LIS 223-Psychology of Information Users

COURSE
GUIDE
LIS403
INFORMATION-SEEKING BEHAVIOUR
Course Team Ibegbulam, Ijeoma J. PhD, CLN (Course

Developer/Writer) – UNN
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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

LIS 403 COURSE GUIDE
© 2022 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Published 2022
ISBN: 978-978-058-296-8
ii
LIS403 COURSE GUIDE
Introduction
Welcome to LIS403: Information-seeking Behaviour. This is a two-credit
(2-CR) unit course that is compulsory for all the undergraduate students
in the department. The course is designed to enable you to broaden your
understanding of information-seeking behaviour as it applies to library
and information science. This will facilitate an excellent successful
academic journey and enhance your personal development and increase
your knowledge base in the area of library and information science
especially as you proceed in your training towards becoming competent
professional librarians and information scientists who will provide
excellent services to your library users.
Course Objectives
By the end of this course you will be able to:
i. Define some Related Concepts
ii. Know about information sources/resources and information
retrieval
iii. Consider the Information User
iv. Consider Information User Studies
v. Examine Information behaviour Models
vi. Examine some Information-Seeking Models Relevant to Library
and Information Science
vii. Examine the Information Behaviour of Users in Various Contexts.
Working Through this Course

This course consists of both theoretical and practical parts. To complete
this course successfully, you are required to go through the modules and
carefully read the study units, do all practical exercises and assessments
and also explore the references provided for more in-depth knowledge of
the course. Some recommended books and other materials that you are to
read are available to you. Ensure that you read them and also attend the
practical sessions of this course. Always participate in the online
facilitations going on in your study centre. Each unit of study has an
introduction, objectives you should achieve at the end of the study, and a
summary and conclusion informing you in a nutshell of what you studied
in the unit. Above all, there is the Self-Assignment Exercise (SAE) to
evaluate what you have learnt. You can download the courseware into
your device so that you can study it whenever you are offline.
Each study unit has an introduction, intended learning outcomes, the main
content, summary, conclusion, and references/further readings. The
introduction opens the door to each unit and gives a glimpse of the
expectations in the study unit. Read and note the intended learning
outcomes (ILOs) which outline what you should be able to do at the
iii
completion of each study unit. This will help you evaluate your learning
at the end of each unit to ensure you have achieved the desired objectives
(outcomes).
Study Units
There are 13 study units in this course divided into four modules. The
modules and units are presented as follows:
Module 1 Definition of Concepts
Unit 1 Concept of Information
Unit 2 Concept of Information Behaviour
Unit 3 Concept of Information Need
Unit 4 Concept of Information-seeking Behaviour
Module 2 Information Sources/Resources and Information
Retrieval
Unit 1 Information Sources/Resources
Unit 2 Information Retrieval in Digital Libraries
Unit 3 Information Retrieval in Libraries
Module 3 The Information User

Unit 1 Definition of Information User
Unit 2 Library User Studies
Module 4 Theoretical/Conceptual Models of Information

Behaviour
Unit 1 Concept of Information Behaviour Model in Library and
Information Science
Unit 2 Concept of Information-Seeking Behaviour Model in
Library and Information Science
Module 5 Information Behaviour in Different Contexts
Unit 1 Information Behaviour of User Groups in the University
Context
Unit 2 Information Behaviour of Users in Organisational Context
Unit 3 Information Behaviour of Users on the Web
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LIS403 COURSE GUIDE
Presentation Schedule
The presentation schedule gives you the important dates for the
completion of your computer-based tests, participation in forum
discussions and facilitation. Remember, you are to submit all your
assignments at the appropriate time. You should guide against delays and
plagiarism in your work. Plagiarism is a criminal offence in academics
and is liable to heavy sanctions.
Assessment
There are two main forms of assessments in this course that will be
scored: the continuous assessment and the final examination. The
continuous assessment shall be in three-folds. There will be two
Computer-Based Assessments. The computer-based assessments will
be given in accordance with the University academic calendar. The
timing must be strictly adhered to. The Computer-Based Assessments
shall be scored a maximum of 10% each, while your participation in
discussion forums and your portfolio presentation shall be scored a
maximum of 10% if you meet 75% participation. Therefore, the
maximum score for continuous assessment shall be 30% which shall form
part of the final grade. The final examination for LIS 403 will be a
maximum of two hours and it takes 70 per cent of the total course grade.
The examination will consist of 70 multiple choice questions that reflect
cognitive reasoning.
Note: You will earn a 10% score if you meet the minimum of 75%
participation in the course forum discussions and in your portfolios
otherwise you will lose 10% of your total score. You will be required to
upload your portfolio using Google Docs. What are you expected to do in
your portfolio? Your portfolio should be notes or jottings you made on
each study unit and activity.
How to Get the Most from the Course
To get the most in this course, you need a functional laptop and access to
the Internet. This will make studying and learning easy and the course
materials accessible anywhere and anytime. Use the Learning Outcomes
to guide your self-study in the course. At the end of every unit, examine
yourself with learning outcomes and see if you have achieved the
outcomes.
Carefully work through each unit and make your notes. Join the online
real-time facilitation as scheduled. Where you miss a schedule for online
real-time facilitation, go through the recorded facilitation session at your
convenience. Each real-time facilitation will be video recorded and posted
on the platform. In addition to the real-time facilitation, watch the video
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and audio-recorded summary in each unit. The video/audio summaries

are directed to the salient points in each unit. You can access the audio
and videos by clicking on the links in the text or through the course page.
Work through all self-assessment exercises. Finally, obey the rules in the
class.
Facilitation
You will receive online facilitation. The facilitation is learner-centred.
The mode of facilitation shall be asynchronous and synchronous. For the
asynchronous facilitation, your facilitator will:
 Present the theme of the week;
 Direct and summarise forum discussions;
 Coordinate activities on the platform;
 Score and grade activities when needed;
 Upload scores into the university recommended platform;
 Support and help you to learn. In this regard, personal mails may
be sent;
 Send videos, audio lectures and podcasts to you.
For the synchronous:
 There will be eight hours of online real-time contact in the course.
This will be through video conferencing in the Learning
Management System. the eight hours shall be of one-hour contact
for eight times.
 At the end of each one-hour video conferencing, the video will be
uploaded for viewing at your pace.
 The facilitator will concentrate on the main themes that you must
know in the course.
 The facilitator will take you through the course guide in the first
lecture at the start date of facilitation.
Do not hesitate to contact your facilitator. Contact your facilitator if you:
 Do not understand any part of the study units or the assignments
 Have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises.
 Have any questions or problems with an assignment or with your
tutor’s comments on your assignment.
Also, use the contact provided for technical support.
Read all the comments and notes of your facilitator especially on your
assignments; participate in the forums and discussions. This gives you the
opportunity to socialise with others in the programme. You can discuss
any problem encountered during your study. To gain the maximum
benefit from course facilitation, prepare a list of questions before the
discussion session. You will learn a lot from participating actively in the
discussions.
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LIS403 COURSE GUIDE
Finally, respond to the questionnaire. This will help the university to

know your areas of challenges and how to improve on them for the review
of the course materials and lectures.
Module 1 Definition of Concepts
Unit 1: Concept of Information
Unit 2 Concepts of Behaviour and Information Behaviour
Unit 4 Concept of Information-Seeking Behaviour
Module 2 Information Sources/Resources and Information
Retrieval


Behaviour
Unit 1: Concept of Information Behaviour Model in Library and
Information Science
Unit 2: Concept of Information-Seeking Behaviour Model in
Library and Information Science
Context
Unit 2 Information Behaviour of Users in Organisational Context
Unit 3 Information Behaviour of Users on the Web
The future is yours, so embrace it. You may not know what the road ahead has
to offer, but you can prepare yourself to achieve. Remember to carefully and
thoughtfully take it step by step. Reaching your goals can be challenging. You
may encounter several twists and turns. But in the end, you will have succeeded.
Ford, Knight & McDonald-Littleton
vii
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS
Module 1 Definition of Concepts……………….. 1

Unit 1 Concept of Information…………………... 1
Unit 2 Concept of Information Behaviour………. 12
Unit 3 Concept of Information Need……………. 18
Unit 4 Concept of Information-seeking Behaviour 30
Module 2 Information Sources/Resources and

Information Retrieval………………. 44
Unit 1 Information Sources/Resources…………. 44
Unit 2 Information Retrieval in Digital Libraries. 55
Unit 3 Information Retrieval in Libraries………. 66
Module 3 The Information User……………… 73

Unit 1 Definition of Information User………….. 73
Unit 2 Library User Studies……………………. . 83
Module 4 Theoretical/Conceptual Models of

Information Behaviour……………… 97
Unit 1 Concept of Information Behaviour Model
in Library and Information Science………. 97
Model in Library and Information Science 109
Module 5 Information Behaviour in Different

Contexts……………………………… 125
Unit 1 Information Behaviour of User Groups in
the University Context……………………. 125
Unit 2 Information Behaviour of Users in
Organisational Context…………………… 132
Unit 3 Information Behaviour of Users on the Web 140
LIS 403 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
Unit 1 Concept of Information

Unit 2 Concept of Behaviour and Information Behaviour
Unit 1 Definition of Information
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes
1.3 Definition of Information
1.3.1 Attributes of Information
1.3.2 Types of Information
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1.1 Introduction
Information is important for success in life. If you are to succeed in your
academics, you need information. If you are to help or serve people better
as an information professional, you need information. This is why
information is considered a basic human requirement. To that extent,
society and the people and institutions in them require information for
efficient and effective functioning.
Information is necessary for guidance and decision-making. Without
information, you will be ignorant and it will be difficult for you to follow
the trend of events. This is true irrespective of what field or walk of life
one belongs to in society. For example, the market woman needs
information about the prices of goods and where to get her supplies at
cheaper prices. This information is important for buying and selling
goods. The government requires information about the citizens in order
to know how policies affect them and what can be done to improve their
standard of living. With the correct information, the government can plan
better.
As students, you require information to understand how the university
system works to avoid breaking the rules and regulations. You also
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LIS 403 INFORMATION-SEEKING BEHAVIOUR
require information to become more effective in your learning experience

and to have the desired outcomes. In the same vein, your lecturers require
information to be more effective and understand students’ needs. They
also need information on advances in their teaching areas to keep their
students current on trends in their field, teach and conduct meaningful
research.
Generally, everyone needs information for negotiations in our daily life
among other uses. However, if the information is to help you achieve the
intended outcome, you must be able to properly analyse your information
needs and understand how you can go about locating and accessing the
most relevant information you need as well as be able to evaluate and use
the information to meet your needs. As librarians, you need to understand
your users’ information needs and seeking behaviours to serve them better
because information is important for everyone. At the end of the day,
possession of the correct information is what will determine the extent of
one’s success.
As librarians in training, if you are careful and diligent to follow the
discussions and other requirements of this course such as the exercises,
and the self-assessment tests outlined in this course, you will stand a good
chance of not only understanding the conceptual models related to
information behaviour, your own information needs, and the methods to
adopt in seeking and meeting your information needs, but will also know
how to assist other people especially, your library users to understand
their information needs and locate the most relevant information to meet
their needs.
1. 2 Intended Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 discuss the various definitions and meanings of information
 discuss the attributes and types of information.
1.3 Definition of Information

Before we delve into the discussion on information-seeking behaviour, it
is important to understand what information is. That will form the basis
for understanding why people seek information, and the methods they
adopt in seeking information.
Often we hear the phrase “we live in the information age.” This phrase is
used to emphasise that information is a much-needed commodity in the
present age. The term information also crops up quite frequently in our
daily discussions. However, finding a universally acceptable definition of
the term has been a major concern.
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
This is so because while some researchers are of the view that there is no
need to seek a definition and rather opt to describe the term, others are of
the view that a definition of the term is necessary for clearer
understanding. This dilemma is further amplified by the explosion in
telecommunications and computer sciences that tend to enshroud the
concept with scientific prestige which makes it almost unnecessary to
seek any other meaning outside the two fields of telecommunications and
computer science (Lombardi, 2004).
To that extent, there is no one definition of the term information because
it means different things to different people and its meaning can also
depend on the context of use. This is why different individuals in different
professional fields or walks of life often define the term from the
perspective of their professional field or leaning.
The apparent difficulty in defining information has resulted in
information scientists being reluctant to propose definitions of
information, preferring to rather discuss concepts. The preference for
discussion of concepts rather than definitions according to Belkin cited in
Madden (2000) is because while a definition seeks to say what the
phenomenon being defined is, a concept on the other hand presents a way
of looking at or interpreting the phenomenon. Be that as it may, we will
attempt to present some definitions as postulated by some researchers.
One of the most common ways of defining the term is to describe it.
Information is one or more statements or facts that are received by a
human and that have some form of worth to the recipient (Losee, 1997).
From this definition, we can deduce that information is not just casual
discussions. It is rather a discussion that is laced with facts. Information
is received by a human element and the value that is assigned to the
information received is dependent on how relevant or useful it is
perceived by the recipient.
From this simple definition of the term, it is apparent that the layperson
views information as an item of information or intelligence; a fact or
circumstance of which one is told (OED cited in Madden, 2000).
In their review of definitions of the term information as gleaned from
research conducted over the last fifty years, McCreadie and Rice cited in
Madden (2000) summarise the different approaches that information has
been rendered as given below.
 Information as a representation of knowledge
As a representation of knowledge, information is conceived as stored
knowledge as we have it traditionally stored in books. Increasingly,
however, information is being stored in electronic media. Therefore,
besides books, information and communication technologies all contain
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information. In libraries today, both books and information and

communication technologies are media that all contain information.
 Information as data in the environment

Information seen from this perspective means that it is not only what is
contained in books or electronic resources or media that should be called
information rather, information can also be obtained from a range of
environmental stimuli and phenomena. Understandably, information
obtained from some sources do not immediately convey a message
however; the information can be informative when appropriately
examined and interpreted.
 Information as part of the communication process

Information as part of the communication process implies that meanings
are in people rather than in words or data. In essence, the meaning that
people attach to phenomena is what it is rather than the words or data. For
instance, we name a thing and we attach meaning to it such that when that
name is mentioned, it conjures up a certain picture. Today, new
phenomena have emerged which were not there many years ago. Those
things did not exist in the past and so had no meanings attached to them.
To that extent, it is valid to say that timing and social factors play a
significant role in the processing and interpretation of information. In
essence, information is believed to be socially constructed.
 Information as a resource or commodity

Information is transmitted in a message from sender to receiver. The
receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender. There may be
added value as the information is disseminated or exchanged. Therefore,
if the message sent by the sender is distorted, it will affect the receiver’s
interpretations.
Furthermore, in the attempt to define the term, a distinction has been

made between two words that people tend to use interchangeably:
information and data. Information is defined as “processed, organised
and structured data. It [Information] provides context for data and
enables decision-making processes” while “data are individual facts,
statistics or items of information, often numeric” (Wikipedia, 2022).
In the sense of the distinction above, data or pieces of data contain some
value which results in information when it is processed, organised and
structured. Therefore, it is only when data is processed, organised and
structured and given a meaning that it results in information that enable
decision-making. An example can be drawn from the circulation
statistics that are kept in the library. To an outsider, the data would not
make sense unless it is processed, organised and structured in terms of
how many books were consulted, in what subject fields and at what
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
time by users, and within what given period etc. This series of data can
be written up as a report which invariably helps library management to
make decisions about library usage that can in turn affect policy
decisions.
In that sense, when data is put in context and processed, organised and
structured, it produces information which in turn gives rise to
knowledge that is used for decision making by management.
Knowledge itself is organised body of information or the
comprehension and understanding that is gained as a result of one
having acquired an organised body of facts.
This means that information produces knowledge. Information makes

for insight. However, this view of data-information-knowledge is
obviously hierarchical and may be mostly associated with information
systems (IS) because that is not how human beings store or
communicate. Human beings do not first produce data which is further
processed, organised and structured before it makes sense.
Webler (2022) defines information as the resolution of uncertainty that

manifests itself as patterns; it answers the question of "What an entity
is" and thus defines both its essence and the nature of its
characteristics. Therefore, information when received is supposed to
help in resolving uncertainty. One should be better equipped to function
once information is received.
The view above is in contrast with the data-information-knowledge

view but in agreement with another view of information known as the
knowledge-in-action view of information which does not see
information as a prerequisite for knowledge, but rather as a specific
subset of knowledge in the sense that it is only what is understood by
an individual that can become information to him/her. It, therefore,
implies if something further confuses us, we cannot say that we have
information. This is because it has done nothing to satisfy our need for
it and as such does not present any advantage to us. It is also important
to note that individuals decide what information is to them depending
on the time and context. One may get a certain piece of information
which at the material time is either outdated and therefore not useful or
is coming too early for its use. In that case, while the information is
valid by every standard, it is not used because it is not meant for the
time or it is not applicable in the context we are at the material time.
Another definition says that information is the product of different

human activities and events. People and organisations engage or
undertake activities as they pursue certain objectives and from such
events, information is produced. Clearly, events are things that happen,
occur or take place as a result of the activities of men and in line with
5
their objectives (Egyankosh, n.d.). To that extent, it is human beings

that generate information through the activities that they perform either
individually or organisationally following events that have taken place.
In essence, information is not self-generated or produced without
purpose. In libraries for instance, statistics are generated on days that
the library doors are open. No activities take place on public holidays;
therefore, no statistics are generated or recorded on such days.
Some other authors are of the view that the term information is all
encompassing, not limited in nature. The implication is that we cannot be
discriminatory in our use of the term by associating it with only a certain
form. It is therefore, a misconception to limit the term information to only
word of mouth or printed words (Nasreen, 2006). Nasreen is of the view
that colours also constitute information in the same way that artwork,
body movements, gestures and facial expressions constitute information.
Information can also be a fact such as a name, class, job timings as also a
quantifiable physical quantity such as speed, sound waves, temperature
and pressure (p.36).
Information about any entity means representation of an entity and so
information has a life of its own. The implication is that everything that
can be felt, observed, detected, perceived and anticipated by an agent is
information (Isazadeh, 2014; Gershenson, 2010).
Self-Assessment Exercise 1
Attempt these questions to measure what you have learnt so far. This
should not take you more than 5 minutes.
1. In the hierarchical order, which one out of the following is
correct?
a. Knowledge -Information- Data
b. Information -Knowledge- Data
c. Data -Knowledge- Information
d. Data- Information- Knowledge
2. Information is processed, organised and structured data.

True False
1.3.1 Attributes of Information

Having looked at some definitions of the term information, and
making some distinction between it and data, often wrongly
conceived to mean information, it is important to look at some
attributes of information. This will provide a basis for further
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
understanding of what we should look out for when we talk about

information.
An attribute is a quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or

inherent part of someone or something. So, when we talk about
attributes of information, we are referring to the quality or
characteristics of information. We shall be looking at five attributes of
information: accuracy, completeness, reliability, relevance, and
timeliness.
 Accuracy
Accuracy is concerned with how correct or reliable is the

information? Is that information a true reflection of the data upon
which it is based? Is the information error free and without mistakes
and biases? These are important questions to ask and answer given
that information forms the basis for decision making. If the
information is not accurate, it follows that any decision that is based
on it will be flawed. In essence, as an information professional, it is
paramount that the information that you provide to your users is
accurate to enable them to make more informed decisions and apply
it appropriately.
 Completeness
Completeness is about the comprehensiveness of information.

Incomplete information might be unusable as it will have gaps. The
completeness of information will determine the quality of the
decision that it is based on. It, therefore, means that all the aspects
that are needed to make the information complete must be available.
Take, for instance, a report to management on user registration which
is not accompanied by such data as the year of registration. That is
not complete because it does not situate the information. Salient
aspects of that information must be present to make it usable.
 Reliability
Reliability of information means that the information should not be

contradictory to information in a different source or system within
the organisation. Contradictory information is not trustworthy. Any
decision that is based on unreliable or contradictory information can
be costly in financial and other terms and consequently, can hinder
effectiveness and efficiency. Let us assume for instance that a library
uses both manual and electronic system such as an Integrated Library
Management System (ILMS) in its book acquisitions recording. It is
expected that the information that is contained in these two systems
should be the same. If the manual system of recording in an accession
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register for instance gives a certain figure as the total holdings, it is

expected that the same information is contained in the Integrated
Library Management System (ILMS). Where this is not so, the
information becomes not only contradictory but also unreliable.
 Relevance
The relevance of information is concerned with it being able to meet

the intended need because people and organisations do not collect
information just for the fun of it rather, it is meant to meet a need.
Relevant information should answer the questions: what, why,
where, when, who, and how for the recipient. If this is not the case,
the information is wasteful in terms of time, energy and possibly
funds committed to it. However, the relevance of information is
relative as what may be considered irrelevant by one individual or
organisation might be relevant to another and vice-versa.
 Timeliness
Timeliness of information refers to the up to datedness of the

information. Information may be factual but if it has been superseded
by more recent information, then it ceases to be timely and may be
useless for decision making or for problem-solving.
1. What is the effect of accurate information?

a. Informed decision making
b. Untimely decision making
c. Biased decision making
d. Data manipulation
1.3.2 Types of Information

In the foregoing, it was clearly stated that information has no
universally accepted definition. We also looked at some attributes of
information. Here, we will be looking at types of information. It is
important to understand that just as it is difficult to clearly pin down
only one definition of the term information, it is equally difficult to
classify or group the types of information that are in existence.
Albeit, an understanding of types of information is important because

it helps in assisting one in making a choice of information source(s).
With this in mind, information can be categorised as factual, analytical,
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
subjective and objective information (Tri-Country Technical College,

n.d.).
i. Factual Information
Factual information deals solely with facts. Factual information is short

and non-explanatory and can be found in reference books such as
encyclopedias and almanacs. Statistics found in government publications
are also factual information. An example of factual information is “who
was the first president of Nigeria?” If you choose to ask someone, the
person will simply supply the name if he/she knows it and that ends the
discussion.
ii. Analytical Information
This is information that arises from the interpretation of factual

information. Researchers generate this kind of information in their
studies. They are mostly found in books and journals. For example, based
on statistical information from factual information, a researcher can
conclude about a phenomenon and this can be the basis for policy
implementation by government agencies.
iii. Subjective information
Subjective information is information that is presented from only one
viewpoint. Included in this is information based on the opinion of the
writer. Subjective information covers a wide range of sources in books,
newspapers, websites, journals and book reviews among others. One
should be careful about making a decision simply based on subjective
information. This is where information literacy skills come in useful to
enable the information user to evaluate the information based on certain
criteria.
iv. Objective Information
Objective information is subjected to and understood from varying
viewpoints, and the information presents all sides of an argument.
Objective information gives room for evaluation and analysis because it
is not limited in its presentation. Objective information can be collected
from reference books and also from newspapers that present balanced and
fair reporting.
Subjective information can be relied on for policy decisions.
True False
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1.4 Summary
In this unit, you were taken through the meaning of information. It was
stated that information has no universally accepted definition as people
tend to ascribe meaning to it based on their perception, context of use,
professional field and experience. Be that as it may, information enables
one to make informed decisions and to that extent, it is a basic human
requirement.
This unit also highlighted and discussed some attributes of information
and information types.
1.5 Glossary
1. Analytical: Of a thing relating to or using analysis or logical
reasoning
2. Data: Facts and statistics that have be collected for reference
purposes or for analysis.
3. Information: Processed data that has meaning in some context for
its receiver.
1.6 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
Gershenson, C. (2021). Complexity at large.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cplx.2142.
Isazadeh, A. (2014). Information society: Concepts and definitions.
https://www.academia.edu/23789485/Information_Society_Conc
epts_and_Definitions.
Lombardi, O. (2004). What is information? Foundations of Science 9
(2):105-134.
Losee, R. M. (1997). A discipline independent definition of information.
J. of the American Society for Information Science, 48(3): 254-
269.
Madden, A. D. (2000). A definition of information. Aslib Proceedings,
52(9): 343-349.
Nasreen, M. (2006). Information needs and information-seeking
behaviour of media practitioners in Karachi (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation), University of Karachi, Karachi Random House
Dictionary of English, (1983).
Webler, Forrest (25 February 2022). "Measurement in the Age of
Information". Information. 13 (3):
111. doi:10.3390/info13030111
Wikipedia, (2022). Information.
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information
1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise
SAE 1: D. Data-information-knowledge
SAE2: True
SAE 3: A. Informed decision-making
SAE 4 False
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Unit 2 Concept of Behaviour and Information Behaviour

Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Definition of Behaviour
2.3.1 Information Behaviour
2.4 Summary
2.5 Tutor-Marked Assignment
2.6 References/Further Readings
2.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you were taken through the definitions of information
need, attributes of information, types of information and sources of
information as the foundation for preparing you for the subject of
information-seeking behaviour. However, there cannot be any talk about
information-seeking behaviour without us first of all examining the
concept of information behaviour because information-seeking is action
oriented and speaks more about behaviour.
As information professionals, the goal of librarians is to make information
not only available but also easy to retrieve by library users. To that extent
librarians need to study and measure information behaviours of their users
to be able to understand how to manage information to facilitate use and
make the retrieval process easy to encourage continuing use.
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
 define behaviour
 discuss the concept of information behaviour.
2.3 Concept of Human Behaviour

Before we delve into the subject of information behaviour and/or
information seeking behaviour, it is pertinent to first of all understand
what is meant by human behaviour. Simply put, human behaviour is the
way a person or a group acts including everything and anything that a
person or group does. It is the way that a person or group behaves in
response to a particular situation or stimulus.
Wikipedia (2022) defines human behaviour as “the potential and
expressed capacity (mentally, physically, and socially) of human
12
LIS 403 MODULE 1
individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli

throughout their life.”
It is not possible to take away the role of behaviour in survival including
in short- and long-term health, mental and physical well-being. While
human beings some action instinctively, there are others that are based on
conscious and deliberate decisions. Behaviours, which include emotional
and physical acts and reactions, are the outcome of a complex interaction
between genetics and environment. There are some behaviours that are
learned and they differ from culture to culture. Some behaviours involve
social interactions with other people. Variables such as individual's age,
education, social status, and circumstance can change behaviour
(National Library of Medicine, 2007).
Like other people-oriented professionals, the question of human
behaviour in the library or other professional contexts is also important.
However, as information professionals who have to meet and interact with
different types of users especially in the context of the library and library
resources, librarians are interested in understanding human beings in the
library and as they interact with information sources and resources, be it
in the physical library or in the electronic environment.
The basis of studying information behaviour in libraries is that armed with
knowledge from such research, libraries can focus on improving
information systems or, if it includes information need, can also focus on
why the user behaves the way they do (Wikipedia, 2022). Equipped with
this knowledge, libraries will be better positioned to serve their users.
2.3.1 Information Behaviour
Given the issues raised by researchers around the aptness or otherwise of
using information-seeking behaviour as against information behaviour to
describe the processes that are involved when people go about seeking
information, efforts have been made to explain the concept of information
behaviour to show how it is a more encompassing term than information-
seeking behaviour.
The originator of the term information behaviour, T.D. Wilson explains
that information behaviour is an individual's action (or inaction) when
faced with an information need. In essence, it is not only concerned with
seeking information but the totality of the individual’s behaviour in
relation to information. Does he/she take the step necessary to find it or
does he/she ignore it? What other behaviours does he/she exhibit in
relation to information? How does he/she search for information or use
information? This is why Wilson includes in the range of activities of
information behaviour the following.
13
 deciding that information is needed,

 searching for information when desired information is not present,
 sharing or suppressing information once discovered,
 avoiding information,
 storing information, and myriad other possible behaviours that
affect and ultimately shape how individuals manage information
(Wilson, 2002).
Other researchers have also attempted to give their understanding of this
term. Information behaviour is a field of information science research
that seeks to understand the way people search for and use information in
various contexts (Fairer-Wessel, 1990). But while information behaviour
can include information-seeking and information retrieval, the author
notes that the aim of information behaviour is to understand why people
seek information and how they use it. This definition is therefore more
concerned about the why and how behaviour of people in relation to
information.
On the other hand, the concept of information behaviour has been
unbundled by Doraswamy (2017) and is perceived as a study that includes
the following elements
I. Information behaviour - the totality of human behaviour in relation
to sources and channels of information
II. Information-seeking behaviour - the purposive seeking for
information as a consequence of a need to complete some goal
III. Information search behaviour - the micro-level behaviour
employed by the information searcher in interacting with
information systems of all kinds, and
IV. Information use behaviour- comprises of mental and physical acts
involved in incorporating information to existing knowledge base
of a person.
INFORMATION NEED
Is an individual or a group’s desire to locate and obtain information to
satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. Information need refers to
individual user needs regarding information needed by each person.
Information need is understood as evolving vague awareness of
something from missing and as culminating in locating the information
that contributes for understanding and meaning. (Doraswamy, 2017)
Information behaviour is the study that includes.
i) Information Behaviour: Totality of human behaviour in

relation to sources and channels of information.
ii) Information Seeking Behaviour: Information seeking
behaviour is the purposive seeking for information as a
consequence of a need to complete some goal.
14
LIS 403 MODULE 1
iii) Information Search Behaviour: The micro-level behaviour

information system of all kind.
iv) Information Use Behaviour; this is comprises of mental
and physical acts involved in incorporating information to
existing knowledge base of a person.
From the explanations above, the researchers view information behaviour

as the umbrella term that has within its scope information need,
information-seeking behaviour, information search behaviour and
information use behaviour. This is depicted in the diagram below that
shows information behaviour and its various components.
Information Behaviour
Information Needs
Information-seeking Behaviour
Information Search Behaviour
InIii
Information Use
Fig. 1 showing differences in the components of information

behaviour (adopted from Reddy, Krishnamurti and Asundi,
2018)
15
The best way to visualise this is to imagine a large box with other similar
but graduated smaller boxes inside it. You open the largest which is
information behaviour, followed by the next largest which is information
needs, next is information-seeking behaviour, followed by information
search behaviour and finally, information use. One process leads to the
next.
Self-Assessment Exercise
1. ----- is credited with coining the term information behaviour?
2. Which of these statement best describes information-seeking?

a. Searching for information when desired information is
not present,
b. Sharing or suppressing information once discovered,
c. Avoiding information
d. All of the above.
2.4 Summary
In this unit, the concept of information behaviour was explained. It was
made clear that information science is a broader term as it comprises of
information-seeking behaviour, information search behaviour and
information use in addition to other behaviours that information seekers
exhibit in relation to information.
It is hoped that with this information, you will be better positioned to
understand how to organise your library system in such a way that
information is not just available, but that all necessary efforts are made to
make the retrieval system seamless for the users.
2.5 Glossary
1. Behaviour: How a person or group acts or conducts themselves in
response to internal or external stimuli.
2. Stimuli: Something that spurs on or encourages activity or vigour
in someone or something.
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LIS 403 MODULE 1

Doraswamy, N. A. (2017). Information needs and Information-seeking
Behaviour of Faculty of JNTUH affiliated Engineering colleges
with reference to special reference to Telangana State. In J. Sharma
(Ed.), Library Technologies, services & resources Current global
trends (p. 318). New Delhi: Excel India Publisher.
Fairer-Wessels, F.A. (1990). The basic community information needs of
black women: A study of the urban community of Mamelodi,
Pretoria, South Africa. South African Journal of Library and
Information Science, 58, 359-369.
Reddy, B. S., Krishnamurthy, M., & Asundi, A.Y. (2018). Information
Use, User, User Needs and Seeking Behaviour: A
Review. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology,
38, 82-87.
Wilson, T, D. (2000). Human information behaviour. Special issue on

Information Science Research, 2(2).
http://inform.nu/articles/vol3/v3n2p49- 56.pdf

SAE: 1: T.D. Wilson
SAE 2: a. searching for information when desired information is not
present,
17
Unit 3 Concept of Information Needs
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Definition of Information Needs
3.3.1 Types of Information Needs
3.3.2 Reasons for Information Needs
3.4 Summary
3.5 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
People seek information because they feel a need or experience a gap in

knowledge and seek to satisfy it. When there is a felt but unsatisfied need,
it results in a state of disequilibrium and keeps the individual continuing
with the search for it. The only way that equilibrium can be restored is for
that need to be met or satisfied.
Therefore, it is important to understand what is meant by information
need before we dive into information-seeking behaviour given that
information need is what triggers information-seeking. It is only common
sense to say that nobody goes seeking for information he\she has no need
for, except the purpose of the search is to help someone else satisfy their
own information need. However, a need for information may be
conscious or unconscious. It is a conscious need when you are fully aware
of your need for it and set out purposively to satisfy it. It is an unconscious
need when you do not fully realise at the time or plan or
purposively/intentionally set out to acquire it but when you chance upon
it, you immediately realise that this is information that is valuable. Take
for instance, you go on the Web for specific information but as you are
browsing, something else pops up and you suddenly realise that you need
to know more about it. You read and acquire that information too.
By way of an introduction, information need is often understood as an
individual or group's desire to locate and obtain information to satisfy a
conscious or unconscious need. (Wikipedia, 2022). So, an individual or a
group may need information and have to take the trouble to access it.
Information need is closely related to the concept of relevance in the sense
that when an individual or group needs information for a specific task or
reason, the information that helps to accomplish that task is the one
considered relevant (Hjørland, 1997). Therefore, people seek information
based on how relevant it is in meeting their needs.
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
It is important that you understand what information need(s) is because it

is on the basis of it that you will analyse not only your information needs
but also that of library clientele. It is also on the basis of that that you will
attempt to meet their needs.
Moreover, the identification of information needs is essential for the
design of information systems in general and for the provision of
effective information services in particular, such as libraries and other
information-providing centres (Devadson, 1996).
 explain the concept of information needs
 explain types of information needs
 explain the reasons for information needs and the factors affecting
information needs.
3.3 Definition of Information Needs

The subject of information needs is one that is at the centre of what
librarians and libraries do. This is why information need is viewed as
fundamental to library and information science because a central aim of
the field is concerned with the retrieval of information relevant to the
user’s information need (Borlund & Pharo, 2019; Savolainen, 2017). This
being the case, the concept is rarely defined or discussed and to that
extent, the concept is still vague.
Attempts have been made by different authors to either define or describe
the concept. The term information need, a common term in information
science is often understood as an individual or group's desire to locate and
obtain information to satisfy a conscious or unconscious need (Wikipedia,
2022).
IGI Global (2022) gives several definitions of the term as gathered from
a number of other sources:
 The perception of a lack of information that provokes one to
develop a need for it.
 An individual’s condition when he/she wants to improve (enlarge
and/or correct) his/her knowledge
 The amount of information a user requires to fulfil the search
intent.
 The start state for information search, seeking and
human information behaviour. A gap in knowledge of
the information user.
19
 A need associated with a level of uncertainty. Information is

required to reduce uncertainty.
 An individual or group's desire to locate and obtain information to
satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. In simple
words, information need is the amount of information a user
requires to fulfil the search intent.
 Information need is an individual or group's desire to locate and
obtain information to satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. The
‘information’ and ‘need’ in ‘information need’ are an inseparable
interconnection. Needs and interests call forth information.
 The perception of a lack of information that provokes one to
develop a need for it
 A need for information arises…when the present level of
knowledge is too limited to deal with situations pertaining to the
tasks associated with one or more work roles.
The definitions above all point to the fact that information need is a state
of mind in which an individual perceives a lack of information to meet an
information gap. It also arises because the store of information which the
individual presently possesses is inadequate at the time to meet his/her need
to complete some tasks, activities or functions in a role.
It has been described as a discontinuity in knowledge, which is felt by a
person at a conscious level and comes in the form of a question which in
turn results in the search for an answer. Furthermore, the satisfaction of
the need could be immediate where it is not complex or last longer if the
intensity of the information need is high. That will determine the length of
time that a search lasts until it is fulfilled (Singh, Kumar & Khanchandan,
cited in Anmol, Khan and Mohammed, 2021). Put in another way, a need is
specific and generally time-bound either immediate or deferred
(Devadason & Lingam, 1996).
If it is to be put on need ranking, the more needed information is sought
first and the less needed one later. The more complex the information
needed is, the more time is spent on searching for it. The search process
takes as long as the need lasts. Once it is fulfilled, the individual has closure
and moves on to other things. But we must not think that the individual
stops functioning until the need is satisfied. You actually continue to
function but you are aware that you still need the information and as a
result, you may need to extend your search parameters or seek other
sources.
Satija & Singh (2006) uses Masow’s hierarchy of needs theory of
motivation to explain information needs. According to the authors,
information needs arise out of a desire to meet one or other of three basic
human needs i.e., physiological needs (need for food, shelter, etc.),
psychological needs (need for domination, security, etc) and cognitive
20
LIS 403 MODULE 1
needs (need to plan, learn a skill, etc.). Basically, the author is saying that
an information need arises when there is a felt need in any of these three
areas of human life and functioning.
A lack of information can result in an internal disequilibrium
True False
3.3.1 Types of Information Needs

The types of information needs that individuals have is something that
librarians and other people who are involved in information provision often
seek to know. This may not be unconnected with the reasoning that
understanding the types of information needs of user populations will make
it possible to not only provide a kind of structure to the process of
information provision but also will help in designing a more informed and
functional information system and/or providing information resources that
will meet user needs.
Based on user-librarian dialogue in a public library, Ingwerson cited in
Borlund and Pharo (2019) identified three types of information needs: the
verificative information need, the conscious topical information need, and
the muddled topical information need explained below:
 Verificative Information Need
In their explanation, the verificative information need is need that seeks
to verify information objects that have identified non-topical (structured)
data. This non-topical data includes author names, client address, cited
authors, journal name, and facts. A characteristic of verificative
information needs is that it is well-defined and stable. For instance, an
author’s name is just what it is, so also is a client’s address and so on. It
is therefore very precise in nature.
 Conscious Topical Information Need
The conscious topical information need is the type of need where a library
user wants to clarify, review or pursue information in a known subject
matter and domain. In this case, the known subject matter signifies topical
(unstructured) data about contents, such as terms, concepts, and image
representation. A major characteristic of a conscious topical information
21
need is that it is not only well-defined, but also, it is of a more variable

nature.
 Muddled Topical Information Need
When an information need is of the muddled topical information, it
implies that the information need is characterised by being poorly defined
in the user’s consciousness. The inability to define it properly results in
high cognitive uncertainty. A user with a muddled topical information
need is engaged in the exploration of new concepts and relations outside
known subject matter or domain. In essence, the individual does not have
a total grip on the subject of his focus.
Therefore, while the information seeker is not exactly a novice as per the
topic, it is not exactly well defined in his consciousness enough for him
to have the information need satisfied. The conscious topical information
need, and the muddled topical information need share the topical focus of
the information needs.
The fact that an individual already has prior knowledge of the topic in
question helps. Both conscious topical need and muddled topical
information need also share the nature of explorative search being
initiated for the satisfaction of the information needs. That means that the
search method employed is explorative as it widens as the individual goes
on with the process.
Another identification of types of information needs classifies them as: a)
Current Information Need, b) Exhaustive Information Need, c) Everyday
Information Need, and d) Catching-up or Brushing-up Information Need
(Library, n.d).
 Current Information Need: This is an information need that
belongs to the present time or that is being used now. For example,
a student may want to know from another student whether a
scheduled examination has started. When library users need
information to keep themselves up-to-date with latest developments
in their areas of interest on a regular basis, the need is known as
current information need.
 Exhaustive Information Need: An exhaustive information need is
fully comprehensive and includes or considers all elements or
aspects of the information needed. In other words, the seeker of
information wants to have information on a topic that is thorough
and complete. Exhaustive information that takes place in the library
is when user wants to have information on a particular topic as
exhaustively as possible, the need is known as exhaustive
information need. The researchers mainly have this type of
information need when they start their research work.
22
LIS 403 MODULE 1
 Everyday Information Need: This is the need for a specific piece

of information which users require, generally in their day-to-day
activities. The need is generally for factual information. The
librarian usually depends on the standard reference books to meet
the information seeker’s everyday information need.
 Explorative Information Need: This need arises when a user, who
is not conversant with a particular subject field, requires an account
of overall development of that subject in a short and compact form.
Which of these is among the types of information needs outlined by
Ingwerson?
a. Every day information need

b. Conscious topical information need
c. Current information need
3.3.2 Reasons for Information Needs

There are attempts to understand the reasons why people seek information.
This is a particularly important quest for librarians since it is believed that
understanding the reasons that make people seek information will make it
easier to meet their information need.
However, it is acknowledged that while there may be some general reasons
why people may want information for instance as may happen when there
is a directional question that seeks to know where the rest rooms or
conveniences are specifically located, people have various reasons for their
information needs. That is why information needs can be said to be highly
personal. For instance, two persons may need the same kind of information
but for different reasons.
Let us take, for instance, academic library users. While students may visit
the library for information that will help them carry out their assignments,
pass their examination, prepared course work or for recreational and
independent study, lecturers may need the same information but for entirely
different reasons including preparation of their lesson notes, research and
teaching. All these are legitimate information needs that the library has to
personalise and provide to the different categories of users. That is why
23
information needs are said to be highly personal and specific (Kuruppu &
Kurrupu, 1999).
However, some general reasons for which people need information have
been observed While not exclusive or exhaustive, the list helps us to
understand that information needs differ to the extent that people differ.
They include:
 Work activity: What role is the person in currently?

 Discipline/ Field/Area of interest: Is he/she a researcher, student,
expert etc.?
 Availability of facilities: What type of information facilities are
available?
 Hierarchical position of individuals: Is the individual a top, middle
or lower manager or just a normal employee without managerial
responsibilities?
 Motivation factors for information needs: Is the information for
entertainment or for research?
 Need to take a decision: Could be a health decision or policy
decision etc.
 Need to seek new ideas: Update already possessed ideas.
 Need to validate the correct ones: There are other information that
the individual already possesses which the individual may not be
sure about.
 Need to make professional contributions: What is your audience?
Say for instance that you are presenting a paper to a conference of
professionals or laymen.
 Need to establish priority for discovery etc. (Crawford, cited in
Devadson & Lingam, 1998).
Some of the information needs 21st century library users identified by

Echezonam (2011) include:
1. Personal self-development: People need information to enrich

themselves and remain relevant to their society, career,
organisation etc.
2. Health: Library users need information on how to stay healthy and

how to understand medical conditions that they or their families
have.
3. Government: People seek information to know what is going on

in their government and in their country. They want to keep abreast
with government policies and plans, and know how it affects them.
24
LIS 403 MODULE 1
4. How-to-do-it: People require knowledge or information in order

to know what to do at any point in time. Every problem at hand,
requires information as the solution.
5. Work/occupation/career: Every professional requires up-to-date

knowledge in his chosen profession, information relating to better
jobs etc. Students (whose occupation is schooling) need
information to do assignments, pass their exams, and write
projects.
On the whole, every information seeker has a specific information need

determined by his/her reasons for seeking it.
A need for adventure is a legitimate information need
True False
3.3.3 Factors Affecting Information Needs

A person’s information needs are not static, rather, they are subject to a
number of different reasons as noted above. What is incontrovertible is
that an individual may need a piece of information in a certain depth or
form today to meet a need whereas the same information ceases to be
useful to him tomorrow. That is why a user’s information needs, including
the type, coverage and depth may differ considerably depending upon
his/her activities at the material time. For instance, when an individual is
entering a new field of research, his/her information needs differ as
compared to when the individual is seeking a solution to a specific
problem in a field in which he/she is already familiar (Kurruppu &
Kuruppu, 1999).
In essence, information needs are affected by different factors. Kuruppu
& Kuruppu further outline some of the factors that affect information
needs including the level of education of the user, the ability to express
their requests accurately, the willingness to learn, and what is most
important, as well as the predisposition to use the information.
On his part, Paisley cited in Devadson & Lingam (1998) lists the
following as some of the factors that affect information need and use:
25
 The range of information sources available;

 The uses to which the information will be put;
 The background, motivation, professional orientation and other
individual characteristics of the user;
 The social, political, economic, legal and regulatory systems
surrounding the user; and
 The consequences of information use (Paisley cited in Devadson
& Lingam, 1998).
The list above shows that the ability of the information seeker to
effectively meet his/her information need is affected by some factors. We
will attempt to explain the factors affecting the use of information to meet
needs.
1. Range of Information Sources Available: In unit 1, we learned

that there are different information sources ranging from people,
organisations, print, electronic etc. The type of information source
that any given person will go to will depend on what is available to
them. For instance, people who live in rural areas where there are
no libraries and information centres or internet services are likely
to depend more on relatives and friends as their primary source of
information.
2. The uses to which the Information will be Put: A student who is
reading for an examination is more likely to go for reliable sources
of information such as a library than if he was reading for pleasure.
For the latter, he/she may decide to read a magazine.
3. The background, motivation, professional orientation and
other individual characteristics of the user: An educated man is
more likely to look for authoritative, reliable, accurate, complete
and timely information than an illiterate. On the other hand, the
illiterate will be satisfied with hearsay information and so is more
likely to use unverified or untested sources of information than the
former.
4. The social, political, economic, legal and regulatory systems
surrounding the user: The manner in which information
availability and access is treated in a given country for instance, will
determine the source of information that a user will use. People in
a capitalist and democratic country such as the United States of
America where there is freedom of information are more likely to
be daring in the sources that they go to for information than their
counterparts in a closed up socialist country like North Korea where
information is controlled by the government.
5. The consequences of information use: If punishment is attached

to the use of information emanating from certain sources, those
who do not wish to be punished will be selective in the type of
26
LIS 403 MODULE 1
source that they go to for information. Also, if there is a

consequence attached to the use of certain kinds of information,
people are less likely to want to use such information.
Which of these is a factor affecting the satisfaction of information

needs?
a. Ability to express or verbalise requests

b. Willingness to learn
c. Predisposition to use information
d. Information content
e. All of the above
3.4 Summary
In this unit, you were taken through the concept of information needs. The
definitions of the concept as adduced by several authors were presented.
While there is no universally accepted definition, it is clear that the origin
of information needs lies in the individual who at some point feels an
information gap. This feeling in turn propels him/her into action to seek
the information that will enable him/her to feel the gap. The individual
moves in the direction of the source that is most likely to meet his needs
as there are different types of needs. Several reasons have been adduced
for the information needs in the first place. We learnt that information
need is personal and specific and so what one considers a need may not
appear so to another person. The choice of source also depends on some
variables. There are also some factors that affect the choice of a source(s)
over another. A grasp of what is contained in this unit will enable you to
understand the concept of information and put you in a position to meet
your needs as well as that of others.
3.5 Glossary
1. Time-bound: Time frame
Anmol, R., Khan, G. & Mohammed, I. (2021). Information needs and
seeking behaviour: a Pakistani perspective. Library Philosophy
and Practice (ejournal), 5944.
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/5944
27
Borlund, P. & Pharo, N. (2019). A need for information on information

needs. In Proceedings of CoLIS, the Tenth International
Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science,
Ljubljana, Slovenia, June 16-19, 2019. Information Research,
24(4), paper colis1908. Retrieved from
http://InformationR.net/ir/24-4/colis/colis1908.html (Archived by
the Internet Archive at
https://web.archive.org/web/20191216154208/http://informationr.net/ir/
24-4/colis/colis1908.html)
Devadason, F.J. and Lingam, P.P. 1997. A methodology for the
identification of information needs of users. IFLA Journal, 23(1):
41-51.
IGI Global (2022). What is information? https://www.igi-

global.com/dictionary/information-needs-of-users-in-the-tech-
savvy-environment-and-the-influencing-factors/14430
Julien, H. (2019). Use of information In Encyclopedia.com.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-
transcripts-and-maps/use-information
Kuruppu, C. & Kuruppu, D. (1999). Information needs and information-
seeking behaviour of users in organisations. Information Studies,
5(153-65.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273274224_Informatio
n_Needs_and_Information_Seeking_Behaviour_of_Users_in_Or
ganisations
Library (n.d.). “Library and information services for the users.”

https://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/SrSecLibrary/LCh-
012.pdf
Saleh, A. G. (2020). Information user and information-seeking behaviour.
https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/LIS216.pdf
Satija, M. P. & Singh K. P. (2006). India's research on information-
seeking behaviour of agricultural scientists: A literature survey.
Library Herald. 44 (1), 50-62. 2
Savolainen, R. (2017). Information need as trigger and driver of
information-seeking: a conceptual analysis. Aslib Journal of
Information Management, 69(1), 2–21.
Wikipedia (2022). Information needs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
Wikipedia (2022). Information behaviour.

ttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_behaviour

SAE 1 True
SAE 2 Conscious topical information need
SAE 3 True
SAE 4 All of the above
29
UNIT 4 CONCEPT OF INFORMATION-SEEKING

BEHAVIOUR
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Definition of Information-seeking Behaviour
4.3.1 Information Search Behaviour
4.3.2 Information Use
4.4 Summary
4.5 Glossary
4.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you were taken through the definition of information
behaviour, attributes of information, types of information and sources of
information as the foundation for preparing you for the subject of
information-seeking behaviour.
We have established that people need information for various uses. We
have also established that there are different sources of information from
which individuals can meet their information needs. Because that people
need different kinds of information at different times, and different
sources of information are needed to meet a particular desired need, it
means that a person who needs information has to devise means of
locating and accessing the needed information. Information-seeking
behaviour is concerned with the process that people undertake to locate
and use the information to meet their needs.
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
 examine the definitions of the concept of information-seeking
behaviour
 discuss types of information-seeking behaviour
 examine the scope of information-seeking behaviour and information-
seeking processes
 highlight the behaviours that are concerned with information-seeking,
especially how information can be located to meet one’s needs.
4.3 Definition of Information-Seeking Behaviour
The term information behaviour was coined by Thomas D. Wilson in
1981, and at the time it was introduced, it sparked a controversy as there
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
were questions regarding the validity of the term. However, in 2000,

Wilson defined information behaviour as "the totality of human behaviour
in relation to sources and channels of information.” Since then, the term
has been accepted in the information behaviour literature (Wikipedia,
2000).
INFORMATION NEED

INFORMATION NEED
that contributes for understanding and meaning (Wilao, 2017).
31
INFORMATION NEED
that contributes for understanding and meaning (Doraswamy, 2017).
Information behaviour is the study that includes
Marchionini (1995) defines information-seeking as a process in which

humans purposefully engage to change their state of knowledge. The
operative word here is “purposefully.” In other words, it is not a random
or haphazard venture rather it involves a decision to undertake some
activities that will result in acquisition of information to change one’s
state of knowledge.
Along the same line, Case (2002) sees information-seeking as a conscious
effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your
knowledge. Furthermore, information-seeking is a conscious and
constructive effort to derive the benefit of undistorted meaning from
information for knowledge acquisition and extension (Kuhlthau, 1991, p.
61). This definition also highlights and includes in it, the purpose for
seeking information.
Additionally, Kuhlthau (1991) perceives information-seeking as a user’s
constructive effort to derive appropriate meaning from information for
clarity and extension of knowledge on a particular issue or topic.
It is those activities a person engages in when identifying his or her own
need for information, searching for such information in any way and using
or transferring of information (Mostafa, 2013).
The common thread that runs through the definitions of information-
seeking outlined above is that the process of information-seeking is
initiated by a felt information need or a feeling of information gap that
needs to be met or filled. In essence, the need sets off some kind of
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
reaction that causes the individual to set out in search of that information.
It also implies that the process is a purposeful one as it is directed by a
desire to meet that need so the steps that are taken are conscious and goal
oriented.
Kingrey (2002) conceives information-seeking as involving the search,
retrieval, recognition, and application of meaningful content.
Kuhlthau argues that even though there is a desire to meet an information
need, this can only be met or satisfied if the information seeker has a set
of cognitive skills that will enable him to make sense of the process to
satisfy his/her need. Cognitive abilities or skills are the skills that are
based on the brain and everyone needs them for acquiring information.
Information literacy skills are cognitive skills.
The implication, therefore, is that it is not just enough that information
needed is available, it is futile to seek information if the skills known as
information literacy skills are lacking as the individual will not be able to
benefit maximally from the process.
The term information-seeking behaviour is defined by Sultana (2016) as
a set of actions such as information need, seeking information, evaluating
and selecting information and finally using the information. In this sense,
information-seeking-behaviour is a process that involves the need for
information, seeking information from different sources, evaluating the
information gathered using criteria that the information seeker considers
important and then using the information to meet one’s need. This is also
the view that is expressed by Wilson (2000) who sees information-
seeking behaviour as the purposive seeking of information as a
consequence of a need to satisfy some goal. To Wilson, the need comes
before the seeking however, the seeking is done to satisfy the need.
Kaushik (2016) conceives information-seeking behaviour as a process
that humans engage in to change their state of knowledge. That means a
transition from a state of lack of knowledge to that of possession of
knowledge. Fairer-Wessel (1990) says information-seeking behaviour is
a field of information science research that seeks to understand the way
people search for and use information. This definition looks at
information-seeking behaviour more from the academic standpoint of it
being a study rather than a process but it highlights the fact that the
intended purpose of seeking information is use of the information.
Utkarsh (2015) sees information-seeking behaviour as a more specific
concept of information behaviour that specifically focuses on searching,
finding, and retrieving information. In this sense, information use is not
part of it.
33
However, there are assertaion that the term information-seeking is rather

limited in its definition as it does not take into consideration the other
dimensions in which people relate to and interact with information (Bates,
2010). It is in consideration of this argument that with time, the term
information behaviour has become the preferred term, employed to
encompass all types of research on people’s interaction with information
Information-seeking behaviour is the purposive seeking of information
as a consequence of a need
True False
4.3.1 Information Search Behaviour

Necessarily, what follows when an individual set out to seek information
is a search for that information. It is important to make this point because
like information-seeking, information search behaviour which also
happens to be a subset of information behaviour is both action and goal
oriented.
Once an individual makes up his/her mind that there is a need for
information, he moves in the direction that will take him to the source
where he can get the information. When he gets to the source, he/she does
not stand around, he/she takes further action, as he/she searches the
source for that information.
Let us take for example, an information seeker comes to the library. When
he/she enters, he /she takes a number of actions to search for that
information including searching the catalogue, asking the librarians on
duty, and/or going directly to the shelves to browse. He or she also decides
what unit or section of the library contains the information that is needed
and if sure, goes directly to that section or unit.
From this analogy, information search behaviour as defined by Wilson
(2000) is the ‘micro-level’ of behaviour employed by the searcher in
interacting with information systems [e.g. library] of all kinds. It consists
of
 all the interactions with the system, whether at the level of human
computer interaction (for example, use of the mouse and clicks on
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
links) or at the intellectual level (for example, adopting a Boolean

search strategy or
 determining the criteria for deciding which of two books selected
from adjacent places on a library shelf is most useful). To
determine that, the individual will also engage in some mental acts
that will assist him/her in judging the relevance of data or
information retrieved from any source because information will be
used if it is found to be relevant.
To distinguish information-seeking behaviour from information search
behaviour, information-seeking behaviour is viewed as the act of actively
seeking information in order to answer a specific query. On the other
hand, information-searching behaviour is the behaviour which stems
from the searcher interacting with the system in question. In other words,
while the purpose of information-seeking behaviour is to take those steps
that are necessary to getting to a source to find information that will assist
in answering a specific query, information search happens when the
information user gets to the source and interacts with the system
(Wikipedia, 2022). For instance, one decides to seek information from a
database. The person must interact with the system to get the specific
information that is required for a particular purpose.
Information search is action-oriented
True False
4.3.2 Information Use
Logically, one internally realises a lack of information to meet a need and

decides to seek for that information. The individual takes the steps to
locate a source that will provide the needed information. When the
individual goes to the source, there must be an interaction with the system
that will result in the individual selecting the most relevant source(s) to
meet the need.
Therefore, information search begins as he/she uses the information

system in place and begins to search through it. As soon as he/she finds
the information that is most relevant in meeting his/her needs, he/she
gathers them and finally uses the information or forwards it to another
35
person that he/she feels might use it or leave it for some other persons to
use.
This shows us that the whole cycle of information behaviour which begins
with information need ends with information use, thus affirming that
people look for information that they need and will use to accomplish a
goal. It is also important to mention that the factors that affect information
listed earlier will play a big role in information use because different
people look for information from different sources and also use
information in different ways or for different purposes.
To that extent, it is unrealistic to suggest that people deliberately go out

seeking information that they have no intention of using. But it could be
said that an information seeker may gather information which he/she
thinks are relevant to his/her needs at the material time but which he/she
may end up not using because he/she did not properly understand what
was needed from the outset due to failure to properly express his/her
needs. In this instance, during the analysis and evaluation of the gathered
information, a process of relevant ranking will determine what is actually
needed versus what is not. That results in the elimination of those
information found not to be so relevant.
However, in terms of definition, information search like information

need, information-seeking behaviour, and information search, does not
lend itself to one universally accepted definition. This seemingly difficult
to capture information use has led to the term often being vaguely defined
even in research studies, or it is not defined at all ( Larsen; Savolainen
cited in Kari (2010).
But in an attempt to conceptualise information use, Kari (2010) gathered

the various definitions of the term in the literature. Information use is:
 how people approach sources of information and adopt

information available in them;
 reading, thinking about the acquired information, comparing
different sources; analysing and evaluating information; doing
syntheses and creating meaning from information;
 receiving and internalizing information;
 sending and receiving information;
 decoding and coding stimuli in a symbolic system;
 interpreting the value of information sources more generally, and
directing action;
 the resolution of a process of becoming informed (to get to know
a matter), or applying information;
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
 evaluating, adopting and applying new information;

 the reception and interpretation of information, and on the other
hand, the functional utilization of the information;
 applying specific social scientific research programs, making
decisions to influence matters, consuming and actively adopting
information;
 information search and retrieval, the applications of information to
different purposes, as well as the creation and storage of
information;
 applying information in some specific action or in satisfying a
more general need, as well as sharing the information with other
interested individuals, or some activity of information
management.
It is also seen as an activity that is composed of 3 processes: 1) fetching

information, 2) processing information, and 3) applying information
(Rich, 1997). This also highlights that before information can be used, it
must be retrieved, then processed in the form that will make it useable and
then applied. Application is therefore, the end point of fetching and
processing information.
The view above is also captured by Julien (2019) who notes that
information use is concerned with understanding what information
sources people choose and the ways in which people apply information to
make sense of their lives and situations. Going further, the author notes
that the use that an individual puts information can be either instrumental
or affective.
An example of instrumental information use is when financial data

[information] is used by a decision-maker to inform a budget decision.
On the other hand, the data [information] is affective, when it influences
how people feel. For example, an individual may use information that he
gathered during a conversation with a friend to feel more motivated or
better satisfied with a career choice.
In the two cases, the individuals have their specific information needs.
The source(s) they will go to for information is dictated by the reason for
the information and the use they put the information is also dictated by
their purpose for it.
Wilson (1999) is of the view that information use includes people's

physical and mental acts to incorporate information into their existing
base of knowledge. In other words, the mental part has to do with the
recognition of a gap and a desire to address it while the physical aspect
has to do with the seeking i.e. taking the necessary action of going to
37
various sources to get the information which at the end of day, if found
and used increases one’s knowledge base. There is no way one can go
without the other.
That is why information use as the final stage of a process that begins with
recognition of an information need. Once the need has been identified,
people search for information to meet that need, and then they apply or
use the information that is found. This process is iterative [repetitive] and
complex, and it is influenced by a number of factors (Julien, 2019).
On the process that takes place during a search, Ellis cited in Saleh, (2020)
initially identified six activities namely: 1) starting, 2) chaining, 3)
browsing, 4) differentiating, 5) monitoring and 6) extracting. The author
later added two more activities: verifying and final search.
 Starting — This is the commencement of the information search,

 Chaining — This is a backward or forwards activity as you follow
references in initial information sources.
 Browsing – This is a semi-directed search when the user simply
looks at the sources to determine what it contains
 Differentiating — This involves the filtering and selection of
sources based on judgments of quality and relevance
 Monitoring — at this point you maintain awareness of
developments/trends
 Extracting — Involves systematic extraction of information from
sources.
 Verifying: Involves checking for accuracy and ending
 Final search: This involves checking all materials covered.
The concept of information behaviour which includes information needs,

information-seeking, information search and information use are
succinctly captured in the diagram below:
Determines your information

sources
Information Determines your information
Needs( resources
physiological,
Determines your information use
Fig. 2: Concepts of Information Needs and Information Use (Source:

Saleh, 2020).
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
Self-Assessment Exercise 3-4

3.Information use is the final stage of a process that begins with
recognition of an information need
True False
4.According to Rick (1997) information use is composed of --------
- number of processes
a. 4
b. 5
c. 3
d. 6
5.Which of these researchers has differentiating as a part of
information-seeking behaviour?
a.Wilson
b. Rick
c. Eliss
d. None of the above
4.4 Summary
In this unit, you were taken through information-seeking behaviour,
information search behaviour and information use. Although there is no
generally accepted definition of the terms, you were exposed to some of
the arguments and definitions. You learnt that to some researchers, there
should be no talk about information-seeking behaviour without first
talking about information behaviour as it is an encompassing term that
has within its scope information-seeking behaviour, information search
behaviour and information use behaviour. You also learned that
39
information use is the logical ending to the process that started first with
information need.
INFORMATION NEED


INFORMATION NEED

40
LIS 403 MODULE 1
INFORMATION NEED

existing knowledge base of a person
4.5 Glossary
1. Physiological: Related to the way in which a living organism or
bodily part of a living organism functions.
2. Cognitive: Relating to, arising from, or influencing feelings or
emotion
3. Affective: Relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual
activity
Bates, M. (2010). Information behaviour. Encyclopedia of Library and
Information Science, 3: 2381-2391.
Case, D.O. (2002). Looking for information: A Survey of research in
information-seeking needs, and behaviour. Amsterdam: Academic
Press.
Fairer-Wessels, F.A. (1990). The basic community information needs of

black women: A study of the urban community of Mamelodi,
Pretoria, South Africa. South African Journal of Library and
Information Science, 58, 359-369.
41
Kari, J. (2010). "Diversity in the conceptions of information

use" Information Research, 15(3). http://InformationR.net/ir/15-
13/colis7/Kcolis709.html
Kaushik, A. (2016). Information-seeking behaviour of Faculty of YMCA
University, International Journal of Research in Engineering &
Social Sciences, 6(2), 46-53.
http://indusedu.org/pdfs/IJRESS/IJRESS_304_84232.pdf
Kingrey, K. P. (2005). "Concepts of Information-seeking and their
presence in the practical library literature" (2005). Library
Philosophy and Practice (e-journal), 36.
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993). A principle of uncertainty for information-
seeking. Journal of Documentation. 49 (4), 339-345.
Marchionini, G. M. (1997). Information-seeking process. Annual Review
of Information Science and Technology (ARIST). 32, 97 – 98
Mostofa, M. (2013). A study of information needs and seeking behaviour
of faculty members of Darul Ihsan University in Bangladesh."
(2013). Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal) 983.
Rich, R. F. (1997). Measuring knowledge utilization: processes and
outcomes. Knowledge and Policy, 10(3), 11-24.
Singh, K.P., (2012). Information use, satisfaction, and difficulties: A

case study of sgricultural scientists in India. Library Philosophy
and Practice (e-journal, 703.
Sultana, A. (2016). Information-seeking behaviour of academics in

Maulan Azad National Urdu University in the digital
environment. In S. Dhanavandan, (ed.), Transition in
Librarianship, Delhi: Dominant Publishers, 245-255.
Utkarsh, U (2015). "Information search behaviour of service

consumers: review and future research directions". The
Marketing Review. 15 (2): 201–
2019. doi:10.1362/146934715X14373846573667.
Wikipedia (2022). Information behaviour.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_behaviour
Wilson, T.D. (1981). On user studies and information needs. Journal

of Documentation, 37(1), 3-1
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LIS 403 MODULE 1
Wilson, T. D. (1999). Models in information behaviour

research. Journal of Documentation 55(3): 249-270.
Wilson, T, D. (2000). Human information behaviour. Special issue on

Information Science Research, 2(2).
http://inform.nu/articles/vol3/v3n2p49- 56.pdf
SAE 1 True
SAE 2 True
SAE 3 True
SAE 4 3
SAE 5 Eliss
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
MODULE 2 INFORMATION SOURCES/RESOURCES

AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Objectives
1.3 Definition of Information Sources/Resources
1.3.1 Sources of Information
1.3.2 Formats of Information
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 References/Further Readings/Web Resource
1.1 Introduction
We have determined that information need is something that is part of
human beings because people need information from time to time to meet
the particular need they have for it. If people need information, it means
that information has to be sought for from different places. It also means
that information will have to be put in different formats according to the
type of information. An information source can be a person, thing or place
that information is obtained. An information resource is format of
information and in a library information resources are in both print and
electronic formats and includes textbooks, journals,
encyclopaedia, newspapers, magazines, reports, abstracts, indexes, CD-
ROM databases, Internet, tapes, diskettes, computers, microforms etc.
An information source can also be an information resource or contain
information resources. For instance, an individual is both an information
source and an information resource because information can be obtained
from the person and that information is a resource. Also, a library is an
information source that contains information resources such as textbooks,
journals etc. In essence, you go to the library (source/place) and consult
the resources (things).
44

 define information source/resources
 discuss various information sources
 discuss the formats of information.
1.3 Definition of Information Source/Resources

Information sources could mean different things in different contexts.
Generally, however, an information source is a source that informs
someone about something. It is a thing, a person or a place from which
information is obtained.
In library and information science, an information source is defined
by LISBDNETWORK (2018) as “a source of information for
somebody, i.e. anything that might inform a person about something or
provides knowledge to somebody.” In other words, when someone needs
information, he/she identifies a source that can provide that information
because that information can be obtained from that source. So, an
information source also informs. LISBDNETWORK (2018) further says
that information sources may be observations, people’s speeches,
documents, pictures, organizations etc. The important thing is that
information is obtained from these various sources. It also means that
information sources are diverse and also contain diverse types of
information.
On the other hand, information resource(s) as used in libraries mean “an
infrastructure or material that provides content and information services
for the user” (IGI Global, 2022).
1.3.1 Sources of Information
When we talk about an information source, we are talking about where
people get their information from. It is the various means by which
information is recorded for use by an individual or an organisation. “It is
how a person is informed about something or knowledge is availed to
someone, a group of people or an organization” (Module, n.d.).
What this definition suggests is that there are different sources of
information, and different types of information are got from different
sources. Therefore, an information source is a source from which
information emanates.
Information is generated and can be obtained from people, books,
websites, journals, newspapers, encyclopaedias, institutions and so on.
The type of information source that you choose to use is a function of the
type of information that you need. The type of information obtained from
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
a source is also a function of the type of information that it contains. Let

us assume that you need historical information. You can get such
information from sources that carry such historical information. You
cannot get it from a source that provides only science information. So,
even though a science source is a legitimate source, it is not right for the
purpose.
Knowledge of the source of information is essential to enable you to
obtain accurate, complete, reliable, relevant and timely information for
your academic work and for assisting your library users.
Information sources can be broadly categorised into two: documentary
and non-documentary sources.
1. Documentary Sources of Information
Documentary sources are generally published or recorded documents of
knowledge and they may further be categorised as primary, secondary and
tertiary sources of information. Libraries depend mostly on documentary
sources of information to serve their patrons.
a. Primary Information Source:
Primary sources are first hand or original contemporary accounts of
events created by individuals during that period or several years later.
They may be in the form of documents, images or artefacts. The
distinguishing factor is that primary information sources provide first-
hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a historical topic under
research investigation (Furman University Libraries, 2021; UNSW
Library, 2022). Because the information that primary sources provide is
first-hand or original, primary information sources are considered to be
authoritative. For instance, an eyewitness account is an original
information. Records of accounts in diaries or individual memoirs are
original and therefore regarded as a primary information source. We can
place in this category memoirs and diaries of notable colonialists such as
Lord Lugard or a former slave like Bishop Ajayi Crowther in addition to
other memoirs and diaries. Such memoirs and diaries help us to
understand the context and period in which they were written. So, they
are very rich sources of historical information.
Another distinction between a primary information source and other types
of information sources is that they are often created at the time the event
occurred, and they often share new information. However, the
information can be shared later even though they were created at the time
that the event occurred. Therefore, if one needs original thinking or raw
and first-hand evidence, one should go for a primary information source.
46
The following are some examples of primary information resources:
 diaries, correspondence, ships' logs

 original documents e.g. birth certificates, trial transcripts
 biographies, autobiographies, manuscripts
 interviews, speeches, oral histories
 case law, legislation, regulations, constitutions
 government documents, statistical data, research reports
 a journal article reporting NEW research or findings
 creative artworks, literature
 newspaper advertisements and reportage and editorial/opinion
pieces (UNSW Library, 2022).
b. Secondary Information Source:
While the primary sources provide raw, first hand and original
information, secondary sources offer an analysis, interpretation or a
restatement of primary sources and are considered to be persuasive. They
often involve generalisation, synthesis, interpretation, commentary or
evaluation in an attempt to convince the reader of the creator's argument.
The information contained in them is drawn from the primary source and
so they often attempt to describe or explain primary sources (UNSW
Library, 2022). In essence, the information that secondary sources
provide is second-hand information and commentary from other
researchers or based on primary sources.
Someone may decide to write a book on the life and times of Chief
Nnamdi Azikiwe. He will have to depend on primary sources such as his
memoirs, diaries, newspaper articles published at the time, photographs
etc. The book is a synthesis of the primary sources so it is a secondary
source.
Some examples of secondary information sources include:
 some journal articles that comment on or analyse research (they do

not present new research findings, rather they comment or analyse
primary research done by other researchers). They are generally
classified as reviews.
 textbooks
 dictionaries and encyclopaedias
 books that interpret, analyse
 political commentary
 biographies
 dissertations
 newspaper editorial/opinion pieces
 criticism of literature, artworks or music (UNSW, 2022).
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
As students, you are expected to use both primary and secondary sources
in your academic work such as assignments and project writing because
even though you can obtain valuable information from primary sources,
the secondary sources also help to enrich your work.
c. Tertiary sources
This source(s) presents summaries or condensed versions of materials,

usually with references that take you back to the primary and/or secondary
sources. In other words, the tertiary information sources derive their
information from the primary/and or secondary sources. Most often,
tertiary sources are not credited to a particular author.
For instance, a publishing company may compile an index of journal
articles written on a particular area of study in a given year. It will provide
all the bibliographic information that an individual who is doing
systematic research needs to locate the articles that he wishes to use to
continue his work. In themselves, tertiary sources do not give you all the
content but aid you to locate the actual source.
Another tertiary source an abstract provides all the information that an
index provides in addition to giving you a summary of the article being
described. Sometimes, you may have enough information from the
abstract and decide not to look for the full text. At other times, the
information in the abstract motivates you to look for the original text.
As students, in the course of your project writing, you may have a need
to use a tertiary source in addition to both primary and secondary sources.
Therefore, tertiary sources are also important.
Some examples of tertiary sources are:
 indexes
 bibliographies
 abstracts
 directories
2. Non-Documentary Sources of Information:

In contrast to documentary sources, non-documentary sources of
information are sources of information that are not documented but from
which information can be collected. Note that the fact that non-
documentary sources are not recorded does not detract from the fact that
they constitute a substantial part of communication. They are especially
useful for researchers in science and technology.
Non-documentary sources of information are further categorised under
formal and informal sources of information. When you are carrying out a
48
research on a particular topic, you may need to use both formal and
informal sources for information.
a. Formal Sources of Information:
Formal sources of non-documentary information from where you can
obtain information include
 Libraries
 Government and non-governmental agencies
 Data centres
 Hospitals
 Technological institutions
 Research institutes
 Information centres
 Societies
 Referral centres
 Museums
 Industries, etc.
b. Informal Sources of Information
Informal Sources of Information are live sources and they include
 Librarians
 Professional colleagues
 Personal websites
 Blogs
 Vlogs
 Podcasts, etc.
Information
sources
Documentary Non-Documentary
Sources Sources
Primary Secondary Tertiary Formal Informal

Sources Sources Sources Sources Sources
Fig. 3: Sources of information
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
Case law, legislations, regulations, constitutions are examples of
a. Tertiary information sources
b. Primary information sources
c. Secondary information sources
1.3.4 Formats of Information

Information comes in varying formats. In libraries, when we talk about
formats of information, we mean the medium in which information is
contained, the shape, size, and general make-up of that medium. Formats
of information also constitute sources of information.
The choice of format should be made before you begin your information
search. However, in your consideration of what format of information you
should use, there are some basic things to bear in mind.
 Intended audience of the information
 Length of the information
 Organisation of the information, and
 Supporting evidence (McKillop Library, 2022).
Formats of information as found in libraries in line with the categorisation
and presentation of the McKillop Library will be explored here. Note that
there are other formats of information in other information centres such
as museums.
1. Websites
2. Government Publications
3. Grey Literature
4. Books
5. Periodicals
6. Audiovisual Sources
50
 Websites:
Websites are collections of web resources that can include multimedia
content as well as individual web pages. Virtually any information that
you find in a Google search comes from a website. Websites can also
provide links to other resources or websites. Care must be taken in using
websites because while a reasonable number of them provide worthwhile
information, there are those that provide information that is not credible
due to the fact that anybody can upload information online.
You can identify websites by their domain names that includes identifiers
that may end with .com (commercial sites), .edu (education sites), .gov
(government sites), .org (organisation sites), and .mil (military sites).
Websites from .edu and .gov domains are typically considered as being
more credible or reliable. However, do not rely exclusively on the domain
name when you are using resources from websites. It is still important to
evaluate the specific author, purpose, and evidence provided for any
website you use for research. Organisations’ websites (.org) are also
sometimes seen as being more reliable, depending on the credibility of
the organisation (McKillop Library, 2022).
For instance, http://www.who.org is a reliable source of information on
global health related topics/subjects than a website that is .com because a
.com website is presenting their information from a commercial point of
view. This is not to say that they are totally unreliable but if you have a
choice between using.org, .net. or .edu website and .com website for
authoritative information, you should prefer the other ones to .com
websites.
 Government Publications:
Government documents emanate from local, state, and national levels of
the government. They can include a variety of current and historical
information including international treaties, presidential papers,
congressional records, court documents, statutes, reports, and
statistics. Government documents are authoritative and credible sources
of information to use in research.
 Grey Literature:
Grey literature are documents that are written by experts or researchers.
Grey literature can be in either print or electronic format but they are not
published by a commercial publisher (i.e. a publisher that identifies
publishing as its primary activity). These documents are collected and
preserved by libraries and institutional repositories. They are termed grey
literature because they are undefined and uncategorised in nature and so
cannot neatly be put under categories such as scholarly, trade, or popular
sources. Additionally, some pieces of grey literature may be primary
sources of information while others are secondary sources. For instance,
data sets and clinical trials are primary sources whereas others like
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
dissertations and conference presentations, are secondary sources

(McKillop Library, 2022).
The aim of grey literature is to inform or influence opinions on a given
topic. The sources of grey literature include different levels of
government, academia, advocacy groups, research labs, businesses, and
industries. Grey literature can include conference materials
(presentations, proceedings, etc.), theses and dissertations, department
newsletters, reports (including white papers and working papers), clinical
trials, blog postings from experts, and data sets (McKillop Library, 2022).
 Book:
This is a medium for recording information in the form
of writing or images. Traditionally, books are composed of many pages
and can be made of papyrus, parchment, vellum, or paper. These
pages bound together and protected by a cover. The technical term for
this physical arrangement is codex (plural, codices) (Wikipedia, 2022).
Books have varying lengths and subject matter and different audiences.
The intellectual content in a physical book does not have to be a
composition, nor even be called a book. You can have books that consist
only of drawings, engravings or photographs, crossword puzzles e.t.c.
With the emergence of information and communication technology,
books also appear in electronic forms such as ebooks or other formats
such as audiobooks, braille etc. (Wikipedia, 2022).
 Periodicals:
Periodicals are publications that contain multiple articles and come in
parts. They are intended to continue at regular intervals (daily, weekly,
monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly, and annually). Periodicals are published
more quickly than books and some contain more current information.
There are different types of periodicals: scholarly, popular, trade e.t.c.
Journals produced by professional associations are examples of scholarly
periodicals while newspapers and magazines are examples of popular
periodicals. There are also trade journals that are specifically created for
members of a particular profession. They may also feature advertisements
targeted at that profession.
It is preferable to use scholarly peer-reviewed periodicals for academic
work. This is not to say that you cannot obtain good information from
newspapers and magazines or other types of periodical.
 Audiovisual sources:
Audio-visuals are sources of information that are not in print format as
we have in physical books but they contain useful information for
instructional purposes. Audiovisuals command the attention of more than
one sense organ i.e. you need both the eyes and ears to use them. One may
52
require special equipment to operate audiovisual resources. They are the

product of advanced technology, some of which usually require special
equipment to operate. Audiovidual resources include television, computer
and films among others.
1.4 Summary
This unit focused on information resources/resources. The unit
highlighted the importance of information sources and sources in
libraries. Information sources are the persons, places and things that
information is obtained from. Different kinds of information can be
obtained from different sources and the information user needs to know
what sources will most meet his/her information needs. Information
resources in libraries are the materials and infrastructure which contain
information. They are both in print and electronic formats.
1.5 Glossary
1. Format: How something is arranged or set out.
2. Resource: Stock, supply of money, materials, staff and other
essential assets needed to function well.
3. Source: Place, person or thing from which something emanates or
can be obtained.
Egyankosh, (n.d.). https://libguides.furman.edu/special-collections/for-
students/primary-secondary-sources
Furman University Libraries, (2021). What is the difference between
primary and secondary sources?
IGI Global, (2022). What is information resource? https://www.igi-
global.com/dictionary/information-resource/14466
LISBDNETWORK, (2022, October 16). Sources of information.
https://www.lisedunetwork.com/sources-of-information/
McKillop Library, (2022). Research and writing: understanding formats.
https://salve.libguides.com/researchandwriting
UNSW Library, (2022). Primary and secondary sources.
https://www.library.unsw.edu.au/using-the-library/information-
resources/primary-and-secondary-sources
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
SAE 1 primary source of information
54

Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
2.3 Concept of Digital Information Retrieval
2.3.1 Functions of an Information Storage and Retrieval System
2.3.2 Merits and Demerits of Information Retrieval System
2.3.3 Information retrieval systems
2.4 Summary
2.5 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
In the last unit, the discussion focused on information sources/resources

in libraries. Libraries contain both print and non-print resources. In
addition to the traditional or manual library system, there is also the
electronic or digital library. Digital libraries possess vast types and nature
of resources and digital or electronic resources in form of databases and
they keep grow at an exponential rate. To that extent, when people visit
the digital library, they expect to be able to utilise the resources that are
contained therein within the shortest time possible. The ability to navigate
the system and retrieve needed information is important in the satisfaction
of users’ information needs as well as satisfaction with the digital library
system. In essence, irrespective of the wealth of resources that any given
digital library possesses, if the navigation of the system hinders
information access and retrieval, it is failing in one of its cardinal
responsibilities.
This is the reason that electronic information centres go to great lengths
to design their Information Retrieval (IR) systems. An efficiently and
effectively organised system will ensure that users retrieve information
easily and also motivate them to continue using the system. On the other
hand, an inefficiently and ineffectively organised IR system will make the
process of information-seeking and satisfaction cumbersome and
demotivating. This will definitely affect the users’ information-seeking
behaviour.
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LIS 403 MODULE 2

 explain the concept of Information retrieval
 examine the functions of Information retrieval
 examine some information retrieval models.
2.3 Concept of Digital Information Retrieval
The concept of information retrieval (IR) is heavily influenced by

computer and information science. For instance, Britannica, T. Editors
of Encyclopaedia (2021) defines information retrieval as recovery of
information, especially in a database stored in a computer. Siddhi2420
(2022) defines the concept as “a software program that deals with the
organization, storage, retrieval, and evaluation of information from
document repositories, particularly textual information.” The author
specifically mentions that information retrieval is that activity that is
concerned with obtaining material usually in textual to satisfy an
information need from within a large collection that is stored on
computers. Limbd (2020) says that online information retrieval is
“technique that helps the users to retrieve their desired information from
different machine-readable online databases.”
In the same vein, referring to it as online information retrieval, Merriam
Webster Dictionary (2022) defines it as the techniques of storing and
recovering and often disseminating recorded data especially through the
use of a computerized system.”
Online information retrieval “is a method by which a user search

information machine-readable database and retrieve their desired
information very rapidly and easily” (LISBDNETWORK, 2015).
While the definitions of the concept given so far are valid in themselves,
there is no doubt that their emphasis is on computers and computer.
However, information retrieval can also take place outside electronic or
digital environments as we shall see later.
This assertion is premised on the fact that long before computers
became widely acceptable and applicable, traditional libraries have
always engaged in the organisation, storage, retrieval and evaluation of
information from print and audio-visual resources. To that extent, the
concept of information retrieval will be examined from the standpoint
of both electronic and non-electronic contexts.
56
2.3.1 Functions of a Digital Information Retrieval System

An information retrieval system is concerned with two things: the sources
of information that it contains and users’ requirements. Based on that
Gupta (2022) identifies the following as the functions of an information
retrieval system:
1. To identify the sources of information relevant to the areas of

interest of the target user community: Every information system
provides to the need of a target community. To that extent, the
information sources that it contains/stores and provide access to
must meet the needs of that target community.
2. To analyse the contents of the sources: It is not just enough to

assemble and store resources. The system must be able to analyse
the contents of the sources so as to provide search terms that will
facilitate retrieval.
3. To make the search statement with the stored database: Search
terms or user queries or keywords that describe the contents of the
sources must be provided.
4. To retrieve information those are relevant: The system must

make it possible for relevant information to be retrieved. This is
however conditional as the terms that the used by the information
user should match what the system assigns as much as possible.
The keywords should be such that they will be able to improve precision
ie it should be such that makes it possible for significant proportion that
are retrieved are relevant to the user. It should also improve recall by
ensuring that a significant amount of relevant items are retrieved by the
user (Introduction, n.d.).
5. To make necessary adjustments in the system based on

feedback from the users: The system should be flexible enough
to make adjustments based on feedback from the users.
2.3.2 Merits and Demerits of Information Storage and
Retrieval System
It should be borne in mind that the overriding aim of any information
retrieval system is to ensure that information is organised and stored in
a manner that will facilitate retrieval in the most effective and efficient
manner so as to satisfy the information needs of the users of the system.
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
An information storage and retrieval system also aims to ease the

retrieval process given that the volumes of information created, generated
and stored are immense. As a result, without a good retrieval system in
place, the retrieval process for an information user would be cumbersome
and frustrating (Onwuchekwa & Jegede, 2011).
Writing specifically about online information retrieval system, Limbd
(2020) outlines some merits and demerits. The merits include:
 To save the time of the readers when they search for their necessary
information.
 The searching process is easy to understand.
 Current information is available in the storage database.
 Users can access multi-database to use multiple keywords/concepts
at the same time.
 To serve multi-users at the same time.
 There have no geographical barriers to search for information from
anywhere in the world.
 Easy to store all of our search results.
 To retrieve information, form our query as several formats i.e. books,
journals, PDFs, documents, format, etc.
 Searching cost is less than manual searching.
 It has a resource sharing service section.
 To prove users’ friendly search logic.
According to Limbd (2020), the demerits of online information retrieval

system include:
 High establishment cost.
 Maximum library users and staff have not enough IT knowledge to
run this system.
 Lack of training facility.
 Electricity supply problem.
 Lack of networking and internet facility.
 Slow speeds of the internet delay the retrieval system.
What the above highlight is that libraries, whether manual or electronic

should pay serious attention to ensuring that the information retrieval
system in place meet the needs for efficiency and effectiveness so as to
serve the information user in his/her quest for information to satisfy a
given information need(s).
2.3.3 Digital Information Retrieval System
An information retrieval system supports three basic processes: the
representation of the content of the documents, the representation of the
user’s information need, and the comparison of the two representations
(Hiemstra, n.d.). In other words, the system is designed in such a way that
58
interactiveness can be achieved. When the user queries the system, there
is a comparison between the representation of the content of the
documents and the users need and based on that, results are produced.
The collections in a digital library are diverse ranging from text, sound,
maps, photos, maps, videos, etc. including a working environment,
technology and services. A digital library exists to satisfy the needs of its
users. This entails that the databases in a digital library have to have a
high retrieval method. If the quality of the retrieval method is low, then it
will be difficult to make effective use of the system (Naik & Rao, 2011).
On the other hand, the online information retrieval systems are designed
in such as way that they provide access to databases that are not owned
by any library. They serve the purpose of providing access to remote
databases and are open to a variety of users. Online databases are mostly
available on commercial basis and often marketed by vendors e.g.
Research4Life. Libraries pay subscriptions to access online databases for
their digital libraries.
Some important concepts in information retrieval system are 1) browsing

features, 2) searching features, 3) quality of search results and 4) recall
and precision (Naik & Rao, 2011). These browsing features are used in
document retrieval. In other words, if any is not used, information users
will not be able to browse using it. The characteristics of the two features
as outlined by the authors are as follows
1. Browsing Features:
The browsing features enables people to go through a digital library and
discover things that they did not know about. If a digital library is to be
effective, users should be able to browse the digital objects by using
metadata such as:
i. Author / Creator / Contributor
ii. Title of the document / article / book
iii. Issue Date / Date of Publication
iv. Collection
v. Communities
vi. Subject browsing
vii. Publisher wise browsing
viii. Table of contents browsing
ix. Multi-dimensional browsing
2. Searching Features: A digital library is useless without searching

features. One of the considerations is what type of search features are
supported by the software in use. According to Naik and Rao (2011),
“while, evaluating the software, it is necessary to do functional testing of
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
the software, i.e., determining the extent to which a digital library, in

whole or in part, is able to perform desired operations.” The following
searching features can be used in information retrieval:
i. Full text searching:
ii. Boolean (AND, OR, NOT) searching
iii. Basic Search
iv. Advanced search
v. Truncation/Wild card searching
vi. Exact words/phrases searching
vii. Proximity searching
viii. Stemming search
ix. Fuzzy search
x. Phonetic search
xi. Case sensitive
xii. Case insensitive
xiii. Boosting the term
xiv. Range searching
xv. Expand search
xvi. Lateral search
xvii. Multilingual search
xviii. Refine search
3. Quality of Results
When a user queries the information retrieval system, it is not often that
he/she uses the exact terms used in document indexing. Therefore, the IR
have to cope with the vaguely described information need of the user. To
do this results are ranked by relevance. What happens is that the IR
system evaluates the precision of the answer through a process known as
information retrieval evaluation. The evaluation is done by querying a
standardized reference collection. The reference collections are made of
a set of documents, a set of example information needs, and
corresponding sets of relevant documents (Naik & Rao, 2011). Let us see
it in the sense of an expert indexer who has to index a set of documents.
He/she has a set of examples of peoples’ likely information needs. The
set of documents are now matched against a set of example information
needs and the documents that correspond with this needs are more or less
assigned. The documents retrieved are then compared to the set of
relevant documents as determined by experts. The similarity between the
document retrieved and the set of relevant document is quantified by the
test collectors’ evaluation measure and leads to the goodness of the tested
retrieval strategy (Naik & Rao, 2011). The quality of the result is
determined by how much similarity there is between the document
retrieved and the set of relevant document as quantified by the test
collectors’ evaluation measure.
60
4. Recall and Precision

Recall and precision are called basic evaluation measures or parameters.
Recall is concerned with the total number of documents that are retrieved
that are relevant compared with the total number of relevant documents
in the database. An information user makes a request and some results are
generated from the information retrieval system from among relevant
documents in the system. How much of the retrieved documents are
relevant compared to all the relevant documents that the database has?
Precision is about the total number of documents retrieved that are
relevant compared with total number of documents that are retrieved.
Remember that when a user makes a query, a whole lot of results are
produced. The user now studies the results to determine how much of the
documents that are relevant compared with the total of the documents that
has been retrieved.
Hiemstra (n.d.) presents the processes that take place in preparing an
information retrieval system: the representation of the content of the
documents, the representation of the user’s information need, and the
comparison of the two representations presented grammatically in the
figure below.
Information Documents
Need
Query Indexing
Formulation
Query Indexed
Documents
Matching
Feedback Retrieved
Documents
Fig. 4: Information Retrieval Processes. Source: Hiemestra (n.d.).
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
In the diagram above, the documents in the information system are

subjected to indexing. The indexed terms which represent the documents
are fed into the information retrieval system. A user comes into the system
with his/her information needs. To retrieve information, he/she has to
formulate search queries. The queries are then used to search the
information system. If the information user’s queries match the indexed
documents, document retrieval takes place. The user studies the retrieved
documents. A further search may be conducted based on the feedback.
Information Need Internal

Question
Representation
Answer
Feedback
Docs
Internal
Information Need Representation
Query
Information Docs
Retrieval
Retrieval
Relevance System
Feedback
Fig. 5: Conversational loop, after (Source: Guti cited in Naik & Rao,
2011)
1. One of the following is not a searching feature
a. Proximity search
b. Table of Contents search
c. Fuzzy search
62
d. Stemming search
2. Author / Creator / Contributor are examples of
1. Metadata
2. Classification terms
3. Search engines
2.4 Summary
This unit discussed the concept of information retrieval, functions of an
information storage and retrieval system, merits and demerits of
information retrieval system and digital information retrieval systems The
whole purpose of existence of an information system is to ensure that the
diverse collections are stored and organised so that information users can
retrieve information from them to meet their information needs.
2.5 Glossary
1. Metadata: a set of data that describes and gives information about
other data
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, June 29). Information
retrieval. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/information-retrieval
Chimah, J. N., Unagha, A. O. & Nwokocha, U. (2010). Information
retrieval in libraries and information centres: concepts, challenges
and search strategies. Journal of Applied Information Science and
Technology, 4, 20-24.
https://www.jaistonline.org/ChimahUnaghaNwokocha_2k10.pdf
Chowdhury, G.G. (2019) Introduction to modern information retrieval,

3rd Ed. London: Facet Publishing.
Echem, M. & Udo-Anyanwu, A. J. (2018). Information retrieval tools and
library physical environment as correlates of library utilization by
students in Rivers State University Library, Nigeria. Library
Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). 1772.
Edom, B.O. (2012). Principles of the use of the library. Owerri:
Springfield Publishers Ltd.
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Gupta, S. (2022). Information storage and retrieval system.

https://www.academia.edu/30094318/Information_Storage_and_Retriev
al_System
Hiemstra, D. (n.d.). Information retrieval models.
https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/5588097/IRModelsTut
orial-draft.pdf
Introduction (n.d.). https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11780321.pdf
LISBDNETWORK (2015, April 28). Online information retrieval
system. Paper presented at the 8th International CALIBER - 2011,
Goa University, Goa, March 02-04, 2011 at INFLIBNET Centre,
Ahmedabad. https://www.lisedunetwork.com/online-information-
retrieval-syste/
Manning, C. D., Raghavan, P. & Schutze, H. (2009). An introduction to
information retrieval.
https://www.academia.edu/27076940/An_Introduction_to_Infor
mation_Retrieval
Merriam Webster Dictionary (2022). Information retrieval: definition of

information retrieval. https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/information%20retrieval
Naik, N. R. & Rao, A. M. (2011). Information search and retrieval
systems in libraries.
https://ir.inflibnet.ac.in/ir/bitstream/1944/1596/1/3.pdf
Nnadozie, C. O. (2007). Foundations of Library Practice. Owerri:
Springfield Publishers Limited.
Onwuchekwa, E. & Jegede, O. R. (2011). Information Retrieval Methods
in Libraries and Information Centers. African Research Review
5(6) pp. 118-176, 108-120 Doi:10.4314/afrrev.v516.10
Rashid, H.A. (2020). Information retrieval. Library & Information
Management. https://limbd.standford.edu/IR-
book/pdf/irbookonlinereading.pdf
Savoy, J. & Gaussier, E. (2010). Information retrieval.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281886222_Informatio
n_Retrieval
Siddhi2420 (2022, July 3). What is information retrieval?
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-information-retrieval/
64

SAE 1 Table of contents search
SAE 2 Metadata
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LIS 403 MODULE 2

Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Concept of Information Retrieval
3.3.1 Functions of an Information Storage and Retrieval System
in Libraries
3.3.2 Merits and Demerits of Libraries’ Information Retrieval
System
3.4 Summary
3.5 Glossary
3.6 References/Further Reading
3.1 Introduction
Information retrieval was discussed in the previous unit. The unit

explained that the overriding reason for acquisition, organisation,
storage and preservation of library resources is to provide users with
avenues to meet their information needs. The different types of sources
and resources in a library were highlighted. This includes print and non-
print sources/resources. It was also highlighted that to make effective
use of the resources in the library or any information centre for that
matter, there has to be in place a system that allows for not only
information search but also information retrieval. This is true of both
the traditional as well as the digital libraries. While the concept of
information retrieval is more related to electronic information systems,
it nonetheless has some similarities with what happens in more
traditional systems. Given the vast amount of collections and their
diverse nature, it will be practically impossible to retrieve information
if there is no system in place that attempts to match the user’s query
with the collections that are in the information retrieval system. Thus,
in the cause of information-seeking, the ultimate aim is that a user
should be able to not only locate the needed information but also
retrieve the relevant documents. If this is not possible, the library or
information centre will be failing in its duty and would definitely be
underutilised.
In our environment, most libraries are largely operating the manual

system even though in most cases, there is what is designated as “digital
or electronic libraries” in such spaces. However, a close examination
66
of the concept of digital or electronic libraries definitely show that such

“digital libraries” are not exactly what they are claimed to be. To this
extent, it is important that you understand information retrieval in
libraries.
1. Understand the Concept of information retrieval in libraries

2. Understand Information retrieval in Libraries
3. Know about Information retrieval methods in libraries
3.3 Concept of Information Retrieval
In their definition of the concept, Rashid (2020) says that it is the activity
that is concerned with obtaining the right information, to the right user
at the right time and is mostly related to the representation, storage,
organisation and access to information. In the same vein, Chimah,
Unagha and Nwokocha (2010) see it as a process that involves extracting
information from a collection or database in response to an information
problem.
Furthermore, Edom (2012) sees the concept as a mechanism or
apparatus that aids library users to locate, obtain and utilise needed
documents, information or books from a library collection while
Manning, Raghavan & Schutze (2009) are of the view that information
retrieval concerns the gamut of activities that are related to the
organisation of, processing of and access to information in all forms and
formats. The whole essence is to ensure that people are able to
communicate with an information service so as to locate information
that may be in the form of texts, graphic images and sound recordings
or video in line with their specific information needs.
Another definition also incorporates the types of items that are stored in
an information retrieval system and says that information retrieval is
concerned with the representation, storage, organization of, and access to
information items; these information items could be references to real
documents, documents themselves, or even single paragraphs, as well as
Web pages, spoken documents, images, pictures, music, video, etc (Savoy
& Gaussier, 2010).
From the definitions we can deduce that the central focus in designing
an information retrieval system is the user. We can also deduce that its
objective is to facilitate the organisation and storage of information in
varying forms/formats so as to enable the information user to not only
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
have access but also obtain or retrieve the information that it contains in
the most efficient manner possible, to meet his/her information needs.
It is however important to mention that unlike the traditional or manual
system that makes possible the retrieval of resources in the form of
books, journals, reference materials, audio-visual materials, etc. and in
which it is the information user has to be able to manually search and
get the required information, electronic or online information has the
capability to take the information seeker to the precise information (e.g.
paragraph) required using precise or appropriate search terms.
3.3.1 Information Retrieval in Libraries
In a manual or traditional library, the cataloguers index the contents of the

books using the subject heading list or any other tools. With the subject
heading list, search terms that match the contents of the document are
assigned and which are believed to be as close as possible to how
information users will use them in searching for information as well as
the bibliographic details of the books are used. The subject heading lists
have been prepared with so much carefulness as to match the information
needs of the users as much as possible. When catalogue cards are prepared
and filed and displayed, users can use that to search for information in the
system. Based on their needs, users search the catalogues and if they use
the correct search terms or queries, they come up with results by way of
the documents that they retrieve. Resources such as journals and
newspapers are also indexed for easy retrieval. This is why Echem and
Udo-Anyanwu (2018) post that “the effectiveness of a library as an
instrument of learning is determined by the success with which it is able
to provide the users with the necessary tools capable of accessing and
retrieving the information they seek.”
However, the aim of an information retrieval system is not to inform or
change the knowledge of the information user on the subject of his/her
enquiry rather, it informs him that a document either exists or does not
exist in the system. Where the document exists, it directs him/her to where
it can be found. In this way, an information retrieval system serves as a
bridge between the world of the creators of the system or generation of
information and users of the system (Onwuchekwa & Jegede, 2011).
There are two broad categories of information retrieval systems in a

hybrid library: in-house retrieval system and online retrieval system.
In-house retrieval system is specific to any library in that they are set up
by any library or information centre bearing in mind the contents of their
library. In other words, they are tailor made to meet the needs of users of
the specific library and are based on the information resources that are
68
owned by the library. An example of an in-house information retrieval

system is the card catalogue which describes and points users to the
resources in the particular library. No library includes resources that it
does not possess in its collection. There is also the Online Public Access
Catalogue (OPAC) which enables users to conduct online catalogue
searches after which they check whether the item required exists in the
library.
Some of the information retrieval tools used in libraries include reading

list, index, abstract, library catalogue, shelf guides and bibliographies.
Also, where the system is hybrid, retrieval tools will include search
engines, OPAC, and web-based information retrieval systems (Nnadozie,
2007).
3.3.2 Methods for Information Retrieval in Libraries
Ever since libraries began to emphasise access over storage, the issue
of information access and retrieval has taken a central position in
library services. This was largely informed by the need to ensure that
information users are able to retrieve information from the system as
information materials increased at an exponential level. Some of these
tools are explained below
1. Cataloguing: Melvil Dewey systematic developed a systematic

system of library classification that was soon to become a unique tool
for organising library resources on the shelve to facilitate access. Soon
after in the same year, Charles A. Cutter came up with rules for a
dictionary catalogue that made it possible for librarians to record
systematically, the library holdings in the form of catalogue entries that
users could easily consult (Onwuchekwa & Jegede, 2011). Cataloguing
is carried out by professional librarians also called cataloguers.
Some essential objectives of a catalogue include to enable a person find

a book by
• Author
• Title
• Subject to show what the library has:
• By a given author
• On a given subject
• In a given literature to assist in the choice of a book
• By edition
• By character
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
IFLA cited in Onwuchekwa & Jegede (2011) reformulated the

objectives of catalogue in 1999 to accommodate/suit the automated
online
 To find entities that corresponds to the user’s search criteria

• To identify an entity
• To select an entity that is appropriate to the user’s needs
• To enquire or obtain access to the entity described.
2. Classification: Classification is the process of grouping library

materials as closely as possible so that like contents are brought
together as much as possible on the shelf. A classification scheme is
used to classify these resources to give a kind of uniformity. We must
remember that libraries acquire and store vast amounts of information
resources. Without a classification system in place, like subjects will be
scattered all over and this will hinder access and retrieval. In his
definition, Nnadozie (2007) sees “classification scheme as a system
created for the division into categories of the universe of human
knowledge into broad subjects and narrow topics.” The overriding
objective of classification schemes is to assist “librarians map the
universe of knowledge such that documents can be put aside for future
consideration into specific locations for easy identification and
retrieval.”
3. Indexing: Manual indexes were in use in libraries long before

scientific publication began to appear online. In the library setting,
index is “a list of articles or other publications within a discipline or
topic.” What an index does is to provide bibliographic details of the
material in terms of author(s), tittle and imprint. With these
information, a library user can trace the resource and can help the
individual to decide whether or not the information or document can be
further explored.in Nigerian libraries today, librarians still prepare
indexed on newspaper, students’ projects and theses and with this, users
can decide on whether to further explore the topic. It should be noted,
however, that an index itself does not assist the user to obtain the full
content of full-text. It merely gives information that can help the user
to further his/her search (Fidel, 2012).
4. Abstracting: Abstracting is another tool for information retrieval in

libraries. Unlike indexing that mostly provide the bibliographic details
of document to enable a user trace the full text, an abstract “is a
condensed version of a larger piece of writing. An abstract is concise
70
and clear and includes the major points, purpose, methods and scope of
the original work” (Everret Library, 2022).
Basically, there are two types of abstracts: descriptive abstract and

informative abstract.
1. Descriptive abstracts: Descriptive abstracts provides the readers with

information on the contents of the report, article or paper. They do not
provide users with results, conclusions or recommendation. They also do
not make judgements of the report, article or paper i.e., they do not
critique it and descriptive abstracts are usually very short, could be less
than 100 words but often not exceeding 100 words.
2. Informative abstracts: Informative abstracts communicate specific

information from the report, article or paper. This can include the purpose,
methods, and scope of the report, article or paper. They also provide the
conclusions and recommendations of the report, article or paper,
including the findings from the analysis, research, and investigations.
Informative abstracts also include a brief summary of the report, article
or paper’s conclusion. They are short and range from one to two pages.
The majority of abstracts are informative (Everett Library, 2022).
3. Shelf Guides
These are record kept on cards or papers and posted on shelves to show
library users what books are shelved on each shelf in the library. Ideally,
when a user comes into a library, he may decide to use the catalogues to
look up what the library has on his/her subject of interest. Once this is
ascertained, the user proceeds to the shelf with the information and
promptly uses the shelf guide to determine the particular one that the
document is shelved. Also, a user may decide to browse the shelf when
he/she is not sure of what he/she wants. The shelf guide also helps him/her
to locate the exact shelf to go to. In both of these cases, the user may end
up retrieving a document.
3.4 Summary
Traditional or manual system libraries are very much in existence in

our environment. Traditionally, libraries, whether digital or manual
contain vast amounts of information in diverse formats. Without an
information retrieval system in place, it will be a herculean task for
users to retrieve information or make effective use of the facility. This
unit considered information retrieval in libraries. The concept of
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LIS 403 MODULE 2
information retrieval in libraries and different information retrieval

tools or methods were highlighted.
Self-Assessment Exercises
1. What is classification?
2. Define indexing.
3.5 Glossary
1. Information retrieval: The act of tracing and recovery of

specific information from stored data. Also, the act of tracing
and recovery of specific document such as books, journals, etc.
from library holdings.
2. Search engine(s): This is a software that is accessed on the
internet. A search engine enables the internet to search a
database of information in a database according to the search
query specified by the information user.
Echem, M. & Udo-Anyanwu, A. J. (2018). Information retrieval tools and

library physical environment as correlates of library utilization by
students in Rivers State University Library, Nigeria. Library
Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). 1772.
Everrett Library (2022). Abstracts: a definition.

Http://library.queens.edu/library101
Fidel, R. (2012). 10 Human Information Behaviour and Information

Retrieval: Is Collaboration Possible?
https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262017008.003.0010
Nnadozie, C. O. (2007). Foundations of Library Practice. Owerri:
Springfield Publishers Limited.
1. Classification is the process of grouping library materials as

closely as possible so that like contents are brought together as
much as possible on the shelf.
2. In the library setting, index is “a list of articles or other
publications within a discipline or topic
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LIS 403 MODULE 3

Units structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Definition of Information User
1.3.1 Types of Information Users in Libraries
1.3.2 Characteristics of Library Information Users
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 References/Further Reading
Unit I Definition of Information User
1.1 Introduction
Our focus in this module is the library information user or library user.
The library user is indeed the raison d’etre of libraries. The implication is
that without the library user, the library and its resources will not be
relevant. Without the user, there will be no use. Use is the key point while
the`User' is the key and dynamic component of every library and
information system (Kishor, n.d.).
The importance of the library users can be deduced from the fact that they
are borne in mind in the design of the library information system,
including the functional units and information retrieval system. The
overall aim is to make sure that users find the library environment
convenient and conducive with easily retrievable resources.
 examine the concept of library user

 examine the types of people who use the library and their
characteristics.
73
1.3 Definition of Information User
The central focus in any library’s discussion on information behaviour or

information-seeking behaviour is the information user. However, there is
no one definition of the term information user as the term has different
meanings across various disciplines. Some definitions will be examined
here.
An information user is an individual who actively exercises his/her right
to access different information sources. The individual is differentiated
from potential information users who are identified as those who do not
currently exercise these rights, but are potential information users (IGI
Global, 2022).
The term can also be defined in two senses: 1) “a person who, either alone
or jointly or in common with other persons, controls the collection,
holding, processing or use of the information” and 2) “a person who only
has the right to access information about an account and the services
related to that account, but has no ownership rights in the account or to
the funds held in the account, and cannot conduct transactions on or
initiate, change, add, close or terminate an account or service” (The Law
Insider, 2022).
It is clear that while the first definition of the information user conveys
on the individual rights that go beyond use of information to include
controlling the collection and holding and processing the information in
which case the individual is a stakeholder by way of ownership in the
process, the second definition conveys only limited right to access
information as it concerns a particular aspect of the process to the
information user.
An example of the first scenario is what happens in the library while the
second scenario can be experienced in the financial sector such as the
banking industry where account officers are assigned to different
accounts. They can only use information on the aspect of that account that
is assigned to them, but they are not the owners of the information nor can
they control it or make a change or anything else on a customer’s finances.
Reddy, Krishnamurti & Asundi (2018) simply defines information user
as one who makes use of things. Essentially, the person simply has the
right to use the thing.
In library and information science, the term user is often used to mean one
who uses the library and by implication the information resources
contained therein. The individual by virtue of being a member of a parent
organisation, user community or a registered member of a library has
rights and privileges to not only visit the library, but to also make use of
the resources. The user is anybody who visits the library with the aim of
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LIS 403 MODULE 3
exploiting its resources to satisfy his/her information needs (Nwalo,

2003).
It is important to emphasise that the phrase ‘visits the library’ should not
be taken literarily in the 21st century where information and
communication technology makes physical visits to the library optional.
Therefore, the library today has gone beyond a physical location or space,
and as such, when users remotely access the library’s online electronic
resources or electronic resources in offline servers, they are visiting the
library.
User in library parlance includes all those who avail themselves of the
services offered by a library, and is often used synonymously with
clientele, client, patron, member, customer or reader (Aina, 2004).
1.3.1 Types of Information Users in Libraries:
There is no one way of categorising information users however,

categorisation of library users can be done on the basis of sets of objective
criteria such as socio-professional category, specialist field, nature of the
activity for seeking the information, the reason for using the information,
reason for using the information system and social and psychological
criteria such as the user’s attitudes and values as it relates to information
in general and in his relations with information unit in particular
(Guinchat cited in Dhiman, n.d.). A few categorisations will be made
here.
On the basis of their approach to information in libraries, Kunz (1977)

have categorised information users as follows
(i) Potential user: This a person who needs information which can be
provided by specific services but they may not be able to express
their information needs properly.
(ii) The expected user: This type of users has the intention of using
certain information services.
(iii) Actual user: One who has actually used an information service
regardless of whether he derived advantages from it or not.
(iv) The beneficiary user: One who derives a measurable advantage
from using an information service.
Whittaker (1993) categorises library information users on the basis of the

library service that they make use of
 General readers are those readers who concentrate on the reading
of light reading materials owned by the library.
 Subject readers This type of users is interested in subject materials
and so concentrate their use of library materials on subject field of
interest that they are working on or specialise in.
75
 Special readers have special information needs and so need some

special library service. In this group are users with special needs
such as the visually impaired and hearing impaired and other
disabilities such as physical disabilities.
 Non-Readers Users These are made up of sub groups who make
use of library materials, but not reading materials. A user coming
into the library just to borrow a video or audio cassette is the best
example of non-reading user.
Library users can also be categorised on the basis of the type of library
they use, for instance;
 Public library users: Every member of the community is allowed
to use the library including school children, professionals and non-
professionals etc.
 Academic library user: Members of an academic community who
could be students, academic staff and non-academic staff users.
 Special library users: Members of research institutes,
organisations etc. The library is established to meet their special or
unique needs.
Ranganathan (1961) has divided user community on the basis of various

types of services enunciated by him. They may be: the freshman, ordinary
inquirer and specialist inquirer.
 Freshman is the new member of the library.
 Ordinary inquirer is ordinary reader, and
 Specialist inquirer is one who specializes in narrow field where as
general readers are the associated groups.
Another categorisation is by Bernal, cited in Egyankosh (2022) who

classifies library users on the basis of the kind of information services
required by them.
Users
Workers in Workers Technolo Writers Scientific Historians

Intereste
Fundamental in gists of and of
d Public
Research Applied Reports, technical Science
Research Books journalists
Fig. 6: Functional categories of users (Bernal cited in Egyankosh, n.d.)
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LIS 403 MODULE 3
USERS
Business
etc.
Scientists Engineers Doctors Technologists
Fig. 7: managers
User
categories
by
Physicists Chemists Middle

Top
Managers Manager
s
professional groups (Source:
Bernal cited in Egyankosh, (n.d.)
should not take you more than 5 minutes.1
1. ------- categorised information users into: potential user, expected
user, actual user and beneficiary user
a. Kunz
b. Whittaker
c. Ranganathan
None of the above
2. A potential user is one who has actually used an information
service.
True False
1.3.2 Characteristics of Information Users in Libraries:
One of the most important activities done in libraries is user study. This
exercise is important to understand the people the library is serving so that
the information resources and system can be made to meet their needs.
77
The ability of any library to meet the needs of users is important for its
continuing use and survival.
This is particularly important today because unlike in the past when
information seekers had very limited choices for meeting their
information needs and depended on libraries to a large extent, today’s
information seeker has so many options including other information
providing centres and the internet.
To know how to design the information system, the characteristics of the

user groups that the library is serving is very important. So, libraries
require user characteristics to collect information that will help in the
design, provision and evaluation of specific information products or
services geared to specific users (Kishor, n.d.). It is also on the basis of
that that user studies are conducted.
User characteristics may be studied under the following groups as

categorised by Egyankosh (n.d.).
i) individual characteristics,
ii) stages in the information diffusion,
iii) environmental or social characteristics, and
iv) communication characteristics.
i. Individual Characteristics:
In this category, the library is interested in specific individual attributes

such as name, age, gender, job or occupation, educational level etc.
Because individual characteristics are specific to each user, by analyzing
them, it is possible to have some insight into how individual users
perceive and define a problem that they meet in the course of searching
for information and the very specific ways that they will most likely use
information as well as their ability to use a particular type of information.
For instance, an undergraduate and a secondary school student will have
different individual characteristics such as age and educational level. If
both are given the same questionnaire and asked to supply specific
instruction about what information they retrieve in a library and how they
perceive the information retrieval system, their individual characteristics
will provide information that when analysed will enable the library to
know what challenges they face in the retrieval process including how
they use information.
ii. Stages in the Information Diffusion:
Different people are at various stages in the information diffusion.

Information diffusion is concerned with how new knowledge is spread in
the society. This characteristic is about determining the amount of
information that an individual or a group of users possess about a specific
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LIS 403 MODULE 3
idea or innovation, products or practices that influence the individual.

Information needs at various stages are different and therefore
information products and services have to be tailored for each stage.”
There is no way that the library can provide certain information services
if they do not know the stages that their users or user groups are in the
information diffusion. Assuming a library is located in a rural community
where people are still struggling to read, making that library a digital
library is not going to be successful as they are not at that stage of
innovation in their information diffusion. The library system designers
have to bear that in mind in creating an information system for them.
iii. Environmental or Social Characteristics:
Every environment or society is different in one way or another.

Environmental characteristics relate to the factors that are present in a
particular social system that influence the way that an individual will
behave and communicate. Such environmental or social characteristics
include norms, situation, reference groups, socioeconomic and cultural
factors etc. Norms are the things that are typical, standard or usual about
an environment or society that serves to guide, control or regulate what is
considered proper and acceptable behaviour. Situation relates to the
prevailing circumstances or state of affairs of the environment while
reference groups relates to a group that an individual or another group
compares to.
All this should be taken into consideration when designing an information

system. The library will need this information to match their system to the
precise information needs of the user. For example, the way that a rural
library is designed and the kind of information services that are provided
are tailored to the environmental or social characteristics of the
community. It cannot be the same as a library in an urban environment
for the fact that the environmental and social factors are different. Also, a
library that will serve people with disabilities will take that into
consideration in the design of not only the structure but even their
information retrieval system.
iv. Communication Characteristics:
The elements related to the use and diffusion of information constitutes

what are known as communication characteristics. Some of these include
information sources, information structures, communication channels and
information systems. These aspects need to be correlated with other
characteristics. A proper and systematic user study aims at collecting all
the pertinent data concerning the users with the objective of building an
efficient information system. Such data enables establishment of close
relationship between users and the information system designers.
79
Invariably, if the communication characteristics do not march individual

characteristics, environmental or social characteristics, stages of the
information diffusion of the intended user group, it will not be useful. Let
us take for instance designing an information system for an academic
community. It will be a mere exercise in futility if that system does not
take into consideration all the characteristics that match that user group.
Assuming a school library is designed for them, including the resources,
it will not be used because it was not matched with characteristics that
correlate with that user group.
Beyond demographics, Lehman cited in Kumar & Phil (2009) also

outlines eight (8) characteristics of library users that if properly evaluated
by librarians can help them to assist and satisfy the information needs of
their users.
i) Functional reading level.
ii) Visual level.
iii) Personality level.
iv) Capacity level.
v) Satisfaction level.
vi) Interest level.
vii) Variability level and
viii) Vocational level.
1. Information sources, information structures, communication
channels and information systems are examples of what type of -------
characteristics
a. Environmental
b. Economic
c. Intellectual
d. Communication
1.4 Summary
While the physical building and the information resources owned by any
library remain important, the library user is the reason for the
establishment of any library. The success of any library depends on its
ability to meet the information needs of its patrons. That is why in
libraries, the cliché “the customer is king” is very much true because as
already mentioned, the system is built and designed with the information
user or library user as the focal point. That is the basis of the organisation
and arrangement of library materials as well as the functional organisation
of the system itself. The whole essence is to make access to/and retrieval
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LIS 403 MODULE 3
of information and information resources as seamless as possible and to

also encourage continuing use of the facility. That much is affirmed by
Egyankosh (n.d.) that observes that “libraries and information systems are
designed and built with the primary objective of meeting the information
needs of a group of people who constitute their clientele.” The author
further notes that although in the past, information systems and services
were developed based more on ‘literary warrant’ today the emphasis is on
‘users warrant.
In this unit, you were taken through the subject of the library user. The
importance of the user as well as the characteristics of users were
highlighted. Essentially, the librarian must ensure that the information
resources and design of the information system are such that the user can
make maximum benefit and be encouraged to continue to use the library.
Every library is different so there is no one-size-fits all approach to
providing library services. The focus remains the users and their
characteristics.
1.5 Glossary
1. Demographics: This relates to the statistical characteristics of

human populations (such as age, sex, educational status, etc.
Ackroyd, S. & Hughes, J. A. (1981). Data collection in context. London:

Longman.
Aina, L.O. (2004). Library and information science text for Africa.
Ibadan: Third World Information Services.
Echezonam, A. I. (2011). The Anatomy of library users in the 21st
Century. Library Philosophy and Practice.
http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/
Dhiman, A. K. (n.d.). Academic libraries, use and user studies.
http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/
Kaushik, A. (2013). Emerging library user characteristics, behaviors and
expectations convergence in collection management and technical
services: A case study of C.C.S. University, International Journal
of Pharmaceutical Science Invention, 2(6): 55-67. www.ijpsi.org
Kishor, J. (n.d.). Library use and user studies: methods and techniques for
use studies (Patshala courseware). http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/
Krishnamurthy,B. S. M., & Asundi, A. (2018). Information Use, User,
User Needs and Seeking Behaviour: A Review. DESIDOC
Journal of Library & Information Technology, 38(2), 82-87.
https://doi.org/10.14429/djlit.38.2.12098
81
Kuma, R. B. & Phil, M. (2009). User education in libraries. International

Journal of Library and Information Science, 1(1), 001-005.
https://www.academia.edu/27283214/User_education_in_librarie
s
Kunz, W., Rittel, H. W. J. & Schwuchow, W. (1977). Methods of
analysis and evaluation of information needs: A critical review.
Munchen, Verlag Dokumentation. pp 16.
Lovely Professional University (n.d.). Library and its users: DLIS 102,
edited by Kaur, J.
http://ebooks.lpude.in/library_and_info_sciences/BLIS/year_1/D
LIS102_LIBRARY_AND_ITS_USERS.pdf
Nwalo, K. I.N. (2003). Fundamentals of library practice: A manual on
library routines. Ibadan: Sterling-Horden.
Wikipedia (2022). Citation analysis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_analysis
Whitaker, R. (1993). Challenges in information technology management
in the 21st century. http://www.googlebook.com
SAE 1 Kunz
SAE 2 False
SAE 3 Communication
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Unit 2 User Studies in Libraries
Structure Unit
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Definition of User Study
2.3.1 Importance of User Studies to Libraries
2.3.2 Categories of User Studies
2.3.3 Methods/Techniques of User Studies in Libraries
2.3.4 Limitations of Library User Studies
2.4 Summary
2.5 Glossary
1.1 Introduction
As mentioned in the last unit, the relevance and quality of the services and
products offered by any library will determine the use of such libraries.
What this means is that if the library does not meet the needs of its user
groups, client, clientele, users, readers, members etc., it is practically a
waste of resources irrespective of the elegance of the building or the stock
therein.
This is even more so now that there are other sources that information
seekers can go to for their information needs. This includes the internet.
Since the success of any library depends on the ‘use’ and the ‘user’ where
“use” is the reason that libraries do what they do, and “user” is the main
element of the system, it follows that libraries must have a way of not
only knowing who these users are, but also what are their characteristics,
what are their information needs and how can their information needs be
met? This is the very essence of library user studies.
The characteristics of library users listed in unit 2 above: individual

characteristics, stages in the information diffusion, environmental and
social characteristics and communication characteristics etc. are essential
elements in user studies. It is important to note however, that all this differ
from place to place and time to time. Whatever elements that are included
will also depend on the purpose for the user study.
83
 explain the meaning of user studies

 trace the origins of user studies in libraries
 explain the importance of library user studies
 examine various types of user studies, methods/techniques of library
user studies
 explain the barriers to library user studies
 explain some strategies for effective user studies in libraries.
2.3 Definition of User Studies
It must be mentioned here that user studies are not unique to libraries
alone. Practically, every organisation that is product and/or service
oriented, and that has a customer base engages in one form of user studies
or another from time to time. Therefore, the use and meaning of the term
may differ according to the context of use.
The origins of user studies in Library and Information Science, and the
earliest reference to user study in the literature of library and information
science goes back to the study conducted by L. R. Wilson in the late
1930s. However, the study was in an attempt to investigate the
distribution and status of libraries in the USA and was not aimed at
obtaining information relating to library use or users (Egyankosh, n.d.).
Today, however, Emerald Publishing (n.d.) notes that user study is one of
the “most researched and significant topics in library and information
studies, but it also remains one of the most elusive as there is no
convenient definition available to help researchers get a handle on it.” We
will explore some of the definitions of the term within and outside library
and information science contexts.
User studies and research are explorative and discovery-based methods

that help libraries gather insightful and actionable information from their
users. User studies help libraries to understand the needs, pain areas, short
term and long-term goals, constraints, habits, and wish lists of their users
(Texavi Innovative Solutions (2015). This means that user studies are
investigative in nature as it wants to find out and address some of the
issues that are related to one’s user community.
Assuming there is a service that is either unused or that is used, a user

study can be carried out to investigate users’ awareness or perception of
that service. Analysis of collected data will help the library to improve the
acceptability and use of the service. A user study may also not be about a
service. It could simply be about investigating the user community to
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understand their characteristics so as to build a system that is tailored to

meeting their needs.
Therefore, user studies are serious minded investigative exercise that seek
to dig beyond the surface level of the subject of interest. They are
discovery-based and are usually expected to reveal important areas of the
subject of the study.
IGI Global (2022) gives a number of dictionary meanings of user studies.

They are:
1. Any evaluation that gets users involved directly, in the lab or in

the users’ natural environments: A user study is environment based,
especially in the user’s natural environment or in the laboratory where it
is a science related study. It is not a user study if the real users are not
directly involved in it.
2. Evaluations that are conducted to assess the performance of a system

with real end users, generally conducted in usability laboratories under
controlled settings: There is a purpose to user study. Here it is done to
find out how a system performs from the perspective of the real end users
of it. This definition also points out that the study has to be conducted in
an environment that is controlled. While we can see the library as a
laboratory of some sort, the question is can we say this about the user
studies that are carried out in the library? If not, does that make the result
faulty?
Preferring the term ‘user research’ over user study, the Interaction Design
Foundation (n.d.) defines the term as “the methodic study of target
users—including their needs and pain points—so designers have the
sharpest possible insights to work with to make the best designs.” Pain
points refer to the specific problems that current or prospective users of a
product or service face in the course of using it, and this may include any
problems that they encounter along the way.
In the context of libraries, user study is “any study relating to library use,
in any or all of its aspects; specifically, studies aimed at
 determining the overall pattern of interaction with the user
community, without reference to any particular mode of
information reception by users; secondly,
85
 studies to assess the use of a given information source, such as

books and periodical publications - generally known as use studies;
and
 studies to determine the information flow pattern in the system of
communicating knowledge (Rocio, Libria & Ivan (1987).
Another library definition says user study is "a systematic collection of

data concerning a library, its activities, operations, staff, use and users, at
a given time" (Line cited in Devika, 2017). This definition gives the
spectrum of areas that user studies can cover in libraries.
The definitions above, whether library related or not, point to the fact that
user studies are purpose driven and aim at deriving information from
evidence-based studies with the aim of making the library more informed
about how to make the information system user-centred. Rather than
decide by themselves about what the users need, and how to make the
design of the information system as efficient as possible, the library staff
involve the users in the process, and thus, use the outcome of their
feedback to make the library more attuned to the users.
2.3.1 Importance of Library User Studies
From the foregoing, it is clear that the overall purpose of library user
studies is to improve the existing conditions in any library so that
whatever the library management decides to do is evidence based.
Rocio, Libia and Ivan (n.d.) have specifically noted the following as the
importance of library user studies.
 User studies provide a substantial body of specific knowledge,
facts and conclusions that are of great value for the development
of new facilities.
 User studies yield conclusions that can be used in improving the
administrative process since they can be converted into indicators
of successes and shortcomings in the planning and development of
services.
 User studies show the different channels employed by users in the
information acquisition process and also the different types of
information sources and the frequency with which they are used.
 User studies clearly reveal that the flow of information is not a
simple process and that a whole range of factors help to determine
the nature of the individual information collection process.
 User studies are also a way of identifying user needs and
behaviour, which leads to greater efficiency in the information
transfer process.
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Texavi Innovation Solutions (2015) also concede that user studies are
conducted to understand user’s need, often not known or expressed by the
users. User studies are important for unravelling the following aspects
 Users' key needs and drivers
 Constraints, challenges and pain areas
 Goals and tasks
 Usage scenarios and key tasks
 Breakdown areas
 Workarounds used
 Wish list and user preferences.
In summary, library user studies help to discover characteristics,

behaviour, information needs, attitude and opinion about the system and
services (Kishor, n.d.).
Ultimately, user studies are important because there is no way that any
library can function successfully without use/user studies. User studies
are necessary for “designing/examining a library system or library
services, and so must be carried periodically by any library that takes its
users and its job seriously.
2.3.2 Categories of User Studies
Although user studies can be undertaken in libraries for any number of

reasons, they are mostly conducted to determine the strengths and
weaknesses of a system to ensure that it continues to meet user needs.
However, Banwell and Coulson cited by Dhiman (n.d.) categorised user
studies into four major groups according to the focus of the user study in
question:
 User focused studies: The aim of this type of user study is to
investigate users’ wants, needs, contexts, motivation, expectations
and tasks e.g., “Library users’ satisfaction with law library
services.”
 Use focused study: These ones aim to investigate what one or more
specific information sources, are used for, and what the barriers to
information access and use are e.g., “The use of electronic
resources by undergraduate students.”
 Information system focused Studies: The aim is to investigate the
characteristics of a specific information system or service with
reference to its technology, design and evaluation, and
 Organisation focused studies: They aim to investigate the
organisational setting, management procedures and strategies
including internal and external factors that have an impact on the
organisation.
On the other hand, Prabha also cited in Dhiman (n.d.) has categorised user
studies into four types, viz:
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1. User studies that sets out to investigate the overall pattern of

interaction of the user community with the communication system,
without reference to any specific information receiving event.
2. User studies conducted to find out the use of any communication
medium like primary periodical, etc.
3. Includes studies conducted to find out the pattern of flow of
information in the science communication system as a whole.
4. Studies/surveys done within the limited context of a library or
information centre, mainly to find out the extent of use of the
services and facilities offered by an agency with the ultimate
objective of improving the system or services.
1. Which of these is among the classifications of user studies as outlined
by Banwell & Coulson?
a. User focused
b. Use focused
c. Information system focused
d. Organisational focused
e. All the above
2.3.3 Methods/Techniques of User Studies
Several methods/techniques can be applied in user studies and depending

on the need, a user study can be descriptive or prescriptive.
 a descriptive method gathers data from users to know their

perception and experience with the information system. The
information derived from it will give the library management idea
on whether the system is being used, whether it is performing well
or meeting the standards.
 With a prescriptive study, solutions or new ideas are also
recommended based on the information derived.
If conducted on a system, the descriptive method gathers data to ascertain

the conditions as it is without manipulating the variables of the study. This
can be used to identify success or performance or outcomes. On the other
hand, beyond identifying success or performance or outcomes,
prescriptive method recommends solutions or new ideas based on the
analysis of data or the information that is derived from the study.
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Other methods/techniques advanced for user studies are general or

conventional methods, indirect methods, and special and unconventional
methods (Guha, cited in Kishor, n.d.).
 General or conventional methods include the use of techniques
such as questionnaire, interview, diary and observations.
 Indirect methods include library records analysis and citation
analysis.
 Special and unconventional methods include computer feedback
and, it can be further extended by studying internet browsing
pattern of the users and internet behaviour of the users (Kishor,
n.d.).
The methods/techniques above have been further outlined and explained

by Kishor (n.d.): 1) questionnaire, 2) Interview, 3) diary records, 4)
observation, 5) analysis of library records, 6) computer feedback, 7)
citation analysis, 8) analysis of computer records, and 9) internet
browsing records (Kishor, n.d.). These are explained below:
1. Questionnaire: The questionnaire is a good technique for

collecting primary data of a survey nature, especially if it is
structured well. It is useful for collecting data from large numbers
of people. Data collected with questionnaire can be analysed
descriptively or quantitatively. It is also cost effective. The
questions are uniform and standardised. Both open and closed
questions are asked.
Ackryod & Stephen (1981) have identified three types of surveys
that can be conducted with a questionnaire:
 Factual survey: used to collect descriptive information, such as

characteristics of library users.
 Attitude survey - i.e. users opinion about the library, including the
services, performance, satisfaction levels etc.
 Explanatory survey - test theories/hypotheses and/or to produce
new theory for instance, information seeking behaviour of library
users. What are their needs? How do they go about seeking
information? What is their search behaviour and how do they use
information?
However, the questionnaire method has its drawbacks. If not administered

properly, the response rate can be low and therefore yield little
information. The respondents may not be completely honest with their
responses especially if the respondents do not have a good knowledge of
the subject of research and when it comes to outcome, while it may be
able to study trends or attitudes, it is ineffective in explaining the
underlying reasons for the outcome.
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Libraries use questionnaires to collect information on users’ perception

and awareness of library services among others. Results from
questionnaire survey are usually generalised.
2. Interview: Interviews are the best method for collecting data from
a small group of subjects on a broad range of topics. Interviews
can either be structured or unstructured. If structured, all the
respondents are asked the same questions and in the same order
similar to what is done with the questionnaire. The structure of an
interview can take the form of multiple-choice answers. The
objective of a structured interview is to maintain some uniformity
and also to guide the interviewer to elicit relevant responses.
On the other hand, with unstructured interviews, the questions can differ
by subject. The interview follows up on his questioning based on the
answer supplied. So, the answer that each respondent gives will likely
differ.
Interviews can be formal or informal, face-to-face or by telephone. It can

just be an on the spot personal meeting and conversation with the
interviewee, (who are in this case, library users), to obtain personal
information or insight about the library service or services.
However, it requires an experienced interviewer to get the best from an

interview-based study. The data may also be difficult to analyse since they
are mostly qualitative.
3. Diary records: In this method, the library can ask users to keep a
daily, either weekly or monthly diary recording of their activities
and experiences while using the library. Usually, the library
supplies the diaries to the library users. This method can be used to
collect details such as facts, opinions and problems that the users
experience with library services. It can also be used for collection
development purposes. The same method can also be applied in
online mode. The diary method may help in exploring the
following:
 To determine existing usage behaviours and mind-sets of users.

 To find out the current engagement paths of users.
 To know the reading interest of users.
 To discover the regular habits of the users.
 To elicit surface frustrations of users.
 To determine the inherent obstacles and barriers faced by users.
 To find out the unmet needs and desires of users.
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4. Observation: With this method, the research gathers data by

watching behaviour of users, events around a library service or
note the physical characteristics of users in the library setting.
Observations can be overt in which case everyone knows they are
being observed or covert in which the observer is not visible and
no one knows they are being observed.
Observation is appropriate in the following conditions:
 When there is a need for direct information.

 When there is a need to understand behaviour, process, situation
or event.
 When there is a need to examine physical evidence, products or
outcomes.
 When other research methods seem inappropriate to elicit the
required information.
5. Analysis of library records: This method uses the internal records
such as statistics that are kept in the library. The advantage lies in
the fact that with this method, users are not interfered with and
there is no interrupting of their activities in the library. Statistics
on borrowing and returning of library materials, rate of use of
different sections or units of the library, computer usage etc. can
be analysed to get information.
It is a most economical method as it does not require any other personnel

except library staff to perform the analysis. The data is collected on a daily
or regular basis.
6. Computer feedback: With this method, information about use of

the products and services offered by the library are collected
through the computer.
Five types of computer feedback, which can be utilised to collect users’

responses according to Mandernach cited in Kishor (n.d.) are
 No-feedback: Through this method users’ response can be
obtained without addressing any individual questions;
 Knowledge-of-response feedback: Through these users’ responses
can be obtained about correct/incorrect status of each question, but
it does not, inform students about the correct answer;
 Knowledge-of-correct-response: Through this, users’ responses
can be obtained about correct/incorrect status of each question, but
provides the correct answer.
 Topic-contingent feedback: Through these users’ responses can be
obtained about correct/incorrect status of each question along with
paragraph of information from where the correct answer can be
found;
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 Response-contingent feedback: This addresses the

correct/incorrect status of each question along with an explanation
of the selected response and the correct response. The above
methods can be adopted to have users’ responses about their
experience of the library, problems faced, any new requirement,
and any new service.
7. Citation analysis: Citation analysis is the examination of the

frequency, patterns, and graphs of citations in documents. Using
the directed graph of citations i.e. links from one document to
another document, this method reveals properties of the
documents. For instance, the library can use citation analysis to
identify the most important documents in a collection (Wikipedia,
2022).
Citation analysis provides information about the author of the particular

book, article and publication referred to, earlier studies while writing a
particular book, and the document that has been appended with references
and bibliographies. This pattern reveals different and important facts.
According to Kishor (n.d.) an analysis of these patterns of communication
discloses information about
 Types of document that is used

 Preferred document
 Age of document
 Frequency of use of document
 Ranking of journals
 Ranking of author
 Ranking of article
 Ranking of books
 Ranking of organisations
 Ranking of countries
This method is useful for collection development because it gives

information about what is being used most and also for determining the
impact factor of authors and the impact factor of library resources in
research and reading materials.
8. Analysis of computer records: Unlike in the past when the

information resources of libraries consisted of print formats and
the manual method was used in library operations, libraries today
have involved information technologies in their daily operations
and computers are the norm rather than the exception.
Integrated Library Management Systems are now deployed in
circulation services and other aspects of library operations. It is
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now possible to derive from this system information such as

personal details of the library users, status of the users, subject
interest, circulation records, reference queries, information search
behaviour of users, interlibrary loan records, use of reading
materials, use of services/equipment, acquisition behaviour among
others.
9. Internet browsing records: Use information can also be collected

through internet browsing records. The internet browsing record
can ascertain how satisfied the users are with the library internet
facilities, whether the internet facility is meeting the expected
needs and whether the users are aware of the electronic resources
on the internet, electronic resources in the library among other
characteristics that are internet related. This study can be
conducted online or offline, or can be conducted using the logging
pattern of users; using pattern and time the users spend on internet
or simply by checking the server logging reports.
2.3.4 Limitations of Library User Studies
While there is a recognition of the place of user studies in library services,

there are also some limitations and criticisms that are levelled against it.
Eyankosh (n.d.) has identified some areas of limitations of user studies to
include
1. Nature of user needs: Although user studies have been conducted

in the past among scientists, engineers and technologists such as
the one by T.D. Wilson, to assess their information needs, there is
criticism that their information needs were complex and varied and
so inadequate for proving the precise nature of information needs
of users.
As a result, the investigations are criticised for being in a way, based on

theoretical deductions rather than empirical observation.
2. Methods and techniques of user studies: There are criticisms

over the methods and techniques used in user studies. It is argued
that the issue of sampling size in user studies should be taken with
a pinch of salt. This stems from the fact that the sample of such
studies have not taken into account, refined techniques of random
sampling. Moreover, the sample populations may comprise of
individuals who are not particularly interested in filling or
returning the questionnaires or diaries in cases where these
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methods are applied. It is also not particularly easy to control or

eliminate errors that arise from participant bias.
3. Environmental differences among samples: Past research that

have formed the basis of user studies especially consisted of
individuals from seven different environments: i) academic
institutions, ii) research organisations, iii) industry, iv)
government, v) professional associations, vi) trade unions and
political parties, vii) the press and broadcasting. Additionally, the
library users were categorised according to functions: i) research,
ii) teaching and training, iii) management, iv) social work and
administration, v) the press and broadcasting, vi) politics, vii)
business and commerce, viii) study and learning. These
environmental differences are likely to influence a person’s
information needs and behaviour. Given all this, it is difficult for
the findings of the studies to be valid or widely applicable.
2.3.5 Strategies to Improve Library User Studies
Given the limitations or barriers, user studies can be improved in the

following ways
1. Define the Purpose of User Study: It is important that the

information which a library needs from its user study is clearly
defined from the outset. This can be done by stating the precise
purpose of the study. Stating the purpose precisely will serve as a
guide on what information to ask of users, the size of the study and
the associated costs. To that extent, the questions to be asked must
be subjected to the purpose of the study and how the information
is to be used and where it does not align with the purpose and use
criteria, such questions should be dropped. A clear statement of
purpose makes data collection less cumbersome for the staff
conducting the study by making the responses more easily
obtainable.
2. Use Concise Methods/Techniques: Following from the above

point, it is important that concise methods/techniques are used to
gather information. Assuming that the preferred method/technique
is questionnaire, efforts should be made to keep it as concise and
not long as that can task the respondents’ patience. A questionnaire
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of not more than two pages or in the case of interview not longer
than ten minutes is recommended. This will improve on return rate
and response.
3. Concrete and Immediate Questioning: When a questionnaire or
interview is used to gather information, the nature of the questions
should be both concrete and immediate. Martins (1976) advices
that rather than ask a question such as "How often do you use the
library?" it is better to ask "When was your last visit to the library
before today?"; also not "What do you use the library for?" but
"What are you seeking on this visit?" According to him, the
tendency of such questions being answered more accurately and
honestly is higher because it does not give much room for people
to misrepresent or colour what they are doing in full view. Another
benefit of specific and immediate questioning is that although it
may draw data that is based on non-typical visits of a few users, it
makes up on the fact that hard facts rather than vague hopes are
got from the users. This is more beneficial for library planning.
Which of these methods/techniques of user studies provides
information about types of document, author ranking, journal ranking,
age of document etc.?
a. Questionnaire
b. Interview
c. Computer feedback
d. Citation analysis
2.4 Summary
This unit has examined the term of user studies with special focus on user
studies conducted in libraries. While user study is not an exclusive
activity in the library, it is an activity that is carried out to know among
other things, users experience about the library, including the service
provided. Among other reasons, libraries conduct user studies to be able
to serve their patrons using evidence-based method.
The methods and techniques for user studies were also examined. It was
clearly stated that for user studies to be effective and result oriented, the
special circumstances of the users should be the overriding interest given
95
that users differ from library to library just as their characteristics also
differ.
The limitations/criticism of past user studies including those that have to

do with the nature of user studies, methods/techniques adopted and
problem of sampling techniques were also discussed. Some useful
strategies that can improve user studies were also suggested.
2.5 Glossary
1. Descriptive: Describing or classifying something objectively as

it is without any attempt to be judgemental.
2. Feedback: Information about people especially users’ reactions
to a product or a service on the basis of which improvement is
made.
Devika, R. (2017). Concept and views on user study. Shanlax

International Journal of Arts, Science & Humanities, 5(1), 253-
259. http://www.shanlaxjournals.in/pdf/arts-science-and-
humanities/2017/9/volume5special-issue1-253-259.pdf
Kishor, J. (n.d.). Library use and user studies: methods and techniques for
use studies (Patshala courseware).
http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/s00002
1li/p000245/m002180/et/1468402783moduleidlius-07-et-
methodsandtechniquesofusestudiespart-1.pdf
Egyankosh (n.d.). Unit 12: User studies.
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/35348/5/Unit-
12.pdf
Emerald Publishing (n.d.). User studies.
https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/archived/librarians/ma
nagement/viewpoints/users.htm
Martin, L. A. (1976). User studies and library planning, Library Trends,
483-496. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4816199.pdf
Rocio, H. C., Libia, L. M. C. & Ivan, R. R. (n.d.). User studies in academic
libraries. http://www.nzdl.org
Texavi Innovative Solutions (2015). What are User Studies and
Research? https://www.texavi.co.uk/consulting/user-experience-
innovation/user-studies-and-research
SAE 1 All of the above
SAE 2 Citation analysis
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Behaviour
Unit 1: Concept of Information Behaviour Model in Library and

Information Science
Unit 2: Concept of Information-Seeking Behaviour Model in Library
Unit 1 Concept of Information Behaviour Model in Library

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Definition of Information Behaviour
1.3.1 Importance of Theoretical or Conceptual Framework in
Research
1.3.2 Information Behaviour Models
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.0 Introduction
It has been established in our last module that information-seeking

behaviour is an essential component of information behaviour including
also information search behaviour and information use behaviour. In the
last module, attempts were made to examine library user and user studies.
Information-seeking behaviour is based upon some information behaviour
models.
Therefore, before we delve into the models of information-seeking

behavior, it is proper that we again examine the concept of information
behaviour because “any analysis of the literature of information-seeking
behaviour must be based upon some information behavior models, of
which information-seeking and information-seeking behaviour are two
parts” (Kundu, 2017).
By information behaviour, we are talking about the gamut of activities that

an individual engages in as he/she tries to identify his/her own information
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needs, seek and search for the information in whatever way and use or
transfer that information. On the other hand, information-seeking
behaviour simply refers to the ways that people search for and utilise
information. The implication is that information-seeking behaviour is a
component of information behaviour and the models of information
behaviour invariably capture information-seeking behaviour.
While information behaviour is the totality of the activities that covers

information-seeking behaviour, information search and information use,
information-seeking behaviour is concerned with the actual process or
activity of an individual who is trying to obtain information. Information-
seeking behaviour includes the process or activity of trying to get
information both in the human and technological contexts and it is worth
exploring.
 discuss the concept of information model

 examine some information behaviour models that form the basis for user
studies in library and information science.
1.3 Definition of Information Behaviour Model in Library and

Information Science
Practically, all types of human activities are accompanied by the creation and
application of models. However, like some other constructs that we have
come across in other parts of this course material, there is no accepted
uniform definition of the term model because the concept means different
things to different researchers in different disciplinary fields.
For instance, to a scientist, a model is viewed as a physical, mathematical,

mental, or other representation of a set of concepts, events, or processes. By
utilising scientific models, scientists try to identify and understand patterns
in the outside environment. The ultimate goal is to provide explanations that
will enable predictions to be made based on the observed patterns. A
scientific model serves to define variables, shape crucial experiments, and
predict results and it is important that there is consistency between facts,
inferences and current interpretations (Victoria State Government, 2020;
Brooks, 1989).
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To an architect, a model, described as scale model, is a physical

representation of an object such as a building. It is a prototype of an object
created to examine various aspects of an architectural design or to convey
design concepts. Therefore, a model can be both mental/abstract as well as
physical.
A model in library and information science is a mental framework for the

experimental manipulation of library and information variables, their
measurement and evaluation, and the production of knowledge about
libraries (Brooks, 1989).
The definition suggests that a library and information science model is a

mental construct and as such is not physical that it can be touched like an
architectural model, rather, it is a representation of a phenomena or process
as created in the mind of the creator. However, it has an experimental value
for manipulating library and information science variables. Models make it
possible to measure, evaluate and produce knowledge about libraries.
Rather & Ganaie (2018) see a model “as a structure for thinking about a
perceived problem and may evolve into a statement of the relationships
among theoretical propositions.” Simply put, a model in librarianship is an
attempt to use the methods of scientific enquiry to investigate library and
information science problems with a view to generating a result. Models help
to show the relationships between variables in a phenomena that is under
investigation. However, when the phenomena is on human behaviour, the
results can only be predicted based on the variables and conditions of the
experiment.
Bates (2005) posits that models are most useful at the description and
prediction phases of understanding a process.
Wilson (1999) who has carried out ground-breaking research in information

behaviour describes rather than defines a model as a “framework for thinking
about a problem and may evolve into a statement of the relationships among
theoretical propositions.” Wilson further notes that the majority of
information behavior models take the form of assertions, frequently in the
form of diagrams, that aim to depict information-seeking activity, the causes
and consequences of that activity, or the relationships among phases in
information-seeking behavior. Such models are typically at the pre-
theoretical level and do not identify relationships among theoretical ideas;
however, they may suggest relationships that are interesting to investigate or
test.
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In essence, unlike the natural sciences, there is no consistency in information

behaviour models rather, each researcher attempts to explain the phenomena
under investigate from his/her own particular perspective. There is also no
attempt to show a relationship among all the models proposed by individual
researchers.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1-3

1. A model in library and information science is mostly a mental construct
True False
2. Information behaviour models identify relationships among theoretical

propositions
True False
3. One of these is not a usefulness of models in library and information

science
a. Measure knowledge about libraries
b. Plan knowledge about libraries
c. Evaluate knowledge about libraries
d. Produce knowledge about libraries
1.3.1 Importance of Theoretical or Conceptual Framework in

Research
The question may be asked: what is the importance, purpose or usefulness of

theoretical or conceptual models if they are mental/subject or mainly
theoretical or conceptual rather than objective constructs?
Adom, Hussein & Joe (2018) in their work has done a good job of
assembling some importance of a theoretical model from literature. They also
represent the importance of information models in library and information
science.
Theoretical framework:
 It provides the structure in showing how a researcher defines his/her
 study philosophically, epistemologically, methodolog y an d
 analytically (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
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 Provides the structure in showing how a researcher defines his/her

study philosophically, epistemologically, methodologically and
analytically (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
 guides the kind of data to be accrued for a
 particular study (Lester, 2005
 Guides the kind of data to be accrued for a particular study (Lester,
2005).
 Makes research findings more meaningful and generalizable
(Akintoye, 2015).
 guides and should resonate with every
 aspect of the research process from the definition of the problem,
 literature survey, methodology, presentation and discussion of the
findings as well as the conclusions that are drawn.
 Guides and should resonate with every aspect of the research process
from the definition of the problem, literature survey, methodology,
presentation and discussion of the findings as well as the conclusions
that are drawn (Adom, Hussein & Joe, 2018).
 Helps the researcher in considering alternative theories that might
challenge his or her perspective, thereby enriching the strengths of the
study.
 Deepen the essence of the study (Simon & Goes, 2011; Maxwell,
2004).
 convinces them that the study is not based on the personal instincts of
 the researcher but rather is firmly rooted in an established theory
 selected via credible studies (Akintoye, 2015)
 Convinces both researchers and readers in the field that the study is
not based on the personal instincts of the researcher but rather is firmly
rooted in an established theory selected via credible studies
(Akintoye, 2015)
In the same vein, Adom Hussein & Joe lists the importance of conceptual
framework as collected from literature as:
 it assists the researcher in identifying and constructing

 his/her worldview on the phenomenon to be investigated (Grant &
Osanloo, 2014).
 Assists the researcher in identifying and constructing his/her
worldview on the phenomenon to be investigated (Grant & Osanloo,
2014).
 simplest way through which a researcher
 presents his/her asserted remedies to the problem s/he has defined
 (Liehr & Smith, 1999; Akintoye, 2015). It accentuates the reasons
why
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 a research topic is worth studying, the assumptions of a researcher,

the
 scholars s/he agrees with and disagrees with and how s/he
conceptually
 grounds his/her approach (Evans, 2007). Akintoye (2015) posits that
 the conceptual framework is mostly used by researchers when existing
 theories are not applicable or sufficient in creating a firm structure for
 the study
 Simplest way through which a researcher presents his/her asserted
remedies to the problem he/she has defined (Liehr & Smith, 1999;
Akintoye, 2015).
 Accentuates the reasons why a research topic is worth studying, the
assumptions of a researcher, the scholars he/she agrees with and
disagrees with, and how he/she conceptually grounds his/her approach
(Evans, 2007).
 Mostly used by researchers when existing theories are not applicable
or sufficient in creating a firm structure for the study (Akintoye, 2015).
Going by the explanations given on theoretical and conceptual frameworks,

it is clear that information behaviour models are mostly conceptual.
1.3.2 Information Behaviour Model(s)
Wilson (1999) notes that there are more models in information-seeking

behaviour than there are in information behaviour even though information-
seeking behaviour is one component of information behaviour. As a result,
we will look at Wilson’s information behaviour model. This model also
explains the information-seeking process. Wilson’s information behaviour
went through several revisions in an attempt to answer some of the critcisms
that were made over his model initial model.
 Wilson’s Information Behaviour Model
You should remember that Wilson defined information behaviour as “the

totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information,
including both active and passive information-seeking, and information use.
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LIS 403 MODULE 4
Thus, information behaviour includes face-to-face communication with

others, as well as the passive reception of information such as occurs when
one is watching TV advertisements even though there may be no intention to
act on the information given.
T. D. Wilson’s conceptual framework on information behaviour is built of

this definition.
Wilson came up with his first model in 1981.
Fig. 8: Wilson’s 1986 Information Model (Source: researchgate.net)

The model above presents the full sequence of activities which lead to
obtaining and using information. Wilson’s first model is a three-way
interwoven framework comprising the user, the information system and the
information resource.
The process begins when the information user recognises, identifies and/or
verbalises an information need. To satisfy his/her needs, demands will be
made on both formal and informal information systems such as the library,
the Web or internet as the case may be. The informal sources are friends,
family and colleagues with who he/she may engage in information. Both
formal and informal sources provide unique types of information. In the
course of seeking to meet the information needs, some sources may fail to
satisfy while other sources may satisfy. When the user is satisfied with the
103
information from a source, he/she uses the ones that are relevant to him/her.
He/she may also transfer some of the information to other people who use it.
The user may also use a combination of sources in the search process and only
stops searching when his information need is met. But where it is not met, the
information user continues the search and may expand it by using other
sources.
Context of information need Barriers Information-Seeking beh.

Environmental
Social Role Starting

Chaining
Person
Browsing
Differentiating
(physiological, Monitoring
Cognitive, Extracting
affective)
Verifying
Ending
Person Role Related Environmental
Fig. 9: Wilson’s 1994 Information-Seeking behaviour model
Wilson updated his first model in 1994. The version included the
physiological, social role and environmental context in which information
need is created. The updated model also incorporated Ellis' steps of
information-seeking—starting, browsing, differentiating, monitoring,
extracting, verifying, and ending in the search process. The updated model
acknowledged that a person's desire for information is a result of a prior need
rather than a need in and of itself.
The factors or variables that motivate information needs can result from the
interaction of a person's (physiological, cognitive and affective needs),
political, economic, and technical variables/factors (Environment) and the
social role of the individual (Wikipedia, 2020). While these variables
motivate information needs, they can also serve as a limitation or barrier to
an individuals search for information (Wikipedia, 2020).
Because of some criticism that the earlier models did not make a significant
contribution in understanding information behaviour as it offers no testable
hypotheses, Wilson came up with a third and more general model in 1997.
This model is depicted below
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LIS 403 MODULE 4
Fig. 10: Wilson’s 1997 Information Behavior Model. Source: researchgate.net).
In Wilson’s general model of information behaviour above, an individual

information needs are as a result of some intervening variables which are
related to psychological, demographic, role related or interpersonal factors,
environmental factors of the information seeker/user, and source
characteristics. These variables can be supportive or barriers to information
seeking.
In turn, the activating mechanisms (‘stress/coping theory', 'risk/reward

theory' and 'social learning theory) prompts the individual to seek
information. The search process could receive a passive attention, it could be
a passive search, an active search or an ongoing search depending on the
information needed and how long it takes to satisfy the need.
The intensity of the search depends on the value that the information user
attaches to a source while his/her self-efficacy or belief in his/her capacity to
take the actions that will produce the desired result will determine how much
time is spent on meeting his/her needs as the information user will go to
various sources to satisfy his/her needs.
105
He/she may use more sources than the others. But at whatever point in the
process, the user will find information that he/she may or may not use. The
information he/she does not use will be used by another person.
According to Case cited in LISWiki (2015), three aspects of information-

seeking are explained by Wilson’s 1996 model: 1) why information-seeking
is more likely to occur in response to some needs more than others; (2) why
some information sources get more used than others; (3) why people’s
perceptions of their own efficacy influences their success in meeting an
information goal.
In the model, information processing and use is an essential part of the

feedback loop as demonstrated at the bottom of the diagram. What this means
is that the information user should be able to process the collected
information into the form that will be useful to him/her.
Other elements that were included in this model was “an intermediate stage
between when an information need is acknowledged and the initiation of
action including a redefining of the barriers as intervening variables to show
the factors can be supportive or limiting (Wikipedia, 2022).
What factor acts as mechanism for social learning according to Wilson?
a. Demographic factors
b. Self-efficacy
c. Active search
1.4 Summary
Definitions of model as it relates to library and information science were

presented in this module. The importance of models in conducting
information behaviour studies were also given. This module looked very
closely at T.D. Wilson’s information behaviour model which included the
first one and the later version.
The relationship between information behaviour and its various components

including information needs. Information-seeking behaviour, information
search behaviour information use behaviour were explained.
1.5 Glossary
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LIS 403 MODULE 4
1. Conceptual Framework: Conceptual framework illustrates/explains

the expected relationship between the variables in a research.
2. Theoretical Framework: Defines the key concepts in a research. It
goes ahead to suggest the relationships between the concepts, and
discusses the theories that are relevant to study based on the literature
review.
Adom, D., Hussein, E. K. & Joe, J. A. (2018). Theoretical and conceptual

framework: mandatory ingredients of quality research, International Journal
of Scientific Research 7(1):438-441.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322204158_THEORETICAL_A
ND_CONCEPTUAL_FRAMEWORK_MANDATORY_INGREDIENTS_
OF_A_QUALITY_RESEARCH
Bates, M. (2010). Information behavior. Encyclopedia of Library and

Information Science, 3: 2381-2391.
Kundu, D. K. (2017). Models of information-seeking behavior: a

comparative study. International Journal of Library and Information
Science, 7(4), 393-405. http://www.ijlis.org
LISWiki (2015). Information behavior theories.

https://liswiki.org/wiki/Information_behavior_theories
Rather, M. K. & Ganaie, S. A. (2018). Information-seeking Models in the

Digital Age (ebook). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2255-3.ch392
Victoria State University (2020). Scientific models.

https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipl
ine/science/continuum/
Wilson, T. D. (1999). Models in information behavior research. The Journal

of Documentation, 55(3), 249-270.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228784950_Models_in_Informati
on_Behaviour_Research
Wikipedia (2022). Wilson’s model if information behaviour.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson%27s_model_of_information_behavio
r#mw-head
107

SAE 1 True
SAE 2 True
SAE 3 b. Plan knowledge about libraries
SAE 4 b. Self-efficacy
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LIS 403 MODULE 4
Unit 2 Information-Seeking Behaviour Model in Library and

Information Science
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Definition of Information-Seeking Behaviour Models
2.3.1 Information-Seeking Models
2.3.1 Applications/Reviews of Information-Seeking Models
2.4 Summary
2.5 Glossary
2.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises/Web Resources
2.1 Introduction
In the last module, we looked at the concept of information model, mostly

examining whether information behaviour can be considered a model. It
was highlighted that models do not always have the be objects. Some are
theoretical or conceptual, and information-seeking behaviour falls within
the categories of conceptual frameworks. Some definitions of information
behaviour models in library and information science were also presented
as well as its importance.
You were also taken through the concept of information behaviour with
particular emphasis on T.D. Wilson’s information behaviour model. It was
necessary to lay that foundation as it is important for further exploration
of the concept of information-seeking behaviour given that information-
seeking behaviour is a component of information behaviour.
While information behaviour is the totality of the activities that covers

information-seeking behaviour, information search and information use,
information-seeking behaviour is concerned with the actual process or
activity of an individual who is trying to obtain information. Information-
seeking behaviour includes the process or activity of trying to get
information both in the human and technological contexts.
Some information-seeking models and their implications will be
discussed.
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 state some definitions of information-seeking model

 discuss information-seeking models in both human and on the web
interfaces
 discuss some applications/reviews of Information-Seeking Models
It is hoped that by the end of this unit, you will be able to understand more
clearly, what information-seeking means in the context of not only helping
a library user get the satisfy his information needs but more particularly
understanding how to plan the library information system design in such a
way that it will not hinder the user in his/her quest to seek information.
2.3 Definition of Information-Seeking Model
Most information behaviour models are generally statements that often take
the form of diagrams. The diagrams attempt to explain information-seeking
activity highlighting the causes and consequences of that activity or the
relationships that exist among stages in information-seeking behaviour. In
this process, information search which is a sub-set of information-seeking
behaviour, also takes place. Information search is particularly concerned with
the “interactions between an information user (with or without an
intermediary) and [human or] computer-based information systems (Rather
& Ganaie, 2018).
Robson and Robinson (2015) reveal that Model presents practical vision into
the information seeking behavior of users and the factors that influence them
Robson and Robinson also cited in Rather & Gainaie (2018) posit that
information-seeking model is a representation of practical vision into the
information-seeking behavior of users and the factors that influence them.
Bates (2005) reveals that Models are most useful at the description and
prediction phases of understand-ing a process.
To that extent, information-seeking models aim to describe the process that

a user follows to satisfy his information need and while fulfilling that need,
he goes to both formal and informal information sources or available services
which he searches and depending on his/her self-efficacy, finally results in
success or failure to retrieve desired information (Rather & Ganaie, 2018).
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2.3.1 Information-Seeking Behaviour Models
Most models of information behavior are generally the statements, often in

the form of diagrams that attempt to explicate an information-seeking
activity, the causes and consequences of that activity, or the relations among
stages in information-seeking behavior. Behavior may be defined as the more
general field of investigation with information-seeking Behavior being seen
as a sub-set of the field, particularly concerned with the variety of methods
people employ to discover, and gain access to information resources, and
information searching Behavior being defined as a sub-set of information-
seeking, particularly concerned with the interactions between information
user (with or without an intermediary) and computer-based information
systems.
Most models of information behavior are generally the statements, often in

the form of diagrams that attempt to explicate an information-seeking
activity, the causes and consequences of that activity, or the relations among
stages in information-seeking behavior. Behavior may be defined as the more
general field of investigation with information-seeking Behavior being seen
as a sub-set of the field, particularly concerned with the variety of methods
people employ to discover, and gain access to information resources, and
information searching Behavior being defined as a sub-set of information-
seeking, particularly concerned with the interactions between information
user (with or without an intermediary) and computer-based information
systems.
As explained, information behaviour models are general statements that

often take the form of diagrams and attempts to explain information-seeking
activity highlighting the causes and consequences of that activity or the
relationships that exist among stages in information-seeking behaviour. In
this process, information search, which is a sub-set of information-seeking
behaviour, also takes place. Information search is particularly concerned with
the “interactions between an information user (with or without an
intermediary) and [human or] computer-based information systems (Rather
& Ganaie, 2018).
Robson and Robinson (2015) reveal that Model presents practical vision into
the information seeking behavior of users and the factors that influence them
Robson and Robinson also cited in Rather & Gainaie (2018) posit that
information-seeking model is a representation of a practical vision of the
information-seeking behaviour of users and the factors that influence them.
111
Bates (2005) reveals that Models are most useful at the description and
prediction phases of understanding a process.
To that extent, information-seeking models aim to describe the process that

a user follows to satisfy his information need and while fulfilling that need,
he goes to both formal and informal information sources or available services
which he searches and depending on his/her self-efficacy, finally resulting in
success or failure to retrieve desired information (Rather & Ganaie, 2018).
Over the years, researchers have come out with various models describing
the information-seeking behaviour process. In library and information
science, some human-centred models of information-seeking behaviour have
been proposed by a number of researchers. Most of these models are
applicable in both physical and electronic environments. Some of these
models will be examined here. It is important to examine some of these
models because they form the framework underpinning the concept of
Some of the models that are relevant in library and information science
include: 1) Kuhlthau’s Model, 2) McKenzie’s Model, 3). Leckie et al General
Model of Information Behaviour and 4). Marchionini’s Model.
1. Caroline Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process Model
The model of information-seeking behaviour propounded by Carol Kuhlthau

in 1991 is known as the Information Search Model (ISP). Kuhlthau’s Model
is a six-stage process of information-seeking in library and information
centres. The Model wass influenced by Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory
The six-stage process are 1) task initiation, (2) topic selection, (3)
exploration, (4) focus formulation, (5) information collection, and (6) search
closure.
• Task Initiation: The information seeker first becomes aware of a lack
of knowledge or understanding and goes to search for information. At
this stage, feelings of uncertainty and apprehension are common.
• Topic Selection: At this stage, the person identifies a general area,
topic, or problem. Given this, the initial uncertainty the person had
often gives way to a brief sense of optimism and a readiness to begin
the search.
• Exploration: As the search progresses, the individual encounters
inconsistent, incompatible information and the feelings of
uncertainty, confusion, and doubt frequently increase. The
individual’s confidence may dip at this stage.
• Focus Formulation: At this stage, the individual forms a focused
perspective, uncertainty diminishes and confidence begins to increase.
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• Collection: This is when information pertinent to the focused

perspective is gathered and uncertainty subsides as interest and
involvement deepens.
• Presentation: At this stage, the search is completed and the individual
has a new understanding that enables him/her to explain his or her
learning to others or in some way put the learning to use (p. 5).
According to Kuhlthau, the six-stage model of the ISP incorporates three

realms of experience: the affective (feelings) the cognitive (thoughts) and the
physical (actions) common to each stage. In essence, the affective, cognitive
and physical are all incorporated throughout the six-stages of information-
seeking behaviour.
Thoughts that begin as uncertain, vague, and ambiguous become clearer,

more focused, and specific as the search process progresses. Feelings of
anxiety and doubt diminishes and the information seeker becomes more
confident and certain.
Through their actions, people seek information relevant to the general topic
in the beginning stages of the search process and pertinent to the focused
topic toward closure. Formulation of a focus or a personal perspective of the
topic is a pivotal point in the search process. At that point, feelings shift from
uncertain to confident, thoughts change from vague to clearer and interest
increases (Kuhlthau, 1993).
Fig. 11: Kuhlthau’s Model of Information Search Process (Source:

researchgate.net).
To illustrate this, the initiation stage is when a seeker of information becomes
aware of an information need, where anxiety and uncertainty is felt because
of the information needs prompting the individual to go to a library or
information centre.
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The selection process is when a library user comes to the library and begins
to identify and select the general topic to be investigated, maybe by using an
encyclopedia.
At first, there is also a feeling of uncertainty but when he begins to get

information that are related to his/her need, there is a feeling of optimism and
readiness to begin the search.
The third stage, exploration there is also a feeling of anxiety, confusion and
doubt as the user attempts to investigate the topic and understand it and form
his/her point of view. At this point, if the user is not able to state his/her
precisely, a feeling of frustration may arise. This is why this stage is
considered the most difficult stage in the information search process.
If the user successfully navigates the exploration stage, he/she comes to the
formulation stage, and at this stage, the user uncertainty diminishes and
he/she begins to feel more confident as he/she form a focus from the
information he/she has discovered.
The collection stage is the most functional stage between the user and the
library because it is at this stage that he focuses more on the information that
are most useful to this topic. It is at this point that he/she weeds out the
information that are not so relevant as he begins to make detailed notes from
the relevant. At this stage, the user is able to interact more with the
information system and intermediaries such as librarians and ask more
focused questions that are more precise. The user’s confidence increases and
his uncertainty further diminishes.The last stage is the presentation stage and
that is the culmination of the search. At this stage, there is a feeling of relief
and satisfaction if the process was successful or dissatisfaction if it was a
failure.
2. Dervin’s Sense-Making Model of Information-Seeking Behaviour

Devin’s information-seeking behaviour model propounded in 1983 is called
Sense-Making-Theory. However, while this theory focused primarily on
information-seeking, and use, it is also applied to other fields. Dervin
“indicates this theory as a set of assumptions, a theoretic perspective, a
methodological approach, a set of research methods, and a practice' designed
to cope with information perceived as a human tool designed for making
sense of a reality assumed to be both chaotic and orderly” (Cited in Ge,
2017).Dervin was of the view that information does not have a behaviour
separate from human behaviour.
According to Foreman-Wernet cited in Agarwal (2012), Dervin’s Sense-

Making Theory has three major significant reasons:
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LIS 403 MODULE 4
 Sense-Making offers a thorough critique of and an alternative to the

widely-prevalent transmission model of communication
 Sense-Making examines in an ongoing manner, philosophical
assumptions about the nature of reality, the nature of human beings
and the nature of observing upon which communication theories and
practices are built.
 Sense-Making pays explicit attention to the “hows” of communicating
that occur at every level of society that helps us not only to understand
how we communicate but to intervene, change and improve these
practices. “Sense-Making is proposed as a generalizable approach to
thinking about and studying human sense making and sense unmaking
in its variant forms.” (Dervin, 2005, p.26).
Situation
Gap Use
Fig. 12: Dervin’s Sense-Making Triangle (source: Patel & Oza, 2014)
In a nutshell, the model reveals that human beings experience gaps as the
progress through life and the individual has to make sense of the situation as
he/she meets them to be able to move on physically or cognitively across the
gap.
So looking at the diagram above, the context that the user is in is the situation,
the gap is the need that prevents the individual’s movement (information
need that must be satisfied for the user to continue his movement) or to
continue his/her normal functioning and the use is the application of the sense
that the user constructed from gathered information.
The significance of Dervin’s theory lies in the fact that the focus is the
individual not the information system, and the sense that the individual
makes in his/her effort to cross the gap.
3. McKenzie’s Two-Dimensional Theory
McKenzie’s came about her model from a research on the information

seeking behaviour of 19 Canadian women pregnant with twins. The two-
dimensional model of everyday life of information-seeking of these women
was created in an attempt to 'reflect the idiosyncracies of multiple pregnancy
115
as an information-seeking context and to identify the patterns and concepts

that might translate to other contexts' (McKenzie 2001).
McKenzie's model proposes that everyday life of information-seeking occurs

on a continuum of information practices that starts from actively seeking out
a known source to being given un-asked for advice (McKenzie cited in
Wikipedia, 2022).
What McKenzie is saying here is that information-seeking does not have

stages rather, the everyday information-seeking practices usually starts with
the individual actively seeking information first from sources that are known
to him/her. In everyday life, information also comes as unsolicited advice
from people.
McKenzie's two-dimensional model includes four modes of information

practices (active seeking, active scanning, non-directed monitoring, by proxy
and two phases of the information process (connecting and interacting)
(Wikipedia, 2022).
The activities that go on in the 2 phases of four modes of information

practices (active seeking, active scanning, non-directed monitoring and by
proxy are presented in the model below
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LIS 403 MODULE 4
Fig. 13: McKenzie’s Two-Dimensional Information Practices Model

(Source: https://www.researchgate.net/
1. Active seeking: Here, the individual seeks information from a known
source and the information seeker carries out a systematic known-item
search for or asked a planned question etc.
2. Active scanning: In active scanning, the individual identifies a
particular source as a potentially helpful or a particular location eg the
library as a potential information ground (Pettigrew cited in Yeoman,
2010).
3. Non-directed monitoring: Participants serendipitously encountered a
source in an unlikely place or whilst monitoring information sources
such as newspapers.
4. By proxy: Participants encountered sources through the initiative of
another agent, i.e. unsolicited advice or information from other people
(Yeoman, 2010).
Mckenzie posited what when people are seeking information, “the modes
may appear in varying order, depending on the information need at hand and
the situational factors. The modes can take place in two phases: first, at times
of connecting information sources; and, second, interacting with them”
(Savolainen, 2010). In the second phase of information-seeking practice, the
individuals use the information sources to which they have been connected.
117
So, unlike some of the previous models which looked at information as

happening according to defined stages, Mckenzie is of the view that the
situation (modes) will determine what sources the user goes to and how
he/she interacts with it to obtain information.
4. Leckie et al General Model of Information Behaviour
This model also known as Information-Seeking of Professionals Model was

developed by Gloria J. Leckie, Karen E. Pettigrew and Christian Sylvain in
1996. The researchers conceived this model as a general model that can be
applied to all professional fields.
According to them, the model “was developed through careful analysis and
interpretation of empirical studies on the information habits and practices of
three groups: engineers, healthcare professionals, and lawyers.” However, it
has also been used to examine the information-seeking behaviours of
librarians, academics, researchers, doctors and nurses etc
The general model has six major components: (1) work roles, (2) associated
tasks, (3) characteristics of information needs and three factors affecting
information seeking: (4) awareness, (5) sources, and (6) outcomes.
The focus of the model is on how the work roles and associated tasks of the
professional influence their information behaviour and how their information
behaviour influenced their information needs and how information needs in
turn initiate or trigger information searching.
To illustrate this, professionals have work roles and their work roles have
some associated tasks. If you are a cataloguer and you are in charge of the
Technical Services Section of the library, there are tasks that are associated
with that work role. Your information behaviour which consists of your
information needs, information-seeking behaviour, information search and
use at work will be influenced by your work role. This will influence your
information need as it concerns your job. Your information need will in turn
influence your information-seeking behaviour including how you search for
and use information.
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Fig. 14: Leckie’s General Model of Information-Seeking Behaviour

(Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/)
The illustration above shows the relationship between the different

components in the model. Work role is associated with related tasks. Tasks
influence information need. When there is an information need, the
awareness of that need will cause the professional to look for sources to
satisfy the need.
The professional seeks for the information from several sources. The
outcome may be successful or unsuccessful as indicated by the feedback
arrow that connects charateristics of the need and outcome. If the outcome is
not successful, there is a continuing search. In information seeking continues
as shown by the arrows pointing towards information sought
2.3.2 Practical Reviews of the Information-seeking Models (Kuhlthau,

Dervin, and Mckenzie)
1. Kulhthau’s Model in Application
119
Fainburg (2009) in her paper sought to explain how the users' information
need could be compared with a learning, knowledge and research need where
the purpose of information seeking is to find relevant information in
fulfilment of a specific goal and information need arising from a desire to be
information literate.
To achieve the purpose of the study, the researcher used theoretical

considerations and studies of research literature to analyse and compare
Kuhlthau’s ISP model and Dewey’s problem-solving model.
The findings revealed that both Kuhlthau and Dewey focused on the close
relationship between thinking and action where information seeking and
problem solving were considered a learning process. Also, the findings
revealed that with both Kuhlthau and Dewey studies, information seeking
was easier when the problem was more focused or the hypothesis more
verified. However, while feelings of doubt and uncertainty took place during
the ISP in the case of Kuhlthau model, in Dewey’s, problem-solving initiated
uncertainty and perplexity.
The paper may provide guidelines for academic libraries interested in

developing their information literacy programme.
2. Dervin’s Model in Application
Sualman and Jaafar (2011) study was aimed at studying communication as

information seeking efforts. One of the study’s objective was to look at the
factors influencing the needs and usage of health communication among the
public.
The theoretical approach used in the study was Dervin’s sense-making

model. In general, the research indicated significant relationships between
situational factors and efforts toward fulfilling information needs and
information seeking.
Both theoretical sampling and purpose sampling were used to select the study
sample. The criteria for selection of the sample included length of work
experience (30 or more years) and ethnicity (Malays, Chinese and Indian).
From focus group discussions, data on the health situations of participants,

barriers and psychological factors influencing health information seeking
were collected.
The research findings differed from the traditional communication research

approached mostly focused on the effect of information on individuals. This
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research strongly indicated that individuals who face a health situation will
actively seek relevant information to overcome their health predicaments.
3. McKenzie’s Model in Application
Yeoman (2010) explored the information practices of perimenopausal

women. The researcher used the results of his study to test the transferability
of McKenzie’s model of information practices in everyday life.
The study method included thirty-five in-depth semi-structured interviews
and relevant findings from a questionnaire-based menopause clinic service-
audit.
Thematic data analysis was conducted using NVIVO computer software

package which is used for qualitative data.
Results showed that the participants exhibited a range of information practice

which could mostly be integrated into the model. However, this study
provided a richer interpretation because of the different context in which it
was conducted, thus pointing to a more generic model of everyday
information practices.
The researcher concluded that although testing of models is a challenging

study, the valid process contributed to the generation of library and
information science theory.

should not take you more than 5 minutes
1. Which of these is the 3rd stage in Kulthau’s Information Search Process
Model?
a. Task initiation
b. Topic selection
c. Focus Formulation
d. Exploration
2. Which of these is not among the three realms of experience according

to ISP model?
a. Affective
b. Cognitive
c. Physical
d. Elemental
3. Match this model correctly: sense-making model
121
a. Mckenzie
b. Leckie
c. Kuhlthau
d. Dervin
2.4 Summary
Definitions of model as it relates to library and information science were

presented in this module. The importance of models in conducting
information behaviour studies were also given.
The relationship between information behaviour and its various components

including information needs, Information-seeking behaviour, information
search behaviour information use behaviour were explained.
Information-seeking behaviour of users is a critical aspect of the activities
carried out in libraries. The aim is to ensure that the services and information
system are tailored to meet the needs of the users and that the users are able
to navigate the system comfortably. This is true of both the physical library
system and the electronic environment. To achieve this objective, it is
important that the users are involved in any study that want to investigate
their information-seeking behaviour.
The importance of satisfying users as they seek information has resulted in

the study of how individuals go about seeking information. This in turn has
led to the creation of models by many researchers that will enable the conduct
of evidence-based user studies. The overall aim is to ensure that information
system designs are human-centred.
If library and information centres are to satisfy their user groups, they need
to understand who these users are, their information needs, information-
seeking behaviours, information search behaviour and their information
search behaviour.
2.5 Glossary
1. Iterate: Repeat
2. Serendipitous: Happening or found by chance.
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Fainburg, I. L. (2009). Information seeking and learning: a comparison of

Kuhlthau's information seeking model and John Dewey's problem solving
model", New Library World, Vol. 110 No. 9/10, pp. 457-
466. https://doi.org/10.1108/03074800910997472
Ge, X. (2005). Information-seeking behavior of social sciences and

humanities researchers in the internet age (Masters Theses, University of
Tennessee, Knoxville). https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/1899
Genuis, S. K. (2007). Kuhlthau’s classic research on the information search
process (ISP) provides evidence for information seeking as a constructivist
process. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice, 2(4), 80–83.
https://doi.org/10.18438/B88D0C
Joseph, P., Debowski, S., & Goldschmidt, P. (2013). Models of information

search: a comparative analysis, Information Research, 18(1).
http://InformationR.net/ir/18-1/paper562.html
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993). Information search process. In Encyclopedia of

Library and Information Science.
http://wp.comminfo.rutgers.edu/ckuhlthau/wp-
content/uploads/sites/185/2016/01/ELIS-3E.pdf
Meho, L. I. & Tibbo, H. R. (2003). Modeling the information-seeking

behavior of social scientists: Ellis’s study revisited. Journal of the American
Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(6), 570 –587.
National Library of the Czech Republic (2020, April 03). The concept of
model and conceptual model in information science.
https://www.renata.salatova@nkp.cz
Nieddzwiedzka, B, (2003). A proposed general model of information

behaviour. Information Research, 9(1), paper 164.
http://InformationR.net/ir/9-1/paper164.html
Pateli, P. & Oza, N. (2021). Models of information-seeking. Journal of

Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR), 8(9).
www.jetir.org b142
Rather, M. K. & Ganaie, S. A. (2018). Information-seeking Models in the

Digital Age (ebook). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2255-3.ch392
123
Savolainen, R. (2017). Information need as trigger and driver of information-

seeking: a conceptual analysis. Aslib Journal of Information Management,
69(1), 2–21.
Thabi, R. A. (2011). An Exploration of Information Seeking Models: Its

Importance to Higher Learning Institutions, Gading Business and
Management Journal, 15.
https://www2.pahang.uitm.edu.my/upena/docs
Yeoman, A. (2010). Applying McKenzie's model of information practices in

everyday life information seeking in the context of the menopause
transition. Inf.
Res.,15.https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Applying-McKenzie%27s-
model-of-information-practices-
Yeoman/0e4d921ebccdb88d1afe0715210836fffd6ec8ed

SAE 1 d. Exploration
SAE 2 d. Elemental
SAE 3 d. Dervin
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Context
Unit 2 Information Behaviour of Users in Organisational Contexts
Unit 3 Information Behaviour Users on the Web
Unit 1 Information Behaviour of User Groups in the

University Environment
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Definition of University
1.3.1 User Groups in the University Context
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.1 Introduction
In the last module you were taken through some information-seeking

behaviour models that form the theoretical/conceptual frameworks for
However, when it comes to information behaviour, research suggests there

is no one-size fits all. This includes information needs, information-seeking,
information search and information use. These varies across different
contexts.
To that extent it is important to look at the information behaviour of users in

the academic context. This is particularly important because as librarians,
you will be working in different types of libraries including academic
libraries. You should understand the information behaviour of users in the
academic environment.
An understanding of the information needs, information-seeking,

information search and use of information users in academic environment
will help to reinforce your understanding of information behaviour.
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1. Examine information behaviour in university context.

2. Examine the characteristics of information users in university
environments.
3. Determine the information needs, seeking behaviour, search and
information use of people in university environments.
1.3 Information Behaviour in University Context
The term ‘university’ is defined severally in the literature. It is “an institution

of higher education, usually comprising a college of liberal arts and sciences
and graduate and professional schools and having the authority to confer
degrees in various fields of study”;
“an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which
awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines [and which]
typically offers both undergraduate and postgraduate programs” (Britannica,
2022; Wikipedia, 2022).
In an attempt to differentiate between a university and a college, Britannica

(2022) further says that a university “is usually larger, has a broader
curriculum, and offers graduate and professional degrees in addition to
undergraduate degrees.” However, care must be taken over the matter of
semantics given that in the United States of America, college is the same
thing as university.
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2022) defines university as “an

institution of higher learning providing facilities for teaching and research
and authorized to grant academic degrees.” They go on to say that a
university is specifically “made up of an undergraduate division which
confers bachelor's degrees and a graduate division which comprises a
graduate school and professional schools each of which may confer
master's degrees and doctorates.”
IGI-Global (2022) presents at the least, twenty-four different renderings of

the definition of university including “it is an institution of higher education
and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects…
and provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education.”
Furthermore, YourDictionary (2022) defines the term university as “an

institution for higher learning with teaching and research facilities typically
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including a graduate school and professional schools that award master's

degrees and doctorates and an undergraduate division that awards bachelor's
degrees; the body of students and faculty of such an institution, and the
buildings and grounds of such an institution.” The definition by
YourDictionary also brings into its definitions, the physical environment of a
university.
Finally, Collins Dictionary (2022) defines the term university simply as “ an

institution where students study for degrees and where academic research is
done.”
From all the definitions given so far, we can glean some facts: 1). a
university is a tertiary or higher education institution, 2). a university has
the responsibility to provide teaching and research facilities that is for
teaching, learning and research, 3). a university is authorised to award both
undergraduate and higher degrees in variety of subject disciplines, 4). a
university is made up of students and personnel such as academic and non-
academic staff, and a university has a location (physical and or online).
From the constitution/make up of a university, including the presence of
human beings, the activities and responsibilities as well as the unique
environment, we can deduce that the university is a place that deals with
information. Students need information for learning to successfully
complete their academic pursuit. Academic staff need information for
teaching and for research. Non-academic staff also need information to
perform their jobs effectively and efficiently.
The university library is charged with the task of providing information

resources that meets the needs of the different classes of people in a
university environment. With these, we will now examine the
types/categories of information users in a university library. While we use
the phrase ‘university library’, you are to note that it is being applied
generically.
Also, note that university libraries are also academic libraries and the terms
are sometimes used interchangeably.
1.3.1 User Groups in University Libraries
The large proportion of information users in university libraries are the

students and the academic/research staff. However, the university library also
attends to the needs of other members of the university community including
administrative and technical staff.
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Some attempts have been made in the literature to group the users of
university libraries.
Ranganathan (1961) grouped library users in academic libraries into 4 groups

according to the services they require in the library: freshman, ordinary
inquirer/ordinary reader and specialist enquirer.
 Freshman: This is a new member of the library.
 Ordinary inquirer: Simply, an ordinary reader, and
 Specialist inquirer: A specialist in narrow field, and
 General readers: They are the associated group
Mason (2022) divided academic library users into two broad categories:
primary user groups and other user groups.
 Primary User Group: This includes faculty members, undergraduate
students, and graduate students. These also includes mature students
with families and part time jobs, who have returned to university to
expand their employment opportunities in a very competitive
workforce. Also included in the primary user group are students with
special needs.
 Other User Groups: This group uses academic libraries occasionally,
and they include business people doing database searches; visiting
faculty; members of industries checking government documents; and
members of the community, researching a multitude of subjects that
depend upon the collection parameter.
Academic library users are also grouped by types as follows

 On the basis of library experience: Experienced and inexperienced
users.
 On the basis of activities: Student, researcher, faculty members and
others.
 On the basis of their works: Businessmen, managers and workers,
etc. Besides, a user may be male or female and regular or irregular
users based on the usage of libraries Dhiman, n.d.).
Much like Mason (2022), the American Library Association (2022) also
notes the “university and college libraries serve a diverse patron population
that includes students, faculty, staff, and increasingly, special groups that do
not fit tidily into any one of these categories.” In that sense, university library
users can be grouped as follows:
 Students
 Faculty
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 Staff, and
 Special groups
Singh & Emmelhainz (2019) grouped academic library user into affiliated
and unaffiliated users, where affiliated users are all current students, staff or
faculty and unaffiliated users are all users who are not current students, staff
or faculty.
For types of undergraduate library users, based on the profile of library use,
knowledge and perceptions were identified by Karunanayake & Nagata
(2014)
 ineffective library users,
 effective library users,
 ineffective but positive users, and
 self-sufficient users.
Having identified these various groups of users of academic libraries as

categorised by the various researchers, the next logical thing is to find out
what the literature identifies as their information needs and information
seeking behaviour.
Self-Assessment Exercises
1. One of these is not among the groups of library users as categorised by
Ranganathan
a. Freshman
b. Ordinary inquirer:
c. Objective inquirer
d. General readers
2. -------- is not among the primary user group of a university library
a. Non-academic staff
b. Visiting faculty
c. Students
d. Academic staff
1.4 Summary
University environments are made up of different categories of people

including academic staff, students, non-academic staff and other groups. The
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university library exists to meet the information needs of these different

categories of individuals.
Through investigating the information needs and information-seeking

behaviours of these user groups, it is possible to not only meet their unique
information needs for teaching, research, and learning and for other uses but
also understand how they go about seeking information, searching and using
information.
In this unit, you were taken through the information behaviour of user groups
in the university context. The different groups were identified and also some
empirical studies on the information needs and information-seeking
behaviours of the different categories of users were highlighted.
1.5 Glossary
1. Freshman: A first year student or a student newly admitted.
2. Visiting faculty: Not a permanent member of staff of a

university. But they may b members of a faculty of another
university who become members of faculty of the university
where they are visiting faculty on the basis of them holding a
temporary postion.
1.6 References and Further Readings/Web Resources
American Library Association (2022). Managing special user groups in

academic libraries.
https://www.ala.org/lita/managing-special-user-groups-academic-libraries-
canceled
Britannica (2022). University. https://www.britannica.com/topic/university

Collins Dictionary (2022). University.
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/university
IGI-Global (2022). What is a university? https://www.igi-
global.com/dictionary/university/46418
Karunanayake, K. G. D. A. & Nagata, H. (2014). Four types of
undergraduate library users, based on their profile of library use, knowledge
and perceptions, Libres, 24(1):11-20.DOI:10.32655/LIBRES.2014.1.2
Mason, M. K. (2022). Users of academic libraries.

https://www.moyak.com/papers/library-reference-service-users.html
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Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Definition of university.

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/university
Wikipedia (2022). University. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University

YourDictionary (2022). University definition.
https://www.yourdictionary.com/university
1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assignment Exercises

SAE 1 C. Objective inquirer
SAE 2. B. Visiting faculty
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Unit 2 Information Behaviour in the Organisational Context
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Outcomes
2.3 Definition of an Organisation
2.3.1 Characteristics of Organisations
2.3.2 Importance of Information in Organisations
2.3.3 Information Behaviour of Users in Organisations
2.4 Summary
2.5 Glossary
2.1 Introduction
All organisations, whether governmental or non-governmental, profit or non-

profit are established for a particular purpose. The success of the organisation
is determined by how much it is able to meet the objectives for its
establishment.
It is also true that organisations cannot survive without a workforce, a good

one at that. On the other hand, the workforce must be people who not only
understand the aims and objectives of the organisation, but are also willing
to work to meet the those aims and objectives. In the same vein, the
workforce must be competent and competence comes from knowledge.
Knowledge comes from information. Information about the role of the
organisation in the society including their responsibility to the people that
they deal with and what they need to do to satisfy those needs is important
for success.
Information about the policies of government and how they affect the
operations of the organisation are also important for their survival. All this
conveys the thought that people in organisations need information.
Libraries cut across all types of organisations. You may be employed in one
organisation or another. It is important that you understand the information
needs and seeking behaviour of people in organisations to serve them
effectively.
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 discuss organisations and groups that work in organisations

 state the characteristics of organisations
 explain the importance of information in organisations
 explain the information needs and information seeking behaviour of
people that work in organisations.
2.3 Definition of Concept of Organisation
The term organisation is defined differently across disciplines from

economics to industrial or organisational psychology to organisational
behaviour and so on. In this discussion, we will concentrate the general
definition as well as its definition in industrial/organisational psychology and
organisational behaviour.
An organisation is “an entity—such as a company, an institution, or an

association—comprising one or more people and having a particular
purpose” (Wikipedia, 2022).
Greenwald (2008) defines it as “a body of individuals working under a

defined system of rules, assignments, procedures, and relationships designed
to achieve identifiable objectives and goals.”
It is “a social unit of people, systematically structured and managed to meet

a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing basis. All organisations
have a management structure that determines relationships between
functions and positions, and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities,
and authority to carry out defined tasks. Organisations are open systems in
that they affect and are affected by the environment beyond their boundaries”
(Business Dictionary, 2022).
The definitions above imply that an organisation possesses separate and

distinct legal rights much like an individual or a corporate entity. It has a
separate identity of its own. We also learn that individuals work in an
organisation and they are guided by certain rules, assignments and
procedures etc, and they have to achieve identifiable objectives. Also,
organisations are structured and managed to meet a need. In essence, every
133
component of an organisation are meant to work together towards meeting

the need for its establishment.
It therefore means that the human resources in organisations are charged with
certain responsibility and the aggregate of these responsibilities, when
completed, should all contribute to the meeting of objectives.
To accomplish their objectives, individuals in organisation need information.

The information that is needed by an individual or a work team and their
information seeking behaviour will mostly likely be determined by the work
they do and also their status in the hierarchy. This is why IBM (2021) notes
“that organisations commonly group their employees based on certain
criteria. Depending on the requirements of the organisation, these criteria
might include the department the employees work in, the clients they are
assigned to, the job functions they perform, or the job level they have
attained. By making these logical classifications, organisations can manage
their employees more easily and efficiently.”
-------- is an entity comprising one or more people and having a particular
purpose?
a. Organisation
b. Governmental agency
c. Church
d. All of the above
2.3.1 Characteristics of Organisations
Following from the above, organisations have the following major

characteristics
 Specialisation and division of work. Organisations are charaterised
by division of labour. That is why they are divided into unit, sections,
departments etc. They are usually organised in such a way that each
individuals or groups in the organisations have specific tasks or
organisation that they are responsible for in the overall interest of the
organisation.
 Orientation towards goals. Every organisation is unique and have
their specific objectives and goals. Though individually different,
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through the organising process, employees are harmonized towards

the achievement of the same goal.
 Composition of individuals and groups. Individuals form a group
and the groups forms an organisation. Thus, organisation is the
composition of individuals and groups. Individuals are grouped into
departments and their work is coordinated and directed towards
organisational goals
 Continuity. An organisation is a group of people with a defined
relationship in which they work together to achieve the goals of that
organisation. This relationship does not come to an end after
completing each task. Organisation is a never-ending process.
 Flexibility. The organising process should be flexible so that any
change can be incorporated easily. It ensures the ability to adapt and
adjust the activities in response to the change taking place in the
external environment. The programmes, policies and strategies can be
changed as and when required if the provision for flexibility is made
in the organising process (Wikipedia, 2022).
should not take you more than five minutes.
------ is not a characteristic of an organisation

a. Continuity
b. Comprehensiveness
c. Flexibility
d. Specialisation
2.3.2 Importance of Information in Organisations
Every organisation whether profit or not-for-profit needs information for

their day to day operations. Information is often described as the life-blood
of an organisation because of its importance in the survival of any
organisation. But beyond having information, the emphasis is on having
quality and relevant information that will help drive the organisation towards
attaining its objectives. This is why organisations spend a lot of resources in
acquiring timely, quality, reliable and comprehensive information. In a
nutshell, information is important in organisations for the following reasons
 Decision-making
 Co-ordination
 Awareness of competition
 Keeping abreast of happenings
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 Communication
 Enhanced efficiency
 Strategic planning, etc.
2.3.3 Information Behaviour of Users in Organisations
That organisations need information is incontrovertible but what information

is needed by individuals in any organisation is totally up to them. The way
they seek information is also entirely up to them. However, it is important to
examine the information needs and seeking behaviour of people in
organisational contexts because “understanding the information needs and
information seeking behaviour of workers in an organisation is the basis for
designing and developing information systems and services to adequately
satisfy their needs (Kuruppu, 1999).
Kuruppu (1999) further notes that the information needs of individuals in an

organisation may differ depending on
 Their respective functions and tasks,
 The level of their knowledge and experience (in the specific field of
specialization and in the use of information systems and services),
 Their particular interest and need to satisfy which they seek
information,
 On the breadth and depth of their interest profiles, and
 On the nature of the subject or field of specialization or interest.
Information search in an organisation is also not a random and haphazard

exercise or an end in itself rather, it is a part of the process of decision
making, problem solving, planning, resource allocation, etc. In other words,
it is one aspect of the overall process of system management (Rouse, 1984).
Given this, Kuruppu (1999) counsels that information seeking has to be
studied within an organisational context or a particular process. He further
notes that the methods of seeking information, the criteria for selection, and
the information itself all tend to vary with the time and context, and therefore
make it a complex process.
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Vyas, Vyas, & Kundan (2014) outlines the types of information in

organisations diagrammatically, thus:
Moderately Structured Strategic

Long term planning
Top
Moderately Structured Managers Tactical
Short Range Improvement
Highly Structured
Operational day to day Middle Managers
policy
Line Managers
Fig. 15: Types of information in an organisation (Soure: Kuruppu, 1999)
Furthermore, Leckie found in the study that focused on the information needs
of engineers that information needs arise when a person who is assigned a
specific task that has one or more work roles associated with it. The study
found that the determinants of information needs of the engineer is
characterised by context, frequency, predictability, importance, and
complexity, age, profession, specialisation, career stage, and geographic
location.
According to Kuruppu, the information needs of individuals in an
organisation may differ depending on------
a. Their specialisation
b. The level of their knowledge and experience
c. Their functions and tasks
d. All of the above
137
2.4 Summary
In this unit, you were taken through the information behaviour of users in
organisations. Some definitions were given as well as the characteristics of
organisations, importance of information in organisations, information
behaviour of users in organisations and empirical studies on information
need and information-seeking of users in organisations were also discussed.
2.5 Glossary
1. Organisational Structure: Within an organisation, the structure is

the system that outlines reporting relationships and the way that
certain activities are directed so as to achieve the goals of an
organisation.
Business Dictionary (2022). Organisation.

http://businessdictionary.com/definition/organisation.htm
Egberongbe, H. S. & Adewuyi. O. W. (2011). Information needs and

information-seeking behaviour of janitorial workers in organisation: a study
of University of Lagos, Nigeria, EAJIS, 3(1), 25-35.
Greenwald, H. P. (2008). Organisations: Management without control. Los

Angeles, CA: Sage, pg. 6.
IBM (2021). Understanding user groups.

https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/imdm/10.1?topic=transactions-
understanding-user-groups
Jalali, A., Bagheri, A., Allahyari, M. S., Aghjehgheshlagh, F. M., Surjulal,

J. & Michailidis, A. (2020). Information needs and information seeking
behaviour of dairy farm managers. International Journal of Sustainable
Agricultural Management and Informatics, 6(2), 107-122.
https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJSAMI.2020.108359
Jorosi, B. N. (2006). The information needs and information seeking

behaviours of SME managers in Botswana, Libri, 56(2), 97-
107. https://doi.org/10.1515/LIBR.2006.97
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Kuruppu, C. (1999). Information needs and information seeking behaviour

of users in orgnanisations, Information Studies, 5(1), 53-65.
http://archive.cmb.ac.lk:8080/research/bitstream/70130/4506/1/Information
%20needs%20%26%20information%20seeking%20%281%29.pdf
Rouse, W. Rouse, B. & Sandra H. (1984). Human information seeking and

design of information systems, Information Processing and Management,
20(1-2); 129-138.
Wikipedia (2022). Organisation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation

Wikipedia (2022). Organising (Management).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organising_(management)

SAE 1: c. Objective inquirer
SAE 2: b. Visiting faculty
SAE 3: d. All of the above
139
Unit 3 Information Behaviour on the Web
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Definition of Web or Online Information Behaviour
3.3.1 Modes of Information-Seeking (Seekers) on the Web
3.3.2 Users’ Information Behaviour on the Web
3.3.3 Web Information-Seeking Behaviour Models
3.3.4 Practical Reviews of Marchionini’s and Eliss’s Models
3.4 Summary
3.5 Glossary
3.1 Introduction
In the past, information was location specific entailing that users of

information had to go to physical locations like a library building to satisfy
their information need. The situation is different today as the information
user is not duty bound to visit any library building to seek for information or
meet his information need.
This change in information-seeking pattern has been facilitated by the

advances of information and communication technology especially, the
internet and world wide web. The implication is that at the touch of a button,
an information user is opened to a world of information on the internet in the
form of online and offline electronic databases, blogs, vlogs, podcasts etc. It
is therefore possible to stay in a different part of the globe and access
information from another part of the globe without being physically there.
This was considered unthinkable in the not so distant past.

The advantages of the internet including speed of searching and accessing
information, the unquantifiable amount of information in different forms and
different sources and the elimination of physical boundaries among other
advantages makes the internet a most desired source of information for the
average user that today the information seeking behaviour patterns of users
are leaning mostly towards that platform.
Libraries are in addition to physical location providing electronic information

and most modern libraries are equipped with internet connectivity and
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information technology tools such as computers to enable their users benefit

from the online information space.
This makes the internet a legitimate source of information deserving of

investigation. As librarians in training, it is important that you understand the
information needs and information-seeking behaviour of web information
seekers to understand how to provide electronic services to your users. This
is particularly important because users of Web resources are heterogenous.
It is important to understand therefore how the individual differences that
exist within specific groups of users (may influence the ways in which users
understand, use this information retrieval medium and adapt to its unique
characteristics (Martzoukou, 2005).
Self-Assessment Exercise
The heterogenous nature of Web information users means that they have
the same information needs
True False

 mention some definitions of Web-based Information
 explain the different modes of information-seeking (seekers) on the
web
 explain the different kinds or groups of information users on the web
 discuss information needs and information behaviour of users on the
web
 examine some Web information-seeking behaviour models
 discuss some modes of Information-Seeking (Seekers) on the Web.
3.3 Definition of Web-Based Information)
Oftentimes, the terms World Wide Web (WWW or Web) and internet are
used interchangeably. But they are not exactly the same thing. While the Web
is software that allows individuals use other people’s content or contribute
their own content online, the internet is a network of billions of computers
that are interconnected that enables us to access the information on the Web.
So, the Web runs on the internet as other applications.
141
Wikipedia (2022) further explains that the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) is
used to communicate between networks and devices. The Internet carries a
vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-
linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide
Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. However, the
terms Web and Internet will be used interchangeably in this discussion.
Online information seeking behaviour is the active process of obtaining data

from the Internet (Esew, Markarfi, Goshie, & Jimada, 2014). Law Insider
(2022) defines it as “any information services we may make available online,
including news, stock exchange quotations, and information about events or
third parties.”
3.3.1 Modes of Information-Seeking (Seekers) on the Web
Four distinct modes of information-seeking behaviours and by implication

information seekers are outlined by Spencer (2006) as follows: 1) known-
item seekers, 2) exploratory seekers, 3) seekers who don’t know what they
need to know and 4) seekers who want to re-find.
1. Known-item seekers: This category of users knows what they need

and they also know the words to use to appropriately describe what
they need. The users in this category also have a fair understanding of
where to start looking for information.
2. Exploratory seekers: Exploratory information seekers have some
idea of what their information needs even if they may not know how
to accurately articulate their needs in words. Also, they may not know
what point to start looking for information but they are able to
recognize when what they need when they find it but are usually not
sure whether what they have found is enough.
3. Seekers who don't know what they need to know: These are
information seekers who are actually not sure about what their needs
are. Usually, they think that they need one thing but in reality, they
actually need another. In this group also are individuals who may visit
a website without any specific goal in mind as a result, they start out
requiring simple and concise answers to meet their initial need and as
they continue with the process, more detailed information may be
sought for.
4. Seekers who want to re-find: Seekers who want to re-find are
information seekers that are looking for something that they have
already found or seen but who may or may not remember where they
saw the information. These seekers may find that the information is
useful and so may wish to retain their search.
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3.3.2 User Information Behaviour on the Web
Today, the internet is increasingly used to gain knowledge and understanding

of topics. Often, one comes upon this knowledge unplanned or accidentally
as one is browsing. Most times however, the knowledge is acquired as a
result of an intentional search for information (Liu, 2020).
In acknowledgment of the wealth of information on the Web, Choo, Detlor

& Turnbull (1998) posit that “the Web is a laissez faire information
marketplace offering a huge diversity of sources presenting information
through a wide range of perspectives.” Moreover, the ubiquitous nature of
the internet is in such a way that information appears and accessible on the
Web more quickly than the traditional print channels.
Given the rapid advancement in Web technology, Liu (2020) further notes
that since 1997, there are at least three major web-related changes that will
likely influence how people use the internet.
1. Many more people access the internet today than in 1997.
2. Today, people access the web on a variety of devices — mobile
phones and tablets being among the most notable.
3. There are many more services available on the internet today than in
1997.
The implication is that access to information by anybody, from anywhere and

at any time is possible. However, in spite of the vast array of information on
the Web, an information user must possess internet search skills to benefit
from the experience. The increasing preference for the online
communication channel in relation to seeking information has resulted in
researchers focusing attention on how user information behaviour on the
Web. Gaining this information is not only necessary for provision of better
services to users but also for design of information systems (Ntando, Ocholla
& Jacobs, 2015).
However, some reservations have been expressed over investigating

information seeking behaviour on the Web despite the increasing use and
popularity of the Web as an information source. Among others, one reason
is the difficulty in collecting complete sets of data to describe Web browsing
session (Choo, Detlor & Thurnbull, 2000). As a result, although Web
information searching studies can offer an informative insight into Web
searching activity they do not allow for a more in-depth investigation of
individual users (Martzoukou, 2005).
143
However, knowledge about information-seeking of users on the Web is of

importance to researchers and has resulted in creation of models to explain
what happens in the process as discussed below.
The internet is a preferred source of information today because it contains
only authoritative and relevant information more than libraries
a. True b. False
3.3.3 Web Information-Seeking Behaviours Models
1. Marchionini’s Model
The information-seeking model by Gary Marchionini (1995) is one of the
models that is used to investigate information-seeking in electronic
environments.
Marchionini’s model focuses on the process of information seeking rather

than the behaviours of independent users while seeking information.
Marchionini posits that information-seeking involves a number of personal,
and environmental factors and processes.
Marchionini centres his model on the human-centred information process in

which it is the information seeker that defines the tasks and controls the
interaction with the search system. The individual examines and extracts
information that he/she considers relevant and assesses the progress and also
determines when the information seeking process is complete. Obviously,
each information seeker possesses their own unique mental models,
experience, abilities and preferences that come to bear in the information
seeking process.
Ordinarily, in the course of extracting information, an information seeker

puts into use such skills as reading, scanning, listening, classifying, copying
and storing information. The information once extracted is manipulated and
integrated into the existing knowledge base of the information seeker. That
process can be likened to what happens on the Web In browsing, Marchionini
identifies three general types of activities: directed browsing, semi-directed
browsing and undirected browsing.
 Directed browsing: In directed browsing, the search is systematic,
focused and directed because the seeker has a specific target.
Example: scanning a list for known items and verifying information
(for example, dates or attributes).
144
LIS 403 MODULE 5
 Semi-directed browsing: In this kind of browsing, the search is

predictive or generally purposeful. However, the target or information
needed is not as definite as you have with directed browsing.
Consequently, the browsing is less systematic. For instance, you entre
a search term in the search bar in a database and it retrieves so many
results. You may then proceed to casually examine the retrieved
results.
 Undirected browsing: Here, the browsing is predictive and generally

purposeful. There is no real goal and it is very little focused. This can
be likened to what happens when someone is flipping through a
magazine and channel-surfing. An information seeker may scan
broadly a diversity of sources, taking advantage of what is easily
accessible (Thani, 2011).
Information
Seeker
Interface
Conceptual Physical
Database
Context Container
(Hardware
Fig. 16: Search System Components
His model of information-seeking has eight phases: 1) recognise and accept

information problem, 2) define and understand the problem, 3) select source
or search, 4) formulate query, 5) execute search, 6) examine results, 7) extract
information and 8) reflect and iterate.
145
Fig. 17: Marchionini’s (1995) Information-Seeking in Electronic

Environment Source: https://www.researchgate.net/)
The process starts when the user recognises/accepts his information need.
He/she carefully defines and understands the problem, then selects a source
(for instance, a database out of many others) that will most likely give the
information he/she needs, he/she formulates a query for the problem,
searches the databases, examines the retrieved results, extract the relevant
information and reflects/iterates.
At the recognition and acceptance of problem phase, there can emerge new
information which he/she reflects on and this may mean going back to
defining and understanding the problem, selecting a source, formulating a
query, executing a search, examining retrieved results, and reflecting and
repeating. So, the process is like a loop. The search will be completed when
the information seeker decides or a search might take the person to another
database different from the one he/she began with.
Marchionini’s information seeking in electronic environments model has
8 phases. Which is the fourth phase?
a. Select source or search

b. Execute search
c. Formulate query
d. Select source
2. Ellis’s Information Seeking Behaviour Model

David Ellis’s Behavioural Model of Information Search Strategies created in
1989 was based on an actual empirical research conducted by the researcher.
The model is concerned with the information-seeking patterns of social
146
LIS 403 MODULE 5
scientists during a real search activity. The focus was on the types of
materials the participants used (books vs articles, foreign language materials
vs English) and the methods they adopted to obtain those materials rather
than constructing a model of information-seeking behaviour (Ge, 2005). It is
also used to explain information-seeking on the Web.
The model has six characteristics which are not presented in stages. They are
1) starting, 2) chaining, 3) browsing, 4) differentiating, 5) monitoring, 6)
extracting, 7) verifying and 8) ending.
 Starting: This describes the activities that takes place during the
initial search for information. This includes identifying the references
that could form the starting point of the research cycle. They could
include sources that are familiar, and which the information seeker
has used before (in which case the individual is starting from the
known) and other less familiar references that could provide relevant
information. The information seeker may also start with asking
colleagues or looking up literature reviews, indexes, abstracts etc.
 Chaining: This is concerned with following “chains” of citations or

other forms of referential connection between materials or sources
identified during "starting" activities. This chaining activity could be
either backward or forward. When it is backward, it means that the
seeker is following references from initial sources that he/she had
encountered and used. With forward chaining, the seeker identifies
and follows up on other sources that refer to an initial source. This
happens for instance when one uses a citation index as a tool for
literature search.
 Browsing: This is defined by Elis (1989) as “semi-directed or semi-

structured searching in an area of potential interest.” In the case of
browsing, the seeker engages in casual search for information in
his/her area of interest. He/she may scan through journals, abstracts
and references of studies that have been carried out by other
researchers and so on.
 Differentiating: Here the information seeker uses known differences

between sources to filter the amount of information. Some known
differences include author and journal hierarchies such as the impact
factor of a journal. What the individual does here is comparison.
 Monitoring: By monitoring, the seeker maintains awareness of

developments in a field through monitoring particular sources and by
147
so doing keeps him/her updated. In the library, this can be done

through current awareness services or selective dissemination of
information services. In the digital space, one can set up alerts on
topics of interest.
 Extracting: This involves the seeker going to particular information

sources and selectivel identifying relevant materials in them that
meets his/her own needs.
 The information sources include sets of journals, series of

monographs, collections of indexes, abstracts or bibliographies, and
computer databases.
 Verifying: Having extracted all relevant information, the seeker now

ties up the loose ends.
 Ending: A final search is done and the search is finally brought to an

end.
Fig. 18: Elis’ Information-seeking Behaviour (Source: encrypted-

tbno.gstatic.com)
Unlike so many other information-seeking behaviour models, Eliss model

concentrates on the activities involved in the information-seeking process
rather than the factors or variables that affect information-seeking such as,
the types of information need, what sort of information can help meet the
need or the availability of sources and their characteristics (Case cited in Xe,
2005).
At what point in the 8 phases of Eliss’s model does the information seeker
tie up the loose ends?
148
LIS 403 MODULE 5
a. Browsing
b. Chaining
c. Verifying
5 Arrange in the correct sequences, the processes in Ellis’s model of

information-seeking behaviour
a. Browsing
b. Chaining
c. Differentiating
d. Extracting
a, b, c, d ( )
b, a, c, d ( )
c, d, b, a ( )
d, a, b, c ( )
3.3.4 Practical Reviews of Marchionini’s and Eliss’s Models
Marchionini’s, Ellis’ and Meho & Tibbo’s Models in Application
 Joseph, Debowski, & Goldschmidt, (2013) conducted a study using

Ellis’s Meho and Tibbo’s and Marchionini’s model information
seeking behaviour models as scaffolds to examine the information
search behaviour of users working with a commonly implemented
information sources in organisations (electronic document and record
management systems).
The researchers conducted a review on the four information seeking models

before hypothesising the search behaviour of users of electronic document
and record management. A case study method was used to collect the data
using multiple research tools such as interviews, questionnaires and protocol
analysis with forty users across four organisations and three different
systems.
Transcripts of the interviews and protocol analysis of search processes were

the data for analysis. From the protocol analysis, flow charts for each of the
forty users’ searches were plotted.
The researchers found that the search results supported the hypothesised
model and enabled identification context specific search behaviour.
149
 Ellis’ Model in Application
Meho & Tibbo (2003) revised David Ellis’s information-seeking behaviour

model of social scientists that has the following characteristics: starting,
chaining, browsing, differentiating, monitoring and extracting. The study
population of their study was social science faculty researching stateless
nations. The sample was sixty faculty members from 14 different countries.
Structured and semi-structured electronic mail interviews were used to
collect data. A face-to-face interview was also conducted with five faculty
members for purposes of a reality check. A description and analysis of the
information-seeking process of this group of scholars were based on the data
from the email interviews
The study confirmed Ellis’s model but also found that a fuller description of
the information-seeking process of social scientists studying stateless nations
should include four additional features besides those identified by Ellis. The
new features were: accessing, networking, verifying, and information
managing. From their findings, the researchers developed a new model
which unlike Ellis’s, groups all the features into four interrelated stages:
searching, accessing, processing, and ending.
3.4 Summary
The Web is becoming increasingly popular as a source of information

seeking. Given the ease of accessing the Web from handheld devices as well
as other advantages such as the enormous amount of information it contains,
speed of access among other things, individuals now spend a considerable
amount of time searching for one thing or another.
This has given rise to growing interests among researchers to investigate how
information seekers behave on the net. Some models of electronic
information-seeking behaviour such as Marchionini have attempted to
explain the process of electronic information seeking.
In this unit, you were put through the definitions of Web information-seeking
behaviour and some empirical studies conducted in this aspect of information
behaviour were also presented.
150
LIS 403 MODULE 5
3.5 Glossary
1. Interface: A programme that allows a user to interact with

computers in person or over a network
Choo, C. W., Detlor, B. & Turnbull, D. (2000). Information seeking on the
Web: An integrated model of browsing and searching, 5(2).
http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_2/choo/index.html
Esew, M., Markarfi, A., Goshie, R. W. & Jimada, A. (2014). An overview of

users’ information-seeking behaviour on online resources, Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS), 19(1), 09-17. www.iosrjournals.org
Law Insider (2022). Online information definition.

https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/online-information
Liu, F. (2020). How Information-Seeking Behavior Has Changed in 22 Years

https://www.nngroup.com/articles/information-seeking-behavior-changes/
Martzoukou, K. (2015). A review of Web information seeking research:

considerations of method and foci of interest, Information Research,
10(2), paper 214. http://InformationR.net/ir/10-2/paper215.html]
Okocha, F. & Owolabi, S. (2020). Web Information Seeking Behavior of

Undergraduate Students in Kwara State Nigeria, International
Information and Library Review, 52(4).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10572317.2020.1729298
Spencer, D. (2006). Four Modes of Seeking Information and How to Design

for Them.
http://www.boxesandarrows.com/view/four_modes_of_seeking_info
rmation_and_how_to_design_for_them
Wikipedia (2022). Internet. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet

SAE 1 b. False
SAE 2 b. False
SAE 3 c. Formulate query
SAE 4 c. Verifying
SAE 5 a, b, c, d
151

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COURSE

Course Team Ibegbulam, Ijeoma J. PhD, CLN (Course

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

© 2022 by NOUN Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

Working Through this Course

Module 3 The Information User

Module 4 Theoretical/Conceptual Models of Information

and audio-recorded summary in each unit. The video/audio summaries

Finally, respond to the questionnaire. This will help the university to

Module 3 The Information User

Module 4 Theoretical/Conceptual Models of Information

Module 1 Definition of Concepts……………….. 1

Module 2 Information Sources/Resources and

Module 3 The Information User……………… 73

Module 4 Theoretical/Conceptual Models of

Module 5 Information Behaviour in Different

MODULE 1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

Unit 1 Concept of Information

Unit 1 Definition of Information

require information to become more effective in your learning experience

1.3 Definition of Information

information. In libraries today, both books and information and

 Information as data in the environment

 Information as part of the communication process

 Information as a resource or commodity

Furthermore, in the attempt to define the term, a distinction has been

This means that information produces knowledge. Information makes

Webler (2022) defines information as the resolution of uncertainty that

The view above is in contrast with the data-information-knowledge

Another definition says that information is the product of different

their objectives (Egyankosh, n.d.). To that extent, it is human beings

2. Information is processed, organised and structured data.

1.3.1 Attributes of Information

understanding of what we should look out for when we talk about

An attribute is a quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or

Accuracy is concerned with how correct or reliable is the

Completeness is about the comprehensiveness of information.

Reliability of information means that the information should not be

register for instance gives a certain figure as the total holdings, it is

The relevance of information is concerned with it being able to meet

Timeliness of information refers to the up to datedness of the

1. What is the effect of accurate information?

1.3.2 Types of Information

Albeit, an understanding of types of information is important because

subjective and objective information (Tri-Country Technical College,

Factual information deals solely with facts. Factual information is short

ii. Analytical Information

This is information that arises from the interpretation of factual

Unit 2 Concept of Behaviour and Information Behaviour

2.3 Concept of Human Behaviour

individuals or groups to respond to internal and external stimuli

 deciding that information is needed,

i) Information Behaviour: Totality of human behaviour in

iii) Information Search Behaviour: The micro-level behaviour

From the explanations above, the researchers view information behaviour

Information Search Behaviour

Fig. 1 showing differences in the components of information

1. ----- is credited with coining the term information behaviour?

2. Which of these statement best describes information-seeking?