A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF CODE-MIXING AND CODE SWITCHING IN

NIGERIAN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY GASHUA (FUGA) AS A CASE STUDY

Abstract

.Code-switching refers to the practice of switching between two or more languages,

dialects, or language varieties in a single conversation, text, or even sentence. Code-
mixing refers to the act of combining words, phrases, or sentences from two or more
languages within a single utterance or text. It involves switching between languages
within a single conversation, sentence, or even word, often without a clear boundary
between the languages. Code-mixing can be seen in spoken or written language and is
a common phenomenon in multilingual communities, where individuals blend
languages to convey meaning, express identity, or facilitate communication. Unlike
code-switching, which involves switching between languages at sentence or clause
boundaries, code-mixing involves a more fluid and integrated use of multiple
languages within a single linguistic unit. The objective of this study is to carry out a
sociolinguistic study of code-mixing and code-switching in Nigerian higher institutions. The
relevant data collected for this study were presented, critically analyzed and appropriate
interpretation given. The data we’re collected through audio-recording of conversations of
students of Faculty of Arts, Faculty of Social and Management Science and Faculty of Science
who were randomly selected and were recorded. The data were analyzed using frequency and
simple percentage. The findings shows that the use of code-mixing and code-switching in
conversations have largely contributed to low proficiency in the use of English language. The
study concludes that For students to improve their proficiency in English language, there is need
to reduce the use of code-mixing and code-switching.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

One aspect of language study that attracts much attention today is

sociolinguistics. It examines the use of language by considering social
parameter. This field is relatively wide and it encompasses a lot of variables
like the context of the situation, age, status etc. among other variables that
can be found in sociolinguistics are code mixing, diglossia, Code-switching,
language death etc. When two or more languages come in contact, there is
tendency of mixture of varieties or a shift or transit from one linguistic system
to another. One major influence of globalization is increase bilingualism. This
refers to an individual or societal ability to use / speak two languages. It is a
usual phenomenon to see bilinguals’ code switch or mix in discourse
situations. Due to the fact that people are increasingly becoming bilinguals
and even multilingual, it therefore brings the issue of code switching and code
mixing as glaring day to day linguistic phenomenon. In a typical urban setting
like Lagos, Nigeria, with a heterogeneous population involving people of
diverse ethnic enclaves; there is bound to be the existence of many varieties
like English, Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, Nigeria Pidgin English and even indigenous
languages of neighbouring Benin and Togolese. It is a common phenomenon
to see people shift from one variety of language to another. Likewise a child ,
who is a product of bilingual marriage, for instance, an Igbo speaking mother
with an Hausa speaking father living in Lagos; will automatically be exposed
to at least three or more languages; and one of the major consequences is
code switching. Code switching occurs when a speaker uses two or more
languages in the course of a single utterance. It is common to see second
language speakers of English usually switch between their L1 - mother tongue
and their L2 - English language and vice versa during their interpersonal
conversation (informal communication). Code-mixing and code-switching are
important aspect of sociolinguistic given their use and status in the society.
Different reasons have been advanced by various writers and scholars as to
why people code-mix and code-switch. Whatever the reasons, they are to
some extent reasonable. However, it obvious that they have both the
negative and positive effects closely associated with them. It there becomes
necessary that these concepts which are directly related to human society
and our educational system be given adequate attention so that they are
known and also used effectively where necessarily.

In a society where individuals speak more than one language there is usually
a language that is naturally influenced by the others. Some of the effects of
multilingualism are code-mixing and code-switching, bilingualism, diglossia
etc when a speaker comes in contact with two or more languages he or she
may start to use the languages together even though it might not be with
equal proficiency. However these languages affect one another and often lead
to code-mixing and code-switching.

Code-mixing and code-switching occurs when elements of two or more

languages are mixed between sentences, clauses and phrases. These
concepts are products of bilingualism and they are the focus of this research
work. Some researches have shown that students code-mix and code-switch
in order to be admitted into some social situations.

It is on this note that this research work intends to find out if undergraduates
of FUGA code-mix and code-switch, and also intend to find out why they code-
mix and code-switch. Thus in carrying out this research work, code-mixing and
code-switching as concepts of sociolinguistics will be given attention thereby
bringing it to the notice of the people who are not linguistics.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research is to conduct a sociolinguistic study of code-mixing
and code-switching and to also carry out a practical study of how codemixing
and codeswitching occurs in the conversations of Nigerian university
undergraduates. The objectives of the study are to:

- Determine the motivation or causes undergoing the use of codemixing and

codeswitching

- Examine the effects of codemixing and codeswitching in the Nigerian

languages

- Identify reasons Nigerian university undergraduates code-mix and code-

switch with their

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The essence of this research is to identify the likely social effects on the
undergraduates of Federal university Gashua if they are users of code-mixing
and code-switching. The research will also investigate the extent to which the
undergraduates code-mix and code-switch if at all they do. The research
would come up with findings that will discourage the use of code-mixing and
code-switching if their use suggest negative effect on the proficiency of the
users. On the other hand, if the proficiency of the bilingual is not affected the
phenomenon, will be encouraged.

It is strongly believed that the findings at the need of this research would
benefit bilinguals and it is also expected to contribute additional knowledge to
the field of sociolinguistics. It will also be of immense benefit to students of
English and linguistics.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Again the research sets out to identify the socio-linguistic study of code-
mixing and code-switching in Nigerian institutions especially Federal
University Gashua if at all they code-mix and code-switch. The purpose of this
research is to answer the following questions:

1. Do the undergraduates of FUGA code-mix and code-switch?

2. Why do they code-mix and code-switch?

3. Doesthe improper acquisition of language lead to code-mixing and

code-switching?

4. Does code-mixing and code-switching connote low proficiency?

1.5. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

This research is limited to instances of code-mixing and code-switching in the

conversations of Nigerian University Undergraduates. The research is also
limited to socio-linguistic exploration of code-mixing and code-switching in the
conversations of undergraduate students of Federal University Gashua

For the purpose of this research work the recording of conversations among
the undergraduates of Federal University Gashua was limited to three
faculties within the institution and they are:

1. Faculty of Arts

2. Faculty of Social and Management Sciences and

3. Faculty of Science

These three faculties are the largest within the University thereby having the
largest population. The data used in this research work was gathered from the
undergraduates in their lecture rooms, hostels, library etc. The research
highlight instances of code-mixing and code-switching in their various
conversations and analyze them.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Language is a major means of identifying a set of people, nation or country.

Hornby (2001:667) defines language as “The system of communication in
speech and writing that is used by a people of a particular country.” Crystal
(1985:262) observes that of all the means of communication, language is the
most frequently used and developed. Babatunde (2002:1) opines that the
indispensability of language has been Inexorably tied to the existence of man
in the society. Language plays an important role in our lives. Sellers (1991)
asserts that “language is intrinsic to the way we think, to the way we
construct our groups and self-identities, to the way we perceive the world and
organize our social relationships and political systems”. Daramola (2004)
defines language as a patterned, social activity of human beings, displaying
patterns of substance, (phonic and, at least potentially graphic), from {sic}
(grammar and lexis) and context. Whitman (2007) cited in Fromkin et al
(2007) asserts that language is not an abstract construction of the learned or
of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties,
joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its basis
broad and low close to the ground. Without society, language cannot evolve.
Language was borne out of the need for communication by humans. It serves
as a cord binding together the fabrics of society; it is a binding force among
various members of the society, hence, its social function. The second half of
the 20th century and the past few decades in particular have seen an
increased interest in the study of bilingualism and multilingualism as well as
all the phenomena related to it. The definition of bilingualism has evolved
greatly from the narrow beginnings, when it applied only to speakers with
native-like fluency in two languages. Much progress has been made since
then and scholars have widened the scope of bilingualism to include those
individuals whose competence in two languages may be far from balanced,
those who use one of the languages on an irregular basis only or just in
certain domains, but not in others. By the same token, code-switching as one
of the most typical forms of bilingual discourse is now defined in more flexible
terms than it was in 1953, when the pioneer of contact linguistics, Uriel
Weinreich held the view that the ideal bilingual switches between languages
in accordance with appropriate changes in the speech situation, but never in
an unchanged speech situation, and definitely not within a single sentence.
Code-switching today is mostly defined as the alternate use of more than one
code (i.e. language, dialect, speech variety) in the same conversation or
verbal interaction. Not all authors view code-switching in the same way and
they do not always agree in as far as the terminology and the nature of the
phenomenon is concerned; nevertheless, code-switching remains one of the
most common conversation strategies employed by bilingual speakers and as
such a topic of fascination for all those who realize the importance and
pervasiveness of bilingualism in today's world. This is indeed widespread: it
certainly applies to the speakers in neighboring areas between different
countries, to various immigrant settings and, with the growing mobility of the
globalization era, no doubt to many others as well. Wherever the language
contacts, there is bound to be some form of code-switching as well.
Continuous exploration of various facets of code switching thus comes as no
surprise, as it has much more than just (socio) linguistic, anthropological and
psychological implications. In the sense that the way people speak is an
expression of their personal, social, cultural and other identities it is not an
overstatement to say that it actually touches the majority of the world's
population and, while it has been frequently considered a stigmatized form of
bilingual discourse, there can be no doubt that learning more about the
underlying rules of code-switching can only contribute to a greater awareness
and understanding among speakers of different. One aspect of language
study that attracts much attention today is sociolinguistics. It examines the
use of language by considering social parameter. This field is relatively wide
and it encompasses a lot of variables like the context of the situation, age,
status, etc. among other variables that can be found in sociolinguistics are
Code mixing, Diglossia, Code-switching, language contact etc. There are
several terms referring to code switching, and code mixing, code-changing,
and tag-switching, situational and metaphorical code-switching. As these
terms often have various meanings attached to them, each of them, are
explained in this paper. Code-mixing and code-switching are important aspect
of sociolinguistic because of their use and status in the society Different
reasons have been advanced by various writers and scholars as to why people
code-mix and code-switch. It is obvious that they have both the negative and
positive effects on language use. It then becomes necessary that these
concepts related to human society and our educational system be given
adequate attention so that they are known and also used effectively where
necessarily. In a society where individuals speak more than one language
there is usually a language that is naturally influenced by the others. Some of
the effects of multilingualism are code-mixing and code-switching,
bilingualism, diglossia, etc. when a speaker comes in contact with two or more
languages, he or she may start to use the languages together even though it
might not be with equal proficiency. However these languages affect one
another and often lead to code-mixing and code-switching. A study of code-
switching among peoples of Nigeria will reveal that ease of switching from L2
(English) to L1 (a Nigerian language) and vice versa may vary from one ethnic
group to the other. Other than taking pride in speaking the English language,
dialectal differences could create so much discomfort (and repetitions or
explanations to make up for differences) that using the English language
becomes economical, especially for the educated who do not have to learn
the central or standard dialects to survive. Code-mixing and code-switching
occurs when elements of two or more languages are mixed between
sentences, clauses and phrases. These concepts are products of bilingualism
and they are the focus of this paper. Some researchers have shown that
students code-mix and code-switch in order to be admitted into some social
situations. It is on this note that this paper intends to find out if the users of
English as a second language code-mix and code-switch, and also intend to
find out why, if they code-mix and code-switch. In this paper, code-mixing and
code-switching as concepts of sociolinguistics will be given more attention.

2.2 SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Human beings are great travelers, traders and colonizers. The mythical tales
of nearly all cultures tell tales of the trials and tribulations of travel and
exploration, such as those of “Odysseus” (Ulysses) in Homer’s “Odyssey”.
Surely, one of the tribulations of ranging outward from your house is sooner or
later you will encounter people who do not speak your language, nor you
theirs. In some parts of the world, you may not have to travel farther than
next door to find the language disconnect, and in other parts you may have to
cross the ocean. Because this situation is so common in human history and
society, several solutions for bridging this communication gap have arisen,
sociolinguistics being one. Many scholars have discussed sociolinguistics and
have come up with several definitions based on their individual perspectives.
Hudson (2001:4) defines sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation
to the society. It is the study of language as it affects and is being affected by
social relations; it is also the study of language and linguistic behavior as
influenced by social and cultural factors. Holmes (2001) defines
sociolinguistics as the way people use language in xvi different contexts, the
way people signal aspects of their social identity through language.
Sociolinguistics is a scientific discipline developed from the cooperation of
linguistics and sociology that investigates the social meaning of the language
system and language use, and the common set of conditions of linguistic and
social structure. Fishman (1972:9) defines sociolinguistics as the study of the
characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and
the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact,
change and change one another within a speech community. Sociolinguistics
is a term including all aspects of linguistics applied toward the connection
between language and society, and the way we use language in different
social situations. It is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,
including norms, expectations and contexts, on the way a language is used,
and the effects of language on the society. It is the study of language in
relation to social factors pertaining to the study of language in its social
context. Sociolinguistics also studies how language varieties differ between
groups separated by certain social variables like ethnicity, religion, status,
gender, level of education, age, etc. Jaworski and Coupland (1997) submit
that anything that either examines language in its social context or
investigates social life through linguistics could be referred to as
sociolinguistics. Sociolinguistics studies, and analyses language; its nature,
characteristics as well as its structure in relation to the society where it
functions. The focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the
language.

2.3 THE CONCEPT OF CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING

Code mixing /code switching is a sociolinguistic phenomenon which occurs as

an outcome of linguistic contacts especially among bilinguals and multilingual.
Code switching is a communicative strategy utilized by bilingual speakers to
achieve certain communicative intent. Code switching refers to the movement
by a speaker to and forth from one linguistic code to another. According to
Hoffmann (1991: 110), the term “code switching” refers to the “the alternate
use of two [or more – OvD] languages within the same utterance or during the
same conversation”. Code switching is an alternation between two or more
languages in a speaker’s speech. It involves the fusing of two or more
varieties of language in a single conversational utterance. The word code is a
neutral sociolinguistic referral of a linguistic variety which may either be a
language or varieties of a language/dialects, style or register. Various scholars
have come up with different definitions of the term Code switching and code
mixing. Hymes (1976) notes that code-switching as “a common term for
alternative use of two or more language, varieties of a language or even
speech styles”, while Maschler (1998:125) sees code mixing or a mixed code
as “using two languages such that a third, new code emerges, in which
elements from the two languages are incorporated into a structurally
definable pattern” . Bokamba (1989) explained the two concepts noting that:
Code-switching is the mixing of words, phrases and sentences from two
distinct grammatical (sub) systems across sentence boundaries within the
same speech event… code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units
such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases
and clauses from a co-operative activity where the participants, in order to
infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with what they
understand.Code switching is a practice of alternation in discourse practice by
switching to and fro the available subsystem or codes . the practice is
individually based and emerges from interactions. Muysken (2000:1) tried
another distinction of the terms, noting that code switching as “the rapid
succession of several languages in a single speech event”, while code mixing
refers to “all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two
languages appear in one sentence”. In his explanation of the two concepts,
Faltis (1989) views that code mixing is the intra-sentential switching whereas,
code mixing in the inter-sentential switch. He notes that language contacts
are the outcome of increased social interaction between people of different
linguistic culture, who are living as neighbors; and it is usually initiated by the
assumed prestigious and powerful languages The distinction between code
switching and code mixing is plagued with fluid and fuzzy terminology
boundaries. Gardner-Chloros (1991) maintains that switches may occur not
only within or between languages; but also between dialects of a given
language. This may be consciously or subconsciously. In his words Wardaugh
(1998:103) observes that “people may not be aware that they have switched,
or be able to report following a conversation, which code they used for a
particular topic”. In as much as the switches may be subconscious,
sociolinguistic researches have shown that it is not randomly switched but a
conscious and purposeful activity meant to achieve certain communication
functions in a communication situation (Gumperz 1991, Hoffman 1991).
Agbedo C U (2011) observes that code switch in Nigerian context is not
remarkably different from Code switching in other countries of the world. He
observes that the slang term Wenglish exists and it refers to an English
variety that is being influenced by Welsh. Also in India there is Hinglish an
informal reference for the insertion of English words, phrase or clauses in a
conversational utterance. There are also other varieties like Tanglish and
Banglish (mixtures of English with Tamil and Bangla respectively). We also
have Taglish –Tagalog and English and in Singapore, Singlish , which is a
mixture of English with Mandarin Chinese, Chinese dialects and Malay is
spoken in Singapore. Spanglish in the US, Portunol in Brazilian – Uruguayan
border. In Nigeria, we have the Engligbo- which is a mixture of English and
Igbo language. Franceschini (1995:51) observes that there are, “more and
more evidence that code switching is a language universal in the behavior of
multilingual speakers, or to employ a shorthand definition of code switching
using several languages or language varieties in the course of conversation is
based on conversation, internal mechanisms observable in various social
contexts all over the world” It is pertinent to note that there are always
syntactic constrain which are applicable to each language variety. Certain
syntactic constrains may be permitted while others may not be. The norms
vary from one language group to another. Each speech community establishes
its own convention that is most suitable to its linguistic system.

2.4 CODE MIXING

A code is language, a variety or style of language. A code is a class specific

language variation, especially for the different strategies of verbal planning. In
communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for
example, a letter, word or phrase) into another form or representation, not
necessarily of the same sort. Code mixing is the use of one language in
another language, the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties
in a speech. Hamers and Blanc (1989:35) say code mixing is the use of
elements of one language in another language. It is the transition from using
linguistic units (words, phrases, clauses, etc) of one language to using those
of another within a single sentence. Code mixing refers to the mixing of
various linguistic units (morphemes, words, modifiers, phrases, clauses and
sentences) primarily from two participating grammatical systems within a
sentence. Oloruntoba-oju (1999) submits that code mixing occurs when
elements of two or more linguistic systems are randomly used. It may occur
as a result of backlash (receding competence in a language or as a result of
the influence of L2 or reduced context of L1). It often occurs because the
speaker can either not find an appropriate word in his mother tongue or
because he or she finds the terms in xviii the target language more
convenient to use. Alabi (2007) asserts that code mixing is often an
unconscious illocutionary act in naturally occurring conversation. Though no
norm guides the level of code mixing, different communities and people
maintain, consciously or unconsciously, their levels of code mixing which is
constrained by competence. Code mixing was first observed in west Africa
and brought to attention by Ansre (1971) in relation to English and west
African languages. He described it informally as: “inserting various chunks of
English into the performance of West African languages in trying to show the
influence of English on West African languages”. Some linguists use the terms
code mixing and code switching more or less interchangeably, especially in
terms of informal studies of syntax, morphology, etc, both terms are used to
refer to utterances that draw from elements of two or more grammatical
systems. Code switching emphasizes a multi-lingual’s movement from one
grammatical system to another, the term code mixing suggests a hybrid form,
drawing from the distinct grammars. In other words, code mixing emphasizes
the formal aspects of language structures or linguistic competence, while
code switching emphasizes linguistic performance. The practice of code
mixing, which draws from competence in two languages at the same time,
suggests that these competences are not stored or processed separately.
Wardhaugh (1986:86) opines that today, this phenomenon is referred to as
code mixing, a situation which people occasionally prefer to use a code
formed from two other codes by mixing the two. The contact English made
with the polylectal Nigerian society has led to the mixture of English language
with the local languages. This is caused by the socio-cultural background in
which the English language is used in Nigeria. Bamgbose (1985:99) states
that “in a language contact situation particular a close one where an
exoglossic language becomes official role in a country, the language is bound
to be influenced by its linguistic and cultural role”

2.5 MOTIVATIONS FOR CODE MIXING

Motivation is the act of giving somebody a reason or incentive to do

something. Motivation is used to simply refer to the sociological,
environmental, linguistic and cognitive factors that necessitated or influenced
the production of mixed languages. Language users either code mix as a
technique to overcome production difficulties or for developing bilingual
competence. The more chances we have access to other languages, the more
chance that we adapt and extract the essential on our own language.
Grosjean (1982) suggests that some bilinguals mix two languages when they
cannot find proper words or expressions or when there is no translation for the
language being used.

2.6 LANGUAGE AS A CONCEPT

Language is a major means of identifying a set of people, nation or country.

Some list of linguists, define language as the system of communication in
speech and writing that is used by a people of a particular country. The word
language is derived from “lingua” the Latin word for tongue, which rightly
emphasizes the speech aspect as basic in language. It is often called that man
is a “social being” and what, perhaps, plays the vital role in enabling man to
act as a “social being” is his ability to use language for communication.
Language is the fundamental tool for social interaction that opens up the
possibilities to convey, inform and share different ideas, thoughts, messages,
feelings and viewpoints. Ayeomoni, M.O (2006) asserts that: The
indispensability of language has been inexorably tied to the existence of man
in the society. Language plays an important role in our lives. Adetuyi and
Okediran (2004) observe that language is the most powerful instrument of
cohesion of all species. Human, animals and plants, in fact, every living thing
has its language, verbal and nonverbal. It is presented here as a capstone of
the myriad forms of sociocultural arrangements in nature Skiba, R. (1997)
asserts that: “Language is intrinsic to the way we think, to the way we
construct our groups and self-identities, to the way we perceive the world and
organize our social relationships and political systems”. In the perception of
Auer Peter(1998) :“language is not an abstract construction of the learned or
of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties,
joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its basis
broad and low close to the ground.

DIGLOSSIA

As an aspect of study of the relationships between codes and social structure,

diglossia is an important concept in the field of sociolinguistics. At the social
level, each of the two dialects has certain spheres of social interaction
assigned to it and in the assigned spheres it is the only socially acceptable
dialect (with minor exceptions). At the grammatical level, differences may
involve pronunciation, inflection, and/or syntax (sentence structure).
Differences can range from minor (although conspicuous) to extreme. In many
cases of diglossia, the two dialects are so divergent that they are distinct
languages as defined by linguists: they are not mutually intelligible. Ricento
(2012), an author on language policy and political theory believes that there is
always a "socially constructed hierarchy, indexed from low to high." The
hierarchy is generally imposed by leading political figures or popular media
and is sometimes not the native language of that particular region. The
dialect that is the original mother tongue is almost always of low prestige. Its
spheres of use involve informal, interpersonal communication: conversation at
home, among friends, in marketplaces. In some diglossia, this vernacular
dialect is virtually unwritten. Those who try to use it in literature may be
severely criticized or even persecuted. The other dialect is held in high
esteem and is devoted to written communication and formal spoken
communication, such as university instruction, primary education, sermons,
and speeches by government officials. It is usually not possible to acquire
proficiency in the formal, "high" dialect without formal study of it. Thus, in
those diglossic societies which are also characterized by extreme inequality of
social classes, most people are not proficient in speaking the high dialect, and
if the high dialect is grammatically different enough, as in the case of Arabic
diglossia, these uneducated classes cannot understand most of the public
speeches that they might hear on television and radio. The high prestige
dialect (or language) tends to be the more formalized, and its forms and
vocabulary often 'filter down' into the vernacular though often in a changed
form. In many diglossic areas, there is controversy and polarization of
opinions of native speakers regarding the relationship between the two
dialects and their respective statuses. In cases that the "high" dialect is
objectively not intelligible to those exposed only to the vernacular, some
people insist that the two dialects are nevertheless a common language. The
pioneering scholar of diglossia, Ferguson (1977), observed that native
speakers proficient in the high prestige dialect will commonly try to avoid
using the vernacular with foreigners and may even deny its existence even
though the vernacular is the only socially appropriate one for themselves to
use when speaking to their relatives and friends. Yet another common attitude
is that the low dialect, which is everyone's native language, ought to be
abandoned in favor of the high dialect, which presently is nobody's native
language--. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaglossia.

2.7 FORMS OF CODE SWITCHING

There are several terms referring to code switching, which includes code
mixing, code-changing, and tag-switching, situational and metaphorical code-
switching, inter-sentential code switching and intra-sentential code switching.
As these terms often have various meanings attached to them, it is necessary
to first define each type, as relates to this paper. Code switching is the
general term for any kind of language switching, especially among bilingual
Latinos („A ma visit those patients that were brought in last night‟---We shall
visit those patients that were brought in last night.) (Fromkin & Rodman,
1998). Code mixing is a brief insertion of a few words from one language into
the other (Mo n lo si SCHOOL-- „I „m going to the school‟). Code changing is
defined as a long clause(s) inserted into one language before or after a
segment of the other language (Cheng & Butler, 1989) (Last Sunday, when I
was in the church, while the choristers were singing melodiously,
lojijiokunrinkansarewole, lo baberesinijo, kiagbogbowatifodide, it took awhile
before the pastor could calm the situation. „…suddenly, a man ran in, and
began to danced, every one of us fled immediately…….. Tag-switching occurs
when a speaker inserts a tag statement from one language into another
language. Examples of this in English are taking phrases like you know, I
mean, no way, etc, and then inserting them into a Yoruba sentence, as seen in
this example: kororunlatiteteriiseniiluyi, YOU KNOW? („It‟s hard to find work in
this town, you know‟) (Romaine, 1989). For example: Nigerian students use
some tag like „o‟ (a word use to lay emphasis on statement being said) e.g I
am going „o‟, instead of just saying that „I am going.‟ Also, ‘sebi’ (word use
to ask question) is sometimes heard from the students even some adult .e.g
Sebi, you are coming with her? Instead of simply saying: Are you are coming
with her? Situational code-switching occurs when, due to a change in setting,
conversational partners, or topic, a speaker chooses to speak in a different
language than he was originally speaking (Wardhaugh, 2006). For example, a
group of Yoruba-English bilinguals engaged in a conversation in Yoruba may
switch to English when a monolingual English speaker approaches and joins
the conversation. This concept also applies to shifting between registers
within a language; e.g. a teenage boy may speak Standard American English
when conversing with a teacher, but switch to a lower register of slang English
when his peers approach. Metaphorical code-switching is used to emphasize
certain aspects of a statement or add meaning to relationships being
expressed. This occurs when bilinguals switch languages to imply that they
identify more with a group in a particular situation (Saville-Troike, 2003). Inter-
sentential code switching, the language switch is done at sentence
boundaries. This is seen most often between fluent bilingual speakers. For
example: If you are late for the job interview, ti e ba e niyen. Intra-sentential
code switching, the shift is done in the middle of a sentence, with no
interruptions, hesitations or pauses indicating a shift. The speaker is usually
unaware of the shift. Different types of switch occur within the clause level
including within the word level.

As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, code-switching involves rapid switch or

change from one language to another, depending on the situations, audience,
subject matter etc. It is a consequence of language in contact. Hudson, R.A.
(1980) asserts that it is an inevitable consequence of bilingualism and more
generally multilingualism. As a common feature in bilingual and multilingual
societies, it is a situation where a speaker changes from one language code to
another in a speech event. John Lyons (1977) sees code-switching as the
ability of members of a language community to pass from one dialect or
variety of the language to another according to the situation of utterance. He
adds that code-switching is not restricted to language communities employing
two or more languages or dialects. He cites the example of a conversation
between an executive and his secretary, where there are code shifts from
English to Spanish, and then back again to English in the course of a single
conversation. In this situation, Spanish is employed for causal and friendly
discussion while English is for all formal discussions. Code-switching occurs at
inter-sentential level. It occurs between people capable of making themselves
understood in either code. A bilingual speaker chooses between his languages
according to the circumstance, and in a way that his audience will
comprehend his utterance. But sometimes, code-switching is not determined
by social situations alone. Speakers can switch codes for their personal
reasons. In communities where everyone speaks the same range of
languages, the different languages are used for different circumstances, and
the choice is always controlled by social rules (Hudson, 1980). In such a
situation also, each person switches codes several times daily. Hudson (1980)
calls this type of code switching ‘situational code-switching.’ He says that this
is by virtue of the fact that the switching between languages always coincides
with changes from one external situation to another. Each of the languages
has a social role to play, which others cannot. He further claims that bilingual
speakers use their choices of languages to define situations, rather than
letting the situations define the choice of languages. But he also states that
“where language choice varies with the situation, it is clearly the situation
that decides the language, not the other way round. He calls cases where the
choice of languages determines the situation ‘metaphoric code-switching’
(53). Code-switching is a common feature in Nigerian prose. This involves the
characters in the choice of appropriate linguistic codes for different contexts
in their interactions. The authors employ this as a stylistic device to cater
adequately for the varying local situations in their novels. For instance, in A
Man of the People, Achebe engages his characters in code-switching,
depending on the situations in which the characters find themselves. Choices
of appropriate codes enable the characters assume corresponding roles,
which best serve their communicative needs in different speech encounters
(Azuike, 1987). Sometimes, characters communicating in English switch to
indigenous languages or Pidgin English. In informal occasions, Pidgin or local
languages are employed, while English is the medium of communication in
formal situations. In A Man of The People, Chief Nanga, a minister and a major
character in the novel, switches codes in his communication as situations
demand. For instance, in the reception organized in his honor in his
hometown, Anata, a formal occasion, he addresses the audience in Standard
English.

2.8 EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON CODE-MIXING AND CODE-SWITCHING

Code-mixing and code-switching are widespread phenomena in multilingual communities, and

researchers have investigated these practices in various contexts. This essay provides an overview
of empirical studies on code-mixing and code-switching, highlighting key findings and themes.

One study by K. M. Muthwii (2004) examined code-switching patterns among multilingual

speakers in Nairobi's urban areas. The research revealed that code-switching served various
functions, such as marking social boundaries, establishing identity, and negotiating power
relations.

In another study, E. Nicoladis (2010) investigated language mixing and switching in bilingual
children aged 2-5 years. The longitudinal study found that children's language mixing decreased
as they grew older, while code-switching increased, indicating a developing ability to separate
languages.

N. M. Kamwangamalu (2013) explored code-switching in a multilingual community in South

Africa, focusing on language use in social interactions. The study showed that code-switching was
used to construct social identity, signal group membership, and manage social relationships.

H. Y. Lee (2015) examined language choice and code-switching among Mandarin-English

bilinguals. The research revealed that language choice was influenced by factors such as
interlocutor, context, and topic, while code-switching served purposes like emphasis, clarification,
and social bonding.

S. S. A. Razak (2019) investigated code-mixing and code-switching on social media platforms. The
study found that code-mixing was used for creative expression, identity construction, and social
connection, while code-switching facilitated communication and community building.
Here are five more empirical studies on code-mixing and code-switching in essay form:

Code-mixing and code-switching continue to fascinate researchers, and numerous studies have
investigated these phenomena in various contexts. This essay provides an overview of five
additional empirical studies on code-mixing and code-switching, highlighting key findings and
themes.

A study by S. S. A. Razak and N. A. M. Nordin (2019) explored code-mixing and code-switching in

Malaysian social media platforms. The research revealed that code-mixing was used for creative
expression, identity construction, and social connection, while code-switching facilitated
communication and community building.

In another study, A. A. Afolayan (2018) examined code-switching patterns among Nigerian

undergraduates. The research found that code-switching served various functions, such as
establishing social relationships, signaling group membership, and negotiating power dynamics.

J. P. Singh (2016) investigated language mixing and switching in Indian multilingual classrooms.
The study revealed that teachers' code-switching facilitated student comprehension, while
students' code-mixing reflected their developing language proficiency.

M. A. D. B. Mokhtar (2015) explored code-switching in Malay-English bilingual children's language

development. The research found that code-switching increased with age, indicating a
developing ability to separate languages.

Lastly, O. A. Odejide (2014) examined code-mixing and code-switching in Nigerian political

discourse. The study revealed that politicians used code-switching to connect with diverse
audiences, construct identity, and negotiate power relations.
These empirical studies demonstrate the complexity and variability of code-
mixing and code-switching in different contexts. They highlight the importance of
considering social, cultural, and linguistic factors in understanding these phenomena.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the method used in collecting data required in
carrying out this research work; it explains the procedures that were followed
and the instrument used in collecting data.
3.2 Research design

Audio-recording was adopted in the collection of data for the

study. Corporatives among selected students of Faculty of

Arts, Federal University Gashua were audio-recorded by the

researcher to ensure that the conversation served as the

data were natural and unadulterated. The recordings were

done in a way that the participants were unaware.

3.3 Sources of data collection
To conduct a comprehensive sociolinguistics study on code-mixing and code-
switching in Nigeria, it is essential to gather data from various sources. Both primary
and secondary sources can provide valuable insights into language use, attitudes, and
practices.

Primary sources include audio and video recordings of natural conversations or

interviews with Nigerians who use multiple languages. Surveys and questionnaires
can also be administered to individuals or groups to gather information on language
use and attitudes. Participant observation in settings where code-mixing and code-
switching occur, such as markets or social gatherings, can provide rich data.
Additionally, language use diaries or journals kept by individuals can offer a personal
perspective on language use.

Secondary sources include existing research articles, books, and theses on code-
mixing and code-switching in Nigeria or similar contexts. Online language use data
from social media, forums, and blogs can also be analyzed. Language corpora or
datasets, such as news articles, literature, and speech transcripts, can provide a
wealth of information. Government reports and statistics on language use,
education, and population demographics in Nigeria can offer valuable context.
Ethnographic studies and anthropological research on Nigerian cultures and
communities can also inform the study. Language teaching and learning materials,
such as textbooks and language courses, can provide insights into language
pedagogy. Finally, online archives and databases containing Nigerian language data,
such as language documentation projects, can be a valuable resource.

By utilizing both primary and secondary sources, researchers can gather a

comprehensive understanding of code-mixing and code-switching in Nigeria,
shedding light on the complex dynamics of language use in this multilingual country.

3.4Instrument for data collection

The major research instrument used is the questionnaires. This was
appropriately moderated. The secretaries were administered with the
questionnaires to complete, with or without disclosing their identities. The
questionnaire was designed to obtain sufficient and relevant information from
the respondents. The primary data contained information extracted from the
questionnaires in which the respondents were required to give specific answer
to a question by ticking in front of an appropriate answer and administered
the same on staff of the two organizations: The questionnaires contained
about 16 structured questions which was divided into sections A and B
3.5. Validation of the research instrument
The questionnaire used as the research instrument was subjected to face its
validation. This research instrument (questionnaire) adopted was adequately
checked and validated by the supervisor, his contributions and corrections
were included into the final draft of the research instrument used.

3.6 Method of data analysis

The data collected was not an end in itself but it served as a means to an end.
The end being the use of the required data to understand the various
situations it is with a view to making valuable recommendations and
contributions. To this end, the data collected has to be analysis for any
meaningful interpretation to come out with some results. It is for this reason
that the following methods were adopted in the research project for the
analysis of the data collected. For a comprehensive analysis of data collected,
emphasis was laid on the use of absolute numbers frequencies of responses
and percentages. Answers to the research questions were provided through
the comparison of the percentage of workers response to each statement in
the questionnaire related to any specified question being considered.
Frequency in this study refers to the arrangement of responses in order of
magnitude or occurrence while percentage refers to the arrangements of the
responses in order of their proportion.
The simple percentage method is believed to be straight forward easy to
interpret and understand method . the researcher therefore choose the simple
percentage as the method to use. The formula for percentage is shown as.
% = f/N x 100/1
where f = frequency of respondents response
N = Total Number of response of the sample
100 = Consistency in the percentage of respondents for each item
contained in questions.
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION OF DATA

4.1 Introduction
Efforts is made at this stage to present, analyze and interpret the data
collected during the field survey. This presentation will be based on the
responses from the completed questionnaires. The result of this exercise is
summarized in tabular forms for easy references and analysis. It also show
answers to questions relating to the research questions for this research
study. The researcher employed simple percentage in the analysis.

4.2 Data analysis

The data collected from the respondents were analyzed in tabular form with
simple percentage for easy understanding.
A total of 133(one hundred and thirty three) questionnaires were distributed
and 133 questionnaires were returned.
Question 1
Do the undergraduates of Federal University Gashua code-mix and code-
switch?

Table II

Do the undergraduates of Federal University Gashua code-mix and code-switch?

Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agreed 51 38.3 38.3 38.3

Strongly agreed 31 23.3 23.3 61.7

Disagreed 23 17.3 17.3 78.9

Strongly disagreed 28 21.1 21.1 100.0

Total 133 100.0 100.0

In the table above, the researcher asked the respondent do the

undergraduates of Federal University Gashua code-mix and code-switch, it
can be seen that 51 respondents which represents 38.3% of the respondents
agreed that student of Federal University Gashua do code-mix and code-
switch, 31 respondents which represents 23.3% of the respondents strongly
agreed that the student do code-switch, 23 respondents which represents
17.3% of the respondents disagreed to this fact, while 28 respondents which
represents 21.1% strongly disagreed.

The researcher therefore concludes that most students do code-switch and

code-mix.

Question 2

Why do they code-mix and code-switch?

Table II

Why do they code-mix and code-switch?

Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agreed 55 41.4 41.4 41.4

Strongly agreed 34 25.6 25.6 66.9

Disagreed 21 15.8 15.8 82.7

Strongly disagreed 23 17.3 17.3 100.0

Total 133 100.0 100.0

In the table above the researcher asked the respondents, why do they code-
mix and code-switch, it can be observed that 55 respondents which
represents 41.4% of the respondents agreed that students code-mix because
of privacy, 34 respondents which represents 25.6% of the respondents
strongly agreed to this fact, 21 respondents which represents 15.8% of the
respondents disagreed to this fact, while 23 respondents which represents
17.3% of the respondents strongly disagreed.

The researcher therefore concludes that student code-switch because of

privacy.

Question 3
Does the improper acquisition of language lead to code-mixing and code-
switching?

Table III

Does the improper acquisition of language lead to code-mixing and code-switching?

Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agreed 51 38.3 38.3 38.3

 Strongly agreed 36 27.1 27.1 65.4

Disagreed 28 21.1 21.1 86.5

Strongly disagreed 18 13.5 13.5 100.0

Total 133 100.0 100.0

In the table above, the researcher asked the respondents does the improper
acquisition of language lead to code-mixing and code-switching, it was
discovered that 51 respondents which represents 38.3% of the respondents
agreed that improper acquisition of language lead to code-mixing, 36
respondents which represents 27.1% of the respondents strongly agreed to
this fact, 28 respondents which represents 21.1% of the respondents
disagreed, while 18 respondents which represents 13.5% strongly disagreed.

The researcher therefore concludes that improper acquisition of language

amount to code-mixing and code-switching..

Question 4

Does code-mixing and code-switching connote low proficiency?

Table IV

Does code-mixing and code-switching connote low proficiency?

Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Agreed 61 45.9 45.9 45.9

Strongly agreed 32 24.1 24.1 69.9

Disagreed 30 22.6 22.6 92.5

Strongly disagreed 10 7.5 7.5 100.0

Total 133 100.0 100.0

In the table above, the researcher asked the respondents does code-mixing
and code-switching connote low proficiency, it was discovered that 61
respondents which represents 45.9% of the respondents agreed that code-
switching and code-mixing connote low proficiency level, 32 respondents
which represents 24.1% of the respondents strongly agreed, 30 respondents
which represents 22. 6 % of the respondents disagreed, while 10 respondents
which represent 7.5% of the respondents strongly disagreed to this fact.

The researcher therefore concludes that code-switching and code-mixing

amount to low proficiency.
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

It is important to ascertain that the objective of this study was to investigate

the effect of sociolinguistic study of code-mixing and code-switching in
Nigerian higher institutions.
In the preceding chapter, the relevant data collected for this study were
presented, critically analyzed and appropriate interpretation given. In this
chapter, certain recommendations made which in the opinion of the
researcher will be of benefits in addressing the challenges of code-mixing and
code-switching in higher institutions.

5.2 Summary

Concept of „code-mixing‟ and „code-switching‟ is an ordinary phenomenon in

the area of bilingualism. These phenomena occur when bilinguals substitute a
word or phrase from one language to another language. Code-mixing and
code-switching are widespread phenomena in multilingual institutions or
environments where speakers use their native tongue (L1) and their second
language (L2) in different domains. In monolingual societies, people may think
that code-switching and code mixing is very unnatural. However, code-mixing
and Code-switching may influence bilinguals‟ languages positively. Code
switching occurs when the bilinguals attempt to maintain order, to create
solidarity or empathy, to cover lack of experience or strategies, to rephrase or
modify their speech among many other reasons. The phenomenon of code
switching is consequently also present in second language learning situation.
For instance, during an English lesson in a school, English and the first
language which are also called frequently switched. Many teachers of English
code switching as a communicative strategy for learners with insufficient
vocabulary resources and thus as a source of concern. Consequently, these
teachers may be intolerant of switching to the native language. At the same
time, recent studies suggest that code switching is a part of the process of
acquiring a second language and that may be an important competence in
itself in the way the speaker is able to alternate between the two languages
and employ each language for specific purposes.

5.3 Conclusion

Code switching is a common phenomenon in multilingual Nigeria, especially

among the student of higher institutions. Among the three regional languages
in Nigeria, Yoruba when codeswitch to English bilinguals seem to be more
vulnerable to this phenomenon as it is almost difficult o see an educated
Yoruba speaking person speak in complete Yoruba language without code
switching to English. This switch is known among the Yoruba speaking people
of Nigeria. It is imperative that people get aware of linguistic situations and
possible consequences of bi/multilingualism in their institutions.

5.4 Recommendations

Haven successfully complete the study,I therefore consider it necessary to

recommend that studies on relations among culture, identity and linguistic
practices should lean towards cross-cultural and cross-linguistic approaches,
which appropriate inexhaustible data and resources for assessing theoretical
generalizations amenable from rather monolingual, singular cultures and
speech environments.

I also recommend that even though code-mixing and switching cannot be

totally eradicated among the student, it should definitely be reduced to the
barest minimum among the lecturers and other academic staff in the
institution to avoid tribalism and favoritism

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