Risk taking: Giving ESL students an edge

Ruth Gledhill, Northern Territory Education Department. Dale Morgan, Northern Territory Education
Department

What teaching strategies encourage risk-taking?

Modeling and scaffolding

Regardless of whether they are adults or children, people will only take risks when they believe there is a
good chance they will succeed. No one buys a lottery ticket because they think they won’t win; skydivers
would not jump out of a plane if they believed their parachutes would not open; we would not step off the
curb and attempt to cross the road if we believed we would be hit by a bus on the way. Such is the case
with students in class: they will be unlikely to ‘have a go’ unless they believe they have the skills to at least
get it partially right. Through use of the techniques of modeling and scaffolding, teachers can structure
teaching/learning situations so the students believe they can succeed.

Modeling provides students with the language they need to convey their meanings and shows them the
skills they require in order to complete a given task. Scaffolding reduces the amount of risk they must take
by supporting them during the communication process and providing the ‘missing bits’ when they cannot
fully express their meaning in English.

What are modeling and scaffolding?

The term modeling is self-explanatory. Modeling occurs when teachers provide demonstrations for
students. By watching, listening and/or reading, students gain information and cues they can use to assist
them to complete a task or to produce either oral or written texts. Both processes and forms may need to
be modeled so students are aware of the goals towards which they are working.

Scaffolding is an interactive method of teaching and learning where the teacher provides a temporary
framework for the learner who is working just beyond his/her independent capabilities (NTDE, 1995). It can
and should occur in all aspects of learning in order to assist students to achieve their potential, and
comprises the temporary guiding, modeling and cueing of students. The teacher sharing the cognitive
workload to link the known to the unknown using the techniques of achieves this:

o Cueing and questioning

o Demonstrating and modeling
o Role and problem identification
o Planning
o Monitoring
o Evaluating

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Through the teacher’s scaffolding students are encouraged to assume increased responsibility for their
learning. In practical terms, scaffolding might include such things as:

o Having concrete examples for reference

o Body language & gestures
o Language accompanying action
o Building on to what students say
o Rephrasing
o Guided questioning
o Charts and frameworks
o Picture cues
o Word lists
o Negotiating texts before students write independently
o Working from oral to written

Scaffolding reduces the possibility of the student making mistakes by doing the activity with the learner
(Gray, 1990).

Scaffolding oral English:

For ESL students the scaffolding of oral English is especially important. To do this the teacher joins the
learners in the activities they are doing and:

o Provides the English vocabulary and structures they need for the activity
o Provides the English words to talk about the Western concepts in the activity

During this time s/he:

o Expects the students to supply whatever English they are able to within the context of the
activity
o Builds onto what the students say by rephrasing it in more complete English by
o Supplying words and structures which the students are not able to give at the point where
they need to use the English
o Encourages and expects the student to use the rephrased language either to restate what
s/he said or later in the same context for a communicative purpose (op cit NTDE)

For the ESL learner, scaffolding is essential if s/he is to feel comfortable to take risks using English in
school. Through scaffolding, the teacher is able to set the learner up to succeed in set tasks, and when this
happens learning becomes intrinsically motivating.

How can we fit all of this into a teaching program?

A language-learning model:

By following a language-learning model, the teacher can ensure that the extra steps ESL students need to
enable them to take risks using language are incorporated into the teaching sequence. Firstly it is important
that students are taught the English language that links to concepts they already have and supports the

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concepts they will be learning. Students need sufficient time to become familiar with the vocabulary
associated with the field of knowledge for each activity. Opportunities should be created for them to use
and practice this language orally before being required to read and/or write it.

Language needs to occur in meaningful settings for real purposes where teachers respond to the meaning
of students’ talk and are ready to model and scaffold at the point of need. This means that careful planning
is necessary so teachers are aware of the language demands of the tasks they set for the students and are
prepared for the possible difficulties associated with these.

The planning process includes the following steps:

Deciding the context: This is driven by the unit of work and provides the reason or purpose for using
language. It should be as real as possible. Excursions and shared activities/experiences are useful tools to
ensure that language is used in a meaningful way and for a real purpose.

Deciding the content: This is based on language needs of the learners, together with curriculum outcomes.
It entails the following:

o What words will the students need to use? Which of these may be unfamiliar?
o What grammatical structures will they need to use?
o Are there any sounds they are having difficulty with?
o Is there any associated body language that is different to that of the ‘home culture’?
o Are there any specific English socio-cultural rules they will need to use?

Planning the learning experience: This incorporates subject specific outcomes in addition to the language
outcomes.

The language-learning model should include:

o Time for introduction of new materials

o Opportunities for students to use the language in simulated or real life situations
o Opportunities for practice and feedback where the teacher can scaffold if necessary. In this
way vocabulary associated with the field of knowledge is built up and the grammar and
sounds of English can be reinforced until
o Students feel confident to use the language spontaneously and independently.

Model the language

Students practice the language

Scaffolding occurs here

Reinforce the language

Independent, spontaneous use of the language.

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A language-learning model for ESL teaching adapted from Gledhill & Morgan, 1999 (in Cook et al)

Thus, modeling provides the students with the English words and structures they need and scaffolding can
occur during each of the subsequent steps until proficiency is reached.

What programs support ESL students in risk taking?

Mainstream programs are designed for students whose first language is English. As a result, ESL learners
in these programs can be exposed to overwhelming risk unless teachers are sensitive to the particular
requirements of second language teaching. Programs should incorporate activities to teach the associated
language and its appropriate use before students are expected to participate in communicative activities.
We will now examine the philosophy of one such program, First Steps, to consider the degree to which it
caters for the needs of ESL students and the amount of risk it exposes them to.

ESL, risk taking and First Steps

The First Steps program aims to increase teachers’ understandings and skills in literacy teaching. It maps
students’ literacy in developmental phases, incorporates a professional development program for teachers
and provides frameworks and strategies on which to base literacy programs. It is based on the following
underlying theoretical assumptions:

o Language learning takes place through interactions in meaningful events rather than
through isolated language activities
o Language learning is seen as holistic; that is each mode of language supports and
enhances overall language development
o Language develops in relation to the context in which it is used; that is, it develops
according to the situation, the topic under discussion, and the relationship between the
participants
o Language develops through the active engagement of the learners
o Language develops through interaction and the joint construction of meaning in a range of
contexts
o Language learning can be enhanced by learners monitoring their own progress
o The way in which children begin to make sense of the world is constructed through the
language they use and reflects cultural understandings and values. (EDWA, 1994)

Risk taking is implied in all of these. First Steps was designed to cater for learners whose first language is
English; hence it assumes competence in English, which ESL students may not have. In addition,
frameworks that map first language development do not reflect second language learning. Whilst the theory

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can be seen to be compatible with that of second language learning, the latter incorporates other important
aspects that should not be forgotten in relation to reducing the risk factor.

Current ESL methodology is based on eight principles of language learning. Close examination reveals that
they differ from First Steps’ theory of language in some significant ways that allow teachers to control the
degrees of risk involved. According to ESL methodology, learners learn a language best when they:

o Are treated as individuals with their own needs and interests

o Are provided with opportunities to participate in communicative use of the target language
in a wide range of activities
o Are exposed to communicative data which is comprehensible and relevant to their own
needs and interests
o Focus deliberately on various language forms, skills and strategies in order to support the
process of language acquisition
o They are exposed to socio-cultural data and direct experience of the culture(s) embedded
within the target language
o They become aware of the role and nature of language and of culture
o Are provided with appropriate feedback about their progress
o Are provided with opportunities to manage their own learning.

(Vale, Scarino & McKay, 1991)

Second language theory recognizes individual needs of language learners and the importance of
comprehensible input that is relevant to these needs. In addition, it identifies the explicit teaching of all
aspects of language, including the socio-cultural, and acknowledges the integrated nature of culture and
language. By incorporating these factors into language learning experiences, teachers can begin to
regulate the amount of risk students are required to take.

A large number of Australian schools have adopted the First Steps approach to literacy teaching and many
of these schools also cater for ESL students, some of whom will be Indigenous. For example, out of a total
of 182 schools in the Northern Territory, 105 are First Steps schools (figure provided by the NTDE Literacy
Support Officer, Schools South) and Indigenous students comprise 35.2% of the total number of students in
NT schools (NTDE, 1999, p.128). Teachers in these situations should become familiar with second
language learning theory to ensure that the ESL students in their classes have equity of access to the
learning program.

Effective learning: PEWIT (acronym for factors to enhance learning below)

According to its theoretical assumptions, First Steps teaching and learning activities are underpinned by the
following factors that are believed to enhance learning:

o Problem solving
o Embeddedness
o Working memory
o Interaction
o Time
o (op cit EDWA)

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Do these factors support ESL learners? To answer this question, we need to consider what First Steps
means by each term and how each might impact on learning for ESL students. The analysis below begins
with the First Steps ‘position’ and goes on in each case to consider the implications for risk taking for ESL
learners.

Problem Solving

Effective learning occurs when children and adults are able to modify and extend their
understandings in order to make sense of a situation that has challenged them.

However, ESL students may not have the English skills necessary in order for them to fully understand the
purposes and processes of the tasks that have been set. They will only be able to use English for problem
solving if they have been taught the subject- or task-specific language. It is beneficial for ESL students to
have opportunities to discuss concepts and develop understandings in their first language. However, whilst
concepts may be developed in this way, the students may not have the English necessary to express their
learning to teachers and English speaking peers. Hence their participation in problem-solving activities may
be limited and modified by unwillingness or inability to take risks with language.

Embeddedness:

Learners need to be able to make connections between what they already know and the
new learning they are undertaking. If learners have limited prior knowledge of a topic, the
context and the problem will make more sense if they are embedded in reality.

This is especially relevant for ESL learners. Shared experiences provide opportunities for teachers to
model new, subject-specific language in a meaningful context and to scaffold students’ responses. This
allows students to make links between the English words and structures and the concepts they may
already have that are an essential beginning for language learning. It also provides the supportive
environment students need in order to take risks using the new language. Some ways to effectively set
contexts and model language for new learning are through ‘hands-on’ activities from cross-curriculum areas
such as science experiments, art and craft activities, cooking, excursions or inviting visitors to the class.

Working Memory:

This is the amount of mental space available for problem solving. It is a measure of the
number of discrete elements with which the mind can cope at any one time and is affected
by emotional issues. Fear, anger, or worry may inhibit a person’s ability to learn by taking
up space in the working memory.

Teachers need to be mindful of this when expecting students to take risks. ESL students often have many
emotional issues and concerns. They may experience fear of being wrong, frustrations in communicating
and confusions about classroom expectations -- all of which can severely impact on their learning. In
addition, too much language can overload the working memory of ESL students. Vocabulary should be
introduced in manageable amounts and familiar language used to teach new skills. Teachers can build
from the known to the unknown, rephrase complex language into plain English, and use frameworks and
other cues to lessen the load on memory so students are able to focus on particular aspects of a task that
require them to take risks.

Interaction:

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 This is fundamental to learning. We all need to discuss ideas, use each other as sounding
boards and build on each other’s expertise. It is through talk that ideas are generated
refined and extended.

People learn language by using language in meaningful situations, thus communicative and activity-based
tasks that allow for interaction are vital for ESL students. However, they will only be able to interact in
English if the language relating to the activity has been taught. Interaction enables ESL students to hear
language models from other students as well as the teacher. It provides opportunities for their attempts at
communicating in English to be scaffolded at the point of need. However, as different cultures have
different ways of interacting, ESL students may need to be taught the ‘rules’ of using English, such as polite
language, and turn-taking in conversation; otherwise the risks they do take may not be well received.

Time:

Effective learning requires time to construct understandings gradually through inquiry,

exploration and problem solving. Time is needed to process information: to consolidate
and integrate new understandings through practice.

ESL students need even more time. When responding to questions, they need time to interpret the
question, formulate an answer and work out how to express it in English. They need to be allowed sufficient
‘thinking time’ to do this. Often the amount of time they require extends silence beyond the comfort zone of
teachers. We have to be careful not to fill in this ‘thinking’ time with even more language for the student to
process and to remember that they are not only learning a new language, but also trying to learn through
that language. Students cannot be expected to take risks using language unless sufficient time is allowed
for them to process their responses.

It is important for teachers of ESL students to remember that second language learning differs from first
language learning in significant ways. Whilst programs designed for students whose first language is
English have sound theoretical bases, they need to be closely examined before being applied to second
language teaching/learning situations.

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Conclusions

Risk involves fear and fear is a barrier to learning

Whilst risk taking seems to be widely accepted as a paradigm for learning, it also presents a paradox. It
implies fear, which is a barrier to learning. In addition, whilst there is a chance of being wrong, by
implication there is also a possibility of being correct. It is this that drives people to take risks.

Teachers need to understand what risk entails

If students are expected to take risks in order to learn, then teachers must understand what risk entails.
Gaining these understandings allows teacher to control the amount of risk involved in the teaching/learning
sequences and to keep it within levels that will increase chances of success for ESL students.

There are classroom implications related to the conditions under which risk taking occurs

The teacher and the environment need to be supportive. People who are familiar with and trust each other
are more likely to take risks. They need to feel that they and their contributions will be respected and valued
by the teacher and other learners; that it is OK to make mistakes and that individuals’ experiences,
attitudes and knowledge will be recognized and built upon (Boud & Griffin, 1987. p.57).

Specific teaching strategies can be utilized to enable risk taking

We must build the necessary degree of safety into the teaching/learning situations we plan. The degree of
risk students are expected to take can be controlled by:

o Explicitly teaching context specific language

o Allowing opportunities for practice before students are expected to engage in public risk.
o Providing models and scaffolding responses in meaningful communicative activities
o Making the expectations and goals of the activity clear to students.

The teaching program needs to incorporate a language-learning model

Learning situations need to be structured so that learners have the information and skills they need in order
to believe that they can succeed at the task. In addition, teachers should be prepared to scaffold language
at the point of need. This requires careful planning and is facilitated by following a language-learning model
that provides comprehensible input and allows time and opportunities for students to practice new
language.

Mainstream programs do not necessarily support ESL students sufficiently to enable them to take risks

It is important for teachers to realize that mainstream programs may need modification before they can
cater for the specific needs of ESL students. Whilst First Steps philosophy may appear compatible with
current ESL theory and methodology, it assumes reasonable competency in English. ESL students may not
have this so it is necessary to be mindful of the increased risk factors produced.

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All of these factors need to be taken into consideration when risk is expected to be used as a tool for
learning. Students will not acquire the ability and desire to take risks as a result of merely attending school:
they need to be provided with the stepping stones along the path to success. This is especially important
when students do not share the positive cultural value placed on error by members of Western culture.

ESL learners need to take ‘Extra Steps’, with support from sensitive and informed guides, as they tread the
tortuous path towards English proficiency. This helps them to take the risks necessary to give them an
edge to successful school learning.

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