program 3.18: illustration of using static methods of class Math

public class StaticMethods

{
public static void main (String args[])
{

System.out.println("The Square root root of 16 = "+ Math.sqrt(16));

System.out.println("The cubroot root of 27 = "+ Math.cbrt(27));
//printing five random variables
for(int i =1; i<=5;i++)
System.out.println("Random Number " + i + " = " +
(int)(100 *Math.random()));
}
}

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E:\>javac StaticMethods.java

E:\>java StaticMethods
The Square root root of 16 = 4.0
The cubroot root of 27 = 3.0
Random Number 1 = 77
Random Number 2 = 69
Random Number 3 = 83
Random Number 4 = 2
Random Number 5 = 66

E:\>java StaticMethods
The Square root root of 16 = 4.0
The cubroot root of 27 = 3.0
Random Number 1 = 67
Random Number 2 = 31
Random Number 3 = 10
Random Number 4 = 13
Random Number 5 = 40

8. Attribute Final

Final Variable:
The value of a variable declared final cannot be changed in the program. It makes the
variable a constant. A few examples of declarations are as follows:

final double PI = 3.14159; // The value of PI cannot be changed in its scope

final int M = 900; // The value of M cannot be changed in its scope

final double X = 7.5643; // The value of x cannot be changed in its scope.

• As mentioned in the comments, the values of PI, M, and x cannot be changed in their
respective scopes.

Final Method:

• The attribute final may be used for methods as well as for classes. These are basically
connected with inheritance of classes.
• When final keyword is used with Java method, it becomes the final method.
• A final method cannot be overridden in a sub-class.

Final Class:

• A Java class with final modifier is called final class A final class cannot be sub-classed or
inherited. Several classes in Java are final including String, Integer, and other wrapper
classes.

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• There are certain important points to be noted when using final keyword in Java
i. New value cannot be reassigned to a variable defined as final in Java.
ii. Final keyword can be applied to a member variable, local variable, method, or class.
iii. Final member variable must be initialized at the time of declaration.
iv. Final method cannot be overridden in Java
v. Final class cannot be inheritable in Java
vi. Final is different from finally keyword, which is used on Exception handling in Java

Example- 1:
public class Final
{
public static void main (String args[])
{

int n =10; // Normal variable

final int f = 20; // final variable

System.out.println("n = "+ n);

System.out.println("f = "+ f);

n = 50; // Now the value 50 is assigned to variable n

f = 60; // Error : f is final variable can not be changed
}
}

Output:
C:\>javac Final.java
Final.java:13: error: cannot assign a value to final variable f
f = 60; // Error : f is final variable can not be changed
^
1 error
C:\>

Example-2:

public class Final

{
public static void main (String args[])
{

int n =10; // Normal variable

final int f = 20; // final variable

System.out.println("n = "+ n);

System.out.println("f = "+ f);

n = 50; // Now the value 50 is assigned to variable n

System.out.println("n = "+ n);
}
}

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C:\>javac Final.java

C:\>java Final
n = 10
f = 20
n = 50
9. Introduction to Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical and
logical calculations.
-The different types of Java operators are,
a) Arithmetic operators
b) Relational operators
c) Logical operators
d) Increment or decrement operators
e) Assignment operators
f) Conditional operators
g) Bitwise operators
h) Special operators

10. Precedence and Associativity of Operators

If the expression contains several operators with the same precedence level, the expression
is evaluated according to its associativity.
For example, in
Z = 6*4%5;
Both the operators * and % have same precedence level.

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11. Assignment Operator ( = )

Assignment operators:
-Assignment operators are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable.
Operator Meaning
= Assignment
-In addition, java has a set of short-hand assignment operators of the form
V OP=EXP;
- It is equivalent to
V=V OP EXP;
-The short-hand assignment operators are
+= , -= , *= , /= , %=
Example:
a+=b ------------- a=a+b
a-=b ------------- a=a-b
a*= b -------------- a=a*b
a/=b --------------- a=a/b
a%=b ------------- a=a%b

12. Basic Arithmetic Operators

Operator Meaning
+ Addition or Unary plus
- Subtraction or Unary minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo division
-Integer division truncates any fractional part.
-The modulo division produces the remainder of an integer division.
Examples: a+b, a-b, a*b, a/b, a%b

Arithmetic Expression Types:

Integer arithmetic expression:
-An arithmetic operation involving only integer operands is called integer arithmetic.
int + int = int
int - int = int
int * int = int
int / int = int (truncates decimal part)
int % int = int (results remainder)
Real arithmetic expression:
- An arithmetic operation involving only real operands is called real arithmetic.
real + real = real
real - real = real
real * real = real
real / real = real
real % real = not allowed

Mixed-mode arithmetic expression:

-An arithmetic operation involving one operand is real and the other operand is integer,
then it is called mixed-mode arithmetic.
real+int=real
real-int=real
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real*int=real
real/int=real
real%int=not allowed

13. Increment (++) and Decrement (- -) Operators

-The increment operator is ++ which means +1
-The decrement operator is - - which means -1
-The operand must be either incremented or decremented by 1.
Example:
m=5;y=++m; results m=6 and y=6.
m=5;y=m++; results m=6 and y=5.
m=5;y= --m; results m=4 and y=4.
m=5;y=m--; results m=4 and y=5.

14. Ternary Operator or Conditional operators:

-It is also known as Ternary operator.
-The symbols used to construct a conditional expression are ? and :
-A conditional expression is of the form,
exp1?exp2:exp3;
Example:
(a>b)?System.out.println(“a is greater”): System.out.println (“b is greater”);
- It is equivalent to if-else statement in java

Example:
if(a>b)
System.out.println(“a is greater”);
else
System.out.println (“b is greater”);

15. Relational Operators

-The comparison between two operands or expressions is done with the help of relational
operators.
Operator Meaning
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equality
!= Inequality
Example:
a>b
a>=b
a<b
a<=b
a==b
a!=b

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16. Boolean Logical Operators

-The java language has three logical operators.
Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT
-The logical operators &&, || are used when we we want to test more than one condition.
&& - used when all the conditions must be true.
|| - used when any of the conditions must be true.

-A logical expression yield a value 0 or 1, according to the truth table.

Operand1 Operand2 Operand1&&operand2 Operand1||operand2
Non-zero Non-zero 1 1
Non-zero 0 0 1
0 Non-zero 0 1
0 0 0 0
Example:
(a>b)&&(a>c)
(a>b)||(a>c)
-The logical not is used as a negation or complement of the expression.
Example:
!(y<10) means (y>=10)

17. Bitwise Logical Operators.

Bitwise operators:
-‘C’ provides bitwise operators that operate on data at the bit-level.
-Bitwise operators interpret operands as string of bits.
-These bit strings are then interpreted according to data type.

-Bitwise operators are of 2 types.

i) Logical bitwise operators.
ii) Shift bitwise operators.
i) Bitwise Logical operators

Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
~ One’s complement
Bitwise AND operator:
-The Bitwise AND (&) is a binary operator that requires two integral operands(character
or integer).
-It does a bit-by-bit comparison between two operands.
-The result of the comparison is 1 only when both bits are 1, otherwise it is 0.
First operand bit Second operand bit Result(&)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Bitwise OR operator:
-The Bitwise inclusive OR (|) is a binary operator that requires two integral
operands(character or integer).
-It does a bit-by-bit comparison between two operands.
-The result of the comparison is 0 only when both bits are 0, otherwise it is 1.

First operand bit Second operand bit Result( | )

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Bitwise exclusive OR:

-The Bitwise exclusive OR (^)is a binary operator that requires two integral
operands(character or integer).
-It does a bit-by-bit comparison between two operands.
-The result of the comparison is 1 only if one of the operands is 1, otherwise it is 0.
First operand bit Second operand bit Result(^)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
One’s complement:
-The one’s complement (~) is a unary operator applied to an integral value.
-The result is 1 when the original bit is 0 and it is 0 when the original bit is 1.
Original bit Result( ~ )
0 1
1 0

ii) Shift Bitwise operators:

-The shift Bitwise operators move bits to the right or left.
Operator Meaning
>> Bitwise shift right
<< Bitwise shift left
>>> Shift right with zero fill
Bitwise shift-right operator:
-It moves some number of bits from right to left.
-It requires two integral operands.
Syntax:
Operand1 >> Operand2;
-Here, Operand1 is value to be shifted.
Operand2 is number of bits to be shifted.
Bitwise shift-left operator:
-It moves some number of bits from left to right.
-It requires two integral operands.
Syntax:
Operand1 << Operand2;
-Here, Operand1 is value to be shifted.
Operand2 is number of bits to be shifted.

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18. Special Operators.

- Java supports some special operators such as,
a) instanceof operator
b) member selection operator
a) instanceof operator:
- The instanceof is an object reference operator and returns true if the object on the left-hand
side is an instance of the class given on the right hand side.
- This operator allows us to determine whether the object belongs to a particular class or not.
Example:
person instanceof student
- It is true if the object person belongs to the class student, otherwise it is false.

b) member selection operator:

- The dot (.) operator is used to access the instance variables and methods of class objects.
Example:
person.age // Reference to the variable age
person.salary( ) // Reference to the method salary( )
- It is also used to access classes and sub packages from a package.

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III. Control Statements:

1. Introduction
CONTROL STATEMENTS: (FLOW OF CONTROL)
- A Control statement is a statement used to control the flow of execution in a Java Program.

SELECTION STATEMENTS:
-Also called as conditional or decision-making control statements.
-There are two types in Selection control statements.
i) Two-way selection control statements
ii) Multi-way selection control statements
i) Two-way selection control statements:
-The different two-way selection statements are,
a) if-else statement
b) null else statement
c) Nested-if statement

2. if Expression - also called as “ null else statement ”

Syntax:
if(condition)
{
statements;
}
next statement;

Example:
if(a==2)
{
p++;
}
System.out.println(“program over”);

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3. Nested if Expressions
-if within if is called as Nested-if.
Syntax:
if(condition-1)
{
if(condition-2)
{
Statement-1;
}
else
{
Statement-2;
}
}
else
{
if(condition-3)
{
Statement-3;
}
else
{
Statement-4;
}
}
next statement;

Example:

if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
{
System.out.println(“a is greater”);
}
else
{
System.out.println (“c is greater”);
}
}
else
{
if(b>c)
{
System.out.println(“b is greater”);
}
else
{
System.out.println(“c is greater”);
}
}
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4. if–else Expressions
Syntax:
if(condition)
{
true-block statements;
}
else
{
false-block statements;
}
next statement;

Example:
if(a>b)
{
System.out.println(“a is greater”);
}
else
{
System.out.println(“b is greater”);
}

b) else-if ladder statement:

Syntax:
if(condition-1)
{
Statement-1;
}
else if(condition-2)
{
Statement-2;
}
…………………
……………..…..
else if(condition n-1)
{
Statement-(n-1);
}
else
{
Statement-n;
}
next statement;

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Example:
if(a>b&&a>c&&a>d)
{
System.out.println(“a is greater”);
}
else if(b>a&&b>c&&b>d)
{
System.out.println(“b is greater”);
}
else if(c>a&&c>b&&c>d)
{
System.out.println(“c is greater”);
}
else
{
System.out.println(“d is greater”);
}

5. Ternary Operator?:
In Java, the ternary operator is a type of Java conditional operator. The meaning
of ternary is composed of three parts.
The ternary operator (? :) consists of three operands. It is used to evaluate Boolean
expressions. The operator decides which value will be assigned to the variable. It is the only
conditional operator that accepts three operands.
It can be used instead of the if-else statement. It makes the code much more easy, readable,
and shorter.

Syntax:
Expression1 ? Expression2 : Expression3

• The first expression is the test condition.

• If it evaluates true, the Expression2 is executed; otherwise Expession3 is
executed.

Example-1:

public class Ternary

{
public static void main (String args[])
{

int a=10;
int b = (a<20)? 100 :200; // a < 20 if statement
System.out.println("b= "+b);
}
}

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Output:
C:\>javac Ternary.java

C:\>java Ternary
b= 100
Example-2:

public class Ternary

{
public static void main (String args[])
{
int a=10;
int b = (a>20)? 100 :200; // a>20 – else statement
System.out.println("b= "+b);
}
}

Output:
C:\>javac Ternary.java

C:\>java Ternary
b= 200

6. Switch Statement
Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case value-1:statement-1;break;
case value-2:statement-2;break;
………………………….
………………………….
case value-n:statement-n;break;
default: default statement;
}
next statement;

Example:
switch(digit)
{
case 0: System.out.println(“ZERO”);break;
case 1: System.out.println(“ONE”);break;
case 2: System.out.println(“TWO”);break;
case 3: System.out.println(“THREE”);break;
case 4: System.out.println(“FOUR”);break;
case 5: System.out.println(“FIVE”);break;
case 6: System.out.println(“SIX”);break;
case 7: System.out.println(“SEVEN”);break;
case 8: System.out.println(“EIGHT”);break;
case 9: System.out.println(“NINE”);break;
default: System.out.println(“Enter between 0-9”);
}
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7. Iteration Statements
LOOP STATEMENTS:
-The iteration control statements are also called as Repetition or Iteration control statements.
-A looping process includes the following four steps.
-Setting and initialization of a counter.
-Execution of the statements in the loop body.
-Test for a specified condition (loop control expression) for execution of a loop
-Incrementing or Decrementing counter.
i) Pretest and Posttest loops:
-In a Pretest loop, the condition is checked before we execute a loop body.
-It is also called as entry-controlled loop.
-In the Posttest loop, we always execute the loop body atleast once.
-It is also called as exit-controlled loop.

8. while Expression
a) while statement:
Syntax:
while(condition)
{
loop body;
}
next statement;

Example:
n=10,i=1,sum=0;
while(i<=n)
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
}
System.out.println(“sum=”+sum);

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9. do–while Loop - for Loop

Syntax:
do
{
loop body;
}while(condition);
next statement;

Example:
n=10,i=1,sum=0;
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i++;
} while(i<=n);
System.out.println(“sum=”+sum);

10. for Loop

for statement:
Syntax:
for(initialization;condition;inc or dec)
{
loop body;
}
next statement;

Example:
n=10,i,sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
System.out.println(“sum=”+sum);

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11. Nested for Loop

Syntax:

for(initialization;condition;inc or dec)
{

for(initialization;condition;inc or dec)
{
Inner loop body;
}

Outer loop body;

}
next statement;

Example:
n=10,i, j, sum=0;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{

sum=sum+i;
}
System.out.println(“sum=”+sum);

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12. For–Each for Loop

The Java for-each loop or enhanced for loop. It provides an alternative approach to traverse the array
or collection in Java. It is mainly used to traverse the array or collection elements. The advantage of
the for-each loop is that it eliminates the possibility of bugs and makes the code more readable. It is
known as the for-each loop because it traverses each element one by one.
Advantages:
1. Less clutter in code, especially when iterators are used.
2. Less chances of errors.
3. Improves overall readability of program.
Limitations:
1. It is designed to iterate in forward direction only.
2. In iteration, it takes a single step at a time.
3. It cannot simultaneously traverse multiple arrays or collections.
Syntax:

for (Object obj : Collection_name)

{
Body of loop
}

Example:

public class ForEach

{
public static void main (String args[])
{

int myArray[] = {10,20,30,40,50};

for (int x:myArray)

{
System.out.println(" "+x);
}
}
}

Output:

C:\>javac ForEach.java

C:\>java ForEach
10
20
30
40
50

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 lOMoARcPSD|47635628

13.Break Statement
Unconditional control statements:
-The unconditional control statements are,
a) break statement
b) continue statement

break statement:
-The break statement skips from the loop or block in which it is defined.
-The control then automatically goes to the first statement after the loop or block.
-The general format is
break;
Example:

public class Break

{
public static void main (String args[])
{

//printing the values from 1 to 10

for(int i =0; i<10;i++)
{
if (i==5)
break; //Break Statement
System.out.println( i );
}
}
}

Output:
C:\>javac Break.java

C:\>java Break
0
1
2
3
4

Here loop is stopped due to break statement.

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 lOMoARcPSD|47635628

14. Continue Statement.

-The continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop statements.
-When it occurs in the loop, it does not terminate but it skips the statements after it.
-It is useful when we want to continue the program without executing any part of the program.
-The general format is
continue;

Example:

public class Continue

{
public static void main (String args[])
{

//printing the values from 1 to 10

for(int i =0; i<10;i++)
{
if (i==5)
continue; // Continue statement
System.out.println( i );
}
}
}
Output:
-------
C:\>javac Break.java

C:\>java Continue
0
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9

Here 5 is not printed because of continue statement. The Iteration at the condition i = =5 is
skipped or jumped to next statement.

45

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