 What is this course?

 Why do we study it?

 What is the relation between sets and logic?
In mathematics, a proof is a demonstration that,
assuming certain axioms, some statement is necessarily
true. That is, proof is a logical argument, not an
empirical one. One must demonstrate that a proposition
is true in all cases before it is considered a theorem of
mathematics. An unproven proposition for which there
is some sort of empirical evidence is a conjecture.
Mathematical logic is the framework upon which
rigorous proofs are built. It is the study of the principles
and criteria of valid inference and demonstrations.
In set theory, we study sets, which are informally
collection of objects. Although any type of object can
be collected into a set, set theory is applied most often
to objects that are relevant to mathematics. A rigorous
analysis of set theory belongs to the foundations of
mathematics and mathematical logic. A Set Theorist
explores what is provable—and what is not provable—
when one is allowed to use all of the usual tools of
mathematical constructions and proofs (tools such
as: creating
function spaces, completions of various kinds of
objects, taking quotients, forming products, induction
and recursion, etc.).
A fundamental concept in all branches of mathematics is
that of a set. A set is any well-defined list, collection, or
class of objects. The objects in sets, as we shall see
from our examples, can be anything: numbers, people,
letters, rivers, etc. These objects are called the elements
or members of the set.
 Sets will usually be denoted by capital letters
A, B, X, Y,…
The elements in our sets will usually be represented by
lower case letters
a, b, x, y,…
If we define a particular set by actually listing its
members, for example, let A consists of the numbers
1,3, 7 and 10, then we write
A = {1, 3, 7, 10}
The statement “p belongs to A” is written as p  A .The
statement that p is not an element of A, is written p  A
 that is, the elements are separated by commas and
enclosed in brackets { }. We call this the tabular form
of a set.
But if we define a particular set by stating properties
which its elements must satisfy, for example, let B be
the set of all even numbers, then we use a letter, usually
x, to represent an arbitrary element and we write
B = {x| x is even}
We call this the set-builder form of a set.
All sets under investigation in any application of set
theory are assumed to be contained in some large fixed
set called the universal set or universe. We will denote
the universal set by U.
Examples are given below:
 In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all
points in the plane.
 In human population studies the universal set consists
of all people in the world.
It is convenient to introduce the concept of the empty set,
that is, a set which contains no elements. This set is
sometimes called the null set. We denote it by symbol
ø.
1. Let A be the set of people in the world who are
older than 200 years.
2. Let B  { x | x 2  4, x is odd}.Then B is the empty set .
3. The set S  {x : x is a positive integer, x 2  3} has no
elements since no positive integer has the required
property.
Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a
set B ; then A is called a subset of B. We also say that A
is contained in B or B contains A. This relationship is
written
A  B or B  A
 Consider the sets
A {1, 3, 5, 8, 9}, B {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, C {1, 5}
Then C  A and C  B . But B  A.
 The set A  {2,3, 4,5} is not a subset of B  {x : x is even}
since 3  A but 3  B .
 Every set A is a subset of the universal set U since, by
definition, all the elements of A belong to U. Also
empty set ø is a subset of A.
 Every set A is a subset of itself since, trivially, the
elements of A belong to A.
 If A B and B C, then A  C .
 If A  B and B  A, then A = B.
If A  B, then it is still possible that A = B. When A  B
but A ≠ B, we say that A is a proper subset of B.
For example, suppose
A = {1,2}, B = {1,2,3}, C = {1,3,2}
Then A and B are both subsets of C; but A is a proper
subset of C, whereas B is not a proper subset of C.
A set is said to be finite if it contains exactly m distinct
elements where m denotes some nonnegative integer.
Otherwise set is said to be infinite. For example, the
empty set ø and the set of letters of the English
alphabet are finite sets, whereas the set of even positive
integers {2, 4, 6,…} is infinite.
Notation
The notation n(A) or |A| will denote the number of
elements in a finite set A.
Suppose A and B are finite disjoint sets. Then A  B is
finite and
n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)
For example,
Let A be any set in a finite universal set U. Then

n( Ac )  n(U )  n( A)

For example, if there are 20 male students in a class of 35

students, then there are 35-20=15 female students.
Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then
n( A \ B )  n( A)  n( A  B )
For example, suppose an archery class A contains 35
students, and 15 of them are also in a bowling class B.
Then
n( A \ B )  n( A)  n( A  B)  35  15  20
That is, there are 20 students in the class A who are not in
class B.
Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then
n( A  B )  n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B )
For example,
Suppose A, B, C are finite sets. Then A  B  C is finite
and
n(A B C)  n( A)  n(B)  n(C)  n( A  B)  n( A C)  n(B  C)  n( A  B C)
Consider the following data among 110 students in a
college dormitory:
30 students are on a list A (taking Accounting),
35 students are on a list B (taking Biology),
20 students are on both lists.
Find the number of students:
(a) On list A or B
(b) On exactly one of the two lists,
(c) On neither list.
Given a set S, we may wish to talk about some of its
subsets. Thus we would be considering a “set of sets”.
Whenever such a situation arises, to avoid confusion,
we will speak of class of sets or a collection of sets. If
we wish to consider some of the sets in a given class of
sets, then we will use the term subclass or
subcollection.
To understand this concept, we consider the set set S =
{1, 2, 3, 4}. Let A be the class of subsets of S which
contain exactly three elements of S. Then
A=
Let B be the class of subsets of S which contain 2 and
two other elements of S. Then
B=
Here we can see that B is a subclass of A.
For a given set S, we may speak about the class of all
subsets of S. This class is called the power set of S, and
it will be denoted by P(S). If S is finite, then so is P(S).
Also
n( P( S ))  2n ( S )
Suppose S = {1,2,3}. Then
The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by |a|,
may be viewed as the distance between a and the 0 on
the real line R. Formally, |a|= a or –a according as a is
positive or negative, and |0| = 0. That is:
a, if a  0
a 
 a, if a  0

Accordingly, |a| is always positive when a ≠ 0.

Geometrically, |a| is:
The distance d between two points a and b is denoted by
d(a, b) and is obtained from the formula
d = d(a, b) = |a-b| = |b-a|
For example,
Let a and b be any real numbers.
1) |a| ≥ 0, and |a| = 0 iff a = 0.
2) -|a|≤ a ≤ |a|.
3) |ab|= |a||b|.
4) |a±b| ≤ |a| +|b|.
5) ||a|-|b||≤ |a±b|.
Q. Prove that |ab| = |a||b|.
Q. Prove that |a±b| ≤ |a| +|b|.
Consider, for example, the following relation R from A =
{1, 2, 3} to B = {x, y, z}:
R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y)}
We can represent this relation R in two ways as follows:
There is another way of picturing a relation R when R is a
relation from a finite set A to itself. Consider the set A
= {1, 2, 3, 4} and the following relation R:
R = {(1, 2), (2,2), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3)}
First we write down the elements of the set A, and then
we draw an arrow from each element x to each element
y whenever x is related to y.
Given A = {1, 2, 3 ,4} and B = {x, y, z}. Let R be the
following relation from A to B:
R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y), (4, x), (4, z)}
Draw the arrow diagram of R.
Given A = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 6} and let R be the relation on A
defined by “x divides y”, written x|y. Draw its directed
graph.
Here R = {(1,1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2,2),
(2,4), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (4,4), (6,6)}
Let A, B, C be sets, and let R be a relation from A to B
and let S be a relation from B to C. Then R and S give
rise to a relation from A to C denoted by R o S and
defined as follows:
R o S ={(a, c): there exist b ϵ B for which (a, b) ϵ R and
(b, c) ϵ S}
That is,

This relation R o S is called the composition of R and S;

it is sometimes denoted by RS.
Let A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {a,b,c,d}, C = {x,y,z}, and let
R = {(1,a), (2,d), (3,a), (3,d)} and S = {(b,x), (b,z), (c,y),
(d,z)}. Then
Suppose R is a relation on a set A. Then R o R, the
composition of R with itself, is always defined, and R o
R is sometimes denoted by R 2 . Similarly R 3  R 2o R  RoRoR
. Thus R n is defined for all positive n.
Let A, B, C be sets, and let R be a relation from A to B
and let S be a relation from B to C. Then R and S give
rise to a relation from A to C denoted by R o S and
defined as follows:
R o S ={(a, c): there exist b ϵ B for which (a, b) ϵ R and
(b, c) ϵ S}
That is,

This relation R o S is called the composition of R and S;

it is sometimes denoted by RS.
Let A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {a,b,c,d}, C = {x,y,z}, and let
R = {(1,a), (2,d), (3,a), (3,d)} and S = {(b,x), (b,z), (c,y),
(d,z)}. Then
Suppose R is a relation on a set A. Then R o R, the
composition of R with itself, is always defined, and R o
R is sometimes denoted by R 2 . Similarly R 3  R 2o R  RoRoR
. Thus R n is defined for all positive n.