Certainly. ll provide each question followed by its corresponding answer: 1. Difference between message passing systems and shared memory systems. Answer: Message passing systems communicate by exchanging messages between processes, while shared memory systems use a common memory space for inter-process communication. 2. What are the motivations for distributed systems? ‘Answer: Key motivations include resource sharing, improved performance/scalability, enhanced reliability/fault tolerance, and support for geographic distribution. 3. Define distributed system? Answer: A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appears to users asa single coherent system. 4, What are the main difference between a parallel system and a distributed system? Answer: Parallel systems are tightly coupled with shared memory and a single system image, while distributed systems are loosely coupled with separate memories and autonomous nodes. 5. What is mean by message passing? Answer: Message passing is a communication method where processes exchange data by sending and receiving messages. 6, Define Distributed program. Answer: A distributed program is designed to run on multiple interconnected computers in a distributed system. 7. Why do we need a distributed system? Answer: Distributed systems are needed to share resources, improve performance, enhance reliability, and support geographically dispersed operations. 8, List out the distributed system challenges? Answer: Challenges include heterogeneity, openness, security, scalability, fault tolerance, and transparency. 9. What distributed systems? Answer: Distributed systems are composed of multiple autonomous computers that communicate through a network to achieve a common goal 10. List the limitations of distributed systems? Answer: Limitations include network issues (latency, failures), complexity in design and management, security vulnerabilities, and consistency challenges. 11. Name some services and examples of middleware? Answer: Services include communication, transaction processing, and security. Examples are CORBA, Java RMI, and NET Remoting. 12. What is the need of openness in distributed system? Answer: Openness ensures interoperability, portability, and extensibility of the distributed system. 15. Define transparency? What are its types? ‘Answer: Transparency hides the distributed nature of the system from users. Types include access, location, migration, replication, concurrency, failure, and performance transparency. 14, Write down the principles of distributed systems? Answer: Principles include heterogeneity, openness, security, scalability, failure handling, concurrency, and transparency. 15. State the objectives of resource sharing model? ‘Answer: Objectives include efficient utilization of resources, cost reduction, improved accessibility, and increased reliability 16. What is distributed system?Answer: (Same as answer to question 3) 17. What are the three main standard technological components of web? Answer: HTML (content structure), HTTP (communication protocol), and URL (resource identification). 18. Name five reasons why to build distributed system? Answer: Resource sharing, scalability, fault tolerance, geographic distribution, and cost-effectiveness. 19. Discuss the design issues in intranet? Answer: Design issues include security and access control, network infrastructure, integration with existing systems, user authentication and authorization, and content management. 20. List any two resources of hardware and software, which can be shared in distributed systems with example? Answer: Hardware: Printers, storage devices, Software: Files, databases. 211. What is location aware computing? Answer: Location aware computing is computing that uses information about a device's geographical location to provide relevant services or information. 22. State any four factors to be considered for variants in client server model? Answer: Four factors are: distribution of application functionality, database location and management, concurrency control, and load balancing. 23. List the challenges in the design of DS. Answer: Challenges include heterogeneity, openness, security, scalability, failure handling, concurrency, and transparency. 24, Define pervasive networking Answer: Pervasive networking is ubiquitous connectivity allowing devices to communicate seamlessly in various environments. 25. Define heterogeneity. Answer: Heterogeneity refers to the diversity in hardware, software, networks, and implementations within a distributed system. 26. Define scalability. Answer: Scalability is the ability of a system to handle growing amounts of work or expand in size without performance degradation. 27. Distinguish between physical clock and logical clock? Answer: A physical clock measures real time, while a logical clock orders events in a distributed system without absolute time. 28. Write Happened-before relation? Answer: The happened-before relation is a partial ordering of events in a distributed system based on potential causal relationships. 29. Define Transparency? What are its types? Answer: Transparency hides the distributed nature of the system from users. Types include access, location, migration, replication, concurrency, failure, and performance transparency. 30. Differentiate between RMI and RPC? ‘Answer: RMI (Remote Method Invocation) is object-oriented and Java-specific, while RPC (Remote Procedure Call) is language-independent and procedure-based. 31. Define consistent cut? Answer: A consistent cutis a snapshot of global state in a distributed system that represents a possible consistent execution state 32. Label the different forms of transparency in file services? Answer: Forms of transparency in file services include access, location, mobility, performance, and scaling,33. Define the terms: clack skew and clock drift? Answer: Clock skew is the difference in time between two clocks ata given moment. Clock drift is the change in clock skew over time. 34, Give examples of distributed systems, Answer: Examples include the Internet, cloud computing systems, peer-to-peer networks, and distributed databases. 35. What are the characteristics of heterogeneity? Answer: Characteristics include different hardware, operating systems, networks, programming languages, and implementations. 36. What is the purpose of heterogeneity mobile code? ‘Answer: The purpose is to enable execution of code across diverse platforms in a distributed system. 37. Why we need openness? Answer: Openness is needed to ensure interoperability, portability, and extensibility of the system. 38. How we provide security? Answer: Security is provided through encryption, authentication, access control, and secure communication protocols. 39. What are the types of transparencies? Answer: Types of transparencies include access, location, migration, replication, concurrency, failure, and performance. 40. Which type of network can be used by distributed system? ‘Answer: Distributed systems can use LANs, WANs, internet, and wireless networks. 41. Define global State. Answer: Global state is the combined state of all processes and communication channels in a distributed system at a given moment, Part B 1.Q; Explain blocking, non-blocking, synchronous and asynchronous primitives for distributed communication. Also summarize major libraries and standards for building distributed applications. A: Blocking, non-blocking, synchronous, and asynchronous primitives for distributed communication: ~ Blocking: In blocking communication, the calling process is suspended until the operation completes. For example, a process sending a message will wait until the message is received before continuing execution. = Non-blacking: In non-blocking communication, the calling process continues execution immediately after initiating the operation. For instance, a process can send a message and continue its work without waiting for confirmation of receipt. - Synchronous: Synchronous communication involves coordination between the sender and recé of each other's state and often wait for acknowledgments, Both parties are aware ~ Asynchronous: In asynchronous communication, the sender and receiver operate independently. The sender can send ‘messages without waiting for the receiver to be ready, often using intermediate storage like message queues. Major libraries and standards for building distributed applications: 1. gRPC: A high-performance RPC (Remote Procedure Call) framework developed by Google. 2. Apache Thrift: A software framework for scalable cross-language services development. 3. ZeroMQ: A distributed messaging library and concurrency framework 4, MPI (Message Passing Interface): A standardized and portable message-passing standard for parallel computing 5. Apache Kafka: A distributed streaming platform for building real-time data pipelines and streaming applications. 6. RESTful APIs: A architectural style for designing networked applications. 7. WebSocket: A protocol providing full-duplex communication channels over a single TCP connection.2. Q; Tabulate the interaction of the software components at each processor in the distributed system? ‘A: Here's a tabulation of the software components and their interactions in a distributed system: | Layer | Components | Responsibilities | Interactions | | Application | User programs, services | Implement business logic, user interfaces | Interact with middleware for distributed operations | | Middleware | RPC, object request brokers | Provide programming abstractions, hide distribution | Communicate with OS for network operations, offer APIs to applications | | Operating System | Communication protocols, file systems | Manage local resources, provide basic services | Interface with hardware, offer system calls to middleware and applications | | Network | Routers, switches | Enable inter-processor communication | Handle physical data transmission between processors | 3. Q; Examine in brief about the two basic models of process communications synchronous and asynchronous? A: The two basic models of process communications are synchronous and asynchronous: Synchronous Communication: = Sender and receiver coordinate their operations. - Sender typically blocks until the message is received or acknowledged - Provides a clear sequence of operations and easier to reason about ~ Gan lead to tighter coupling between processes ~ May result in lower performance due to waiting times Asynchronous Communication: ~ Sender and receiver operate independently ~Sender continues execution after sending, without waiting for acknowledgment - Often uses intermediate storage (e.g,, message queues) to hold messages, - Provides better performance and scalability - More complex to manage and reason about ~ Allows for looser coupling between processes 4. Q: Explain types of group communication used in Distributed Systems. A: Types of group communication in distributed systems include: 1. Unicast: One-to-one communication where a message is sent from one sender to one specific receiver. 2, Multicast: One-to-many or many-to-many communication within a defined group. Messages are sent to multiple recipients who are part of a specific group. 3. Broadcast: One-to-all communication where a message is sent from one sender to all nodes in the network. 4, Anycast: One-to-nearest or one-to-best communication where a message is sent to the nearest or most suitable member of a group. 5. Geocast: Similar to multicast, but the recipients are determined by their geographical location. Each type serves different purposes and is used in various scenarios depending on the communication requirements of the distributed system, 5. Q: Illustrate the difference between Message passing and Shared Memory process communication model.A: The main differences between Message Passing and Shared Memory process communication models are: Message Passing: ~ Processes communicate by explicitly sending and receiving messages - No shared address space between processes. = Well-suited for distributed systems with no shared physical memory - More scalable across networks and different machines ~ Requires serialization and deserialization of data - Examples: MPI, socket programming Shared Memory: Processes communicate by reading and writing to shared memory regions, ~ Processes have a common address space - Faster for tightly coupled systems on the same machine = Requires synchronization mechanisms (e,, locks, semaphores) to prevent race conditions - Limited to processes on the same physical machine or closely coupled systems - Examples: POSIX shared memory, memory-mapped files 6.Q: i) How do you classify a parallel system and brief them? ii) Compare Synchronous versus asynchronous execution. A: i) Classification of parallel systems: 1. Flynn's Taxonomy: - SISD (Single Instruction, Single Data) = SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) = MISD (Multiple Instruction, Single Data) - MIMD (Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data) 2. Memory Architecture: ~ Shared Memory systems - Distributed Memory systems = Hybrid systems, 3. Interconnection Network: - Bus-based systems - Switch-based systems - Hybrid networks ii) Comparison of Synchronous vs. Asynchronous execution: Synchronous Execution - Processes coordinate and wait for each other - Easier to reason about and debug - Can lead to idle time if processes are imbalanced ~ Typically used in tightly coupled systems Asynchronous Execution: - Processes execute independently at their own pace Better utilization of resources - More complex to manage and debug - Well-suited for loosely coupled systems and handling unpredictable delays 7..Q: What are the functions must be addressed while designing and building a distributed system? Explain? A: Key functions that must be addressed when designing and building a distributed system include: 1, Naming and name resolution: Implementing a system to identify and locate resources and services across the distributed system, 2, Resource management and load balancing: Efficiently allocating and scheduling resources, and distributing workloadacross nodes. 3. Fault tolerance and recovery: Implementing mechanisms to detect, handle, and recover from various types of failures. 4, Security and access control: Ensuring data protection, authentication, and authorization across the distributed system. 5. Scalability and performance optimization: Designing the system to handle growth in users and resources while maintaining performance 6. Consistency and replication management: Maintaining data consistency across replicated data stores and managing the replication process. 7. Interoperability and standardization: Ensuring different components and systems can work together, often through the use of standard protocols and interfaces. 8, Communication protocols and middleware selection: Choosing appropriate protocols and middleware to facilitate efficient and reliable communication between distributed components. 9. Transparency: Hiding the complexities of distribution from end-users and applications, including access, location, and failure transparency. 10. Quality of Service (QoS): Meeting performance, reliability, and availability requirements across the distributed system. 8. Q: Explain the Differences between intranet and internet ‘A: The main differences between intranet and internet are: Intranet: - Private network within an organization ~ Limited access, typically only for employees or members = Higher security due to restricted access, - Often faster due to local network infrastructure - Used for internal communication, document sharing, and collaboration ~ Can be customized to fit specific organizational needs = May require VPN for remote access Internet: ~ Global public network connecting millions of private and public networks = Open access to anyone with a connection ~ Lower inherent security due to public nature (requires additional security measures) ~ Speed can vary widely depending on connection and server locations - Used for public information sharing, e-commerce, and global communication - Standardized protocols and technologies - Accessible from anywhere with a connection 9.Q: Write in detail about WWW (World Wide Web) A: The World Wide Web (WWW) is a global information system of interconnected hypertext documents and other resources, accessed via the Internet. Key aspects include: 1. History: Invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 at CERN. 2. Core Technologies: - HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): For transmitting data - HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): For structuring content = URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): For addressing resources 3. Component - Web servers: Host and serve web content = Web browsers: Client software to access and display web pages= Web pages: Documents or applications accessed via the Web 4. Evolution: = Web 1.0: Static, read-only websites. = Web 2.0: Interactive, user-generated content, social media ~ Web 3.0: Semantic web, Al-driven, decentralized applications 5. Key Features: ~ Hyperlinks: Allow navigation between resources - Multimedia support: Text, images, audio, video - Dynamic content: Server-side and client-side scripting 6. Web Standards: - Maintained by W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) - Ensure interoperability and accessibility 7. Web Security: - HTTPS for encrypted communication - Various security measures to protect against cyber threats 8. Impact: - Revolutionized information sharing and global communication ~ Enabled e-commerce, online education, and digital transformation across industries, The WWW continues to evolve with new technologies and paradigms, shaping how we interact with information and each other in the digital age. 10. Q: Explain the design issues and various challenges of distributed systems A; Design issues and challenges of distributed systems include: 1. Heterogeneity - Diverse hardware, operating systems, and networks ~ Challenge: Ensuring interoperability and consistent performance 2. Openness ~ Ability to extend and modify the system ~ Challenge: Maintaining security and stability with system changes 3. Scalability Handling growth in users and resources ~ Challenge: Designing systems that can scale horizontally and vertically 4, Security ~ Protecting against unauthorized access and attacks - Challenge: Implementing end-to-end security in a distributed environment 5. Failure Handling ~ Detecting and recovering from various types of failures - Challenge: Implementing effective fault tolerance mechanisms 6. Concurrency = Managing simultaneous access to shared resources - Challenge: Ensuring data consistency and preventing race conditions 7. TransparencyHiding the complexities of distribution from users, - Challenge: Implementing various forms of transparency (e.g, location, replication) 8. Quality of Service ~ Meeting performance, reliability, and availability requirements - Challenge: Maintaining QoS across diverse and potentially unreliable networks 9. Naming and Name Resolution ~ Efficiently locating resources and services - Challenge: Implementing scalable and flexible naming systems. 10. Consistency and Replication = Maintaining data consistency across replicas - Challenge: Balancing consistency, availability, and partition tolerance (CAP theorem) 11. Resource Management - Allocating and scheduling distributed resources - Challenge: Implementing efficient load balancing and resource allocation strategies 12. Synchronization = Coordinating actions between distributed components ~ Challenge: Implementing distributed algorithms for clock synchronization and mutual exclusion 15. Data and Communication Overhead = Managing the additional data and communication required for distribution - Challenge: Optimizing communication protocols and data transfer mechanisms 14. Network Partition Tolerance Handling network splits and merges - Challenge: Designing systems that can operate in partially connected environments 15. Debugging and Monitoring ~ Identifying and resolving issues in a distributed environment ~ Challenge: Developing tools and techniques for distributed debugging and monitoring 'd be happy to help you with these distributed computing questions. Il provide detailed answers for each question, explaining the key concepts involved, 11. Q: Explain in detail about trends in distributed systems? (16) APRIL/MAY 2016, 2017 Or Summarize the recent trends in distributed systems? APRIL/MAY 2018, 2019, NOV/DEC 2016, 2017, 2019 A: Recent trends in distributed systems include: 1. Cloud Computing: ~ Shift towards on-demand computing resources, ~ Services like laaS, PaaS, and SaaS - Examples: Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud Platform 2. Edge Computing: - Processing data closer to the source - Reduced latency and bandwidth usage ~ Applications in loT, autonomous vehicles, and real-time analytics 3. Microservices Architecture: - Breaking applications into smaller, independent services ~ Improved scalability and easier maintenance - Enables continuous deployment and technology diversity 4, Containerization: - Lightweight, portable application packaging- Docker and Kubernetes for container orchestration - Facilitates consistent deployment across environments 5. Serverless Computing: - Function-as-a-Service (FaaS) model - Automatic scaling and reduced operational overhead - Examples: AWS Lambda, Azure Functions, Google Cloud Functions 6. Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technologies: - Decentralized, tamper-resistant record-keeping - Applications in finance, supply chain, and identity management ~ Cryptocurrencies and smart contracts 7..5G and Advanced Networking: - Higher bandwidth and lower latency - Enabling more connected devices and real-time applications = Network slicing for customized virtual networks 8, Artificial intelligence and Machine Learning: - Distributed Al/ML models and federated learning ~ Al-driven automation in system management ~ Enhanced dats analysis and decision-making capabilities, 9. Internet of Things (loTl: - Proliferation of connected devices ~ Challenges in device management and data processing - Integration with edge computing and 5G networks 10. Quantum Computing Potential for solving complex problems - Distributed quantum algorithms and quantum internet - Still in early stages but promising for future distributed systems These trends are shaping the future of distributed systems, enabling more efficient, scalable, and intelligent applications across various domains. 12.Q: i), Enlighten the examples of distributed systems? (10) APRIL/MAY 2016, 2017 ii). Write short notes on WWW. (6) APRIL/MAY 2016 A: i) Examples of distributed systems: 1. World Wide Web (www - Global system of interconnected web servers and clients - Uses HTTP protocol for communication 2. Distributed Databases: = Data stored across multiple physical locations - Examples: Google's Spanner, Apache Cassandra 3. Content Delivery Networks (CONS): - Distributed network of servers to deliver content efficiently ~ Examples: Akamai, Cloudflare 4, Peer-to-Peer Networks: - Decentralized network where nodes share resources directly - Examples: BitTorrent, blackchain networks 5, Distributed File Systems: - Files stored across multiple servers - Examples: Google File System, Hadoop Distributed File System (HOFS)6. Grid Computing - Coordinated resource sharing across organizations - Used in scientific computing and research 7. Distributed Gaming Systems: - Multiplayer online games with distributed servers. ~ Examples: World of Warcraft, Fortnite 8, Internet of Things (loT) Networks: - Interconnected smart devices and sensors - Applications in smart homes, industrial oT 9. Distributed Control Systems: - Used in industrial automation and process control ~ Examples: SCADA systems 10, Distributed Social Networks: - Decentralized social media platforms - Examples: Mastodon, Diaspora ii) Short notes on WWW (World Wide Web}: - Invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 at CERN ~ Global system of interlinked hypertext documents ~ Accessed via the Internet using web browsers, - key technologies: 1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) 2. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) 3. URLS (Uniform Resource Locators) = Components: Web servers, browsers, and web pages - Evolved from static pages (Web 1.0) to interactive platforms (Web 2.0) and semantic web (Web 3.0) ~ Revolutionized information sharing, communication, and commerce globally 13. Q: What are the design issues to be considered in designing distributed systems? Explain in detail about each of them? (8) APRIL/MAY 2017 A: Key design issues in distributed systems: 1. Heterogeneity: ~ Challenge: Diverse hardware, software, and networks - Solution: Use of middleware and standard protocols 2. Openness: ~ Challenge: Interoperability between different systems - Solution: Published interfaces and standard communication protocols 3. Scalability: ~ Challenge: Handling growth in users and resources - Solution: Horizontal scaling, load balancing, and efficient algorithms 4, Security: ~ Challenge: Protecting against unauthorized access and attacks - Solution: Encryption, authentication, and access control mechanisms, 5. Failure Handling ~ Challenge: Detecting and recovering from various failures - Solution: Redundancy, fault tolerance, and graceful degradation 6. Concurrency:~ Challenge: Managing simultaneous access to shared resources - Solution: Synchronization mechanisms and distributed algorithms 7. Transparency: ~ Challenge: Hiding the complexities of distribution from users - Solution: Implementing various forms of transparency (e.g, location, replication) 8. Quality of Service: ~ Challenge: Meeting performance, reliability, and availability requirements - Solution: Resource reservation, monitoring, and adaptive techniques. 14. Q: Utilize World Wide Web as an example to illustrate the concept of resource sharing client and server? (8) APRIL/MAY 2017 A: The World Wide Web (\W\VW) exemplifies resource sharing in a client-server model: 1. Client-Server Architecture: Clients: Web browsers (e.g., Chrome, Firefox) - Servers: Web servers (e.g,, Apache, Nginx) 2. Resource Sharing: = Web pages, images, videos, and other content are shared resources - Servers host and manage these resources - Clients request and consume the resources 3, Request-Response Cycle: - Client sends HTTP request for a resource (e.g., webpage) - Server processes request and sends HTTP response with the resource 4, Stateless Communication: ~ Each request-response cycle is independent - Enables scalability and fault tolerance 5. Caching - Clients and intermediary servers can cache resources - Reduces server load and improves response time 6. Load Balancing: ~ Multiple servers can host the same resources - Requests distributed across servers for better performance 7. Content Delivery Networks (CDN): - Distributed network of servers to efficiently deliver content - Reduces latency by serving from geographically closer locations 8. Dynamic Content Generation: - Servers can generate personalized or real-time content - Enables interactive web applications and services The WWW demonstrates how the client-server model enables efficient resource sharing, scalability, and glabal access to information and services. 15.Q; Categorize the application areas of distributed systems? (7) APRIL/MAY 2018, ‘A: Application areas of distributed systems can be categorized as follows: 1. Enterprise Applications - Distributed databases - Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems = Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems2. Internet Services = Web applications - E-commerce platforms ~Social media networks 3. Scientific Computing: ~ Grid computing for research Distributed simulations - Data analysis in fields like physics, biology, and climate science 4. Financial Services: = Online banking systems = Stock trading platforms = Blockchain-based applications 5. Telecommunications: = Mobile networks, = Voice over IP (VoIP) systems - Content Delivery Networks (DNs) 6. Internet of Things (loT: - Smart home systems = Industrial 1oT = Connected vehicles 7. Cloud Computing: - Infrastructure as a Service (I2aS) ~ Platform as a Service (PaaS) = Software as a Service (Saa5) These categories demonstrate the wide-ranging applications of distributed systems across various industries and domains. 16. Q: Consider a distributed system environment of the prevailing WWW and discuss the challenges meeting out sharing of resources? (13) APRIL/MAY 2018, A: Challenges in resource sharing in the World Wide Web (WWW) environment: 1. Scalabilit = Challenge: Handling millions of concurrent users and requests Solution: Load balancing, caching, and content delivery networks (CDNs) 2. Availability: - Challenge: Ensuring continuous access to resources Solution: Redundancy, fault tolerance, and distributed data centers 3. Performance: - Challenge: Minimizing latency and maximizing throughput Solution: Caching, compression, and optimized protocols (e.g., HTTP/2) 4, Security: ~ Challenge: Protecting resources from unauthorized access and attacks - Solution: HTTPS, authentication mechanisms, and web application firewalls 5. Consistency: ~ Challenge: Maintaining data consistency across distributed copies - Solution: Consistency protocols and eventual consistency models 6. Interoperability: ~ Challenge: Ensuring compatibility between diverse systems and browsers- Solution: Web standards (W3C) and cross-platform technologies 7. Content Management: ~ Challenge: Organizing and updating large volumes of distributed content ~ Solution: Content Management Systems (CMS) and version control 8, Bandwidth Limitations: - Challenge: Efficient use of network resources - Solution: Data compression, lazy loading, and progressive enhancement 9, Dynamic Content Generation: = Challenge: Personalizing content for individual users - Solution: Server-side scripting and client-side technologies (e.g,, JavaScript) 10. Mobile Access: Challenge: Adapting to various device capabilities and network conditions Solution: Responsive design and mobile-first approaches, 11. Internationalization: - Challenge: Supporting multiple languages and cultural differences = Solution: Unicode support and localization techniques 12. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: - Challenge: Adhering to diverse international laws (eg., GDPR) - Solution: Geolocation-based content delivery and user consent mechanisms 13, Search and Discovery: - Challenge: Enabling users to find relevant resources in vast information space Solution: Search engines, metadata, and semantic web technologies Certainly! I'll provide detailed answers for each of these distributed computing questions. 17.Q; Discuss the major issues in distributed systems? (13) APRIL/MAY 2019 A: The major issues in distributed systems include: 1. Heterogeneity: - Challenge: Diverse hardware, software, and network environments - Solution: Middleware, standard protocols, and abstraction layers 2. Openness: - Challenge: Interoperability between different systems and vendors - Solution: Published interfaces and adherence to standards 3. Scalability = Challenge: Handling growth in users, resources, and geographical spread - Solution: Horizontal scaling, load balancing, and efficient algorithms 4, Security: - Challenge: Protecting against unauthorized access, data breaches, and attacks Solution: Encryption, authentication, access control, and secure protocols 5. Failure Handling: - Challenge: Detecting and recovering from various types of failures Solution: Redundancy, fault tolerance, and graceful degradation 6. Concurrency: - Challenge: Managing simultaneous access to shared resources ~ Solution: Synchronization mechanisms and distributed algorithms7. Transparency: = Challenge: Hiding the complexities of distribution from users and applications Solution: Implementing various forms of transparency (e.g, location, replication) 8. Quality of Service (QoS). - Challenge: Meeting performance, reliability, and availability requirements Solution: Resource reservation, monitoring, and adaptive techniques 9. Naming and Name Resolution: - Challenge: Efficiently locating resources and services in the distributed system Solution: Distributed naming systems and efficient lookup mechanisms 10. Consistency and Replication Challenge: Maintaining data consistency across replicated data stores - Solution: Consistency protocols and models (e.g., eventual consistency) 11. Resource Management: - Challenge: Efficiently allocating and scheduling distributed resources - Solution: Distributed resource management algorithms and load balancing 12. Network Partition Tolerance: - Challenge: Handling network splits and merges - Solution: Partition-tolerant algorithms and eventual consistency models 15. Data and Communication Overhead: - Challenge: Minimizing the additional data and communication required for distribution - Solution: Efficient protocols, data compression, and optimized communication patterns 18. Q: How resource sharing is done in distributed systems? (6) NOW/DEC 2016 A: Resource sharing in distributed systems is accomplished through various mechanisms: 1. Client-Server Model: - Servers host and manage resources = Clients request and use resources through defined interfaces 2. Distributed File Systems: - Files are stored across multiple servers - Provides transparent access to distributed storage ~ Examples: NFS, Google File System 3. Remote Procedure Calls (RPC): - Allows programs to execute procedures on remote machines ~ Enables sharing of computational resources 4, Middleware: - Provides abstraction layer for resource access - Handles communication and resource management. 5, Peer-to-Peer Networks: = Nodes share resources directly with each other - Decentralized approach to resource sharing 6. Virtualization: ~ Allows sharing of physical hardware resources among multiple virtual machines These mechanisms enable efficient sharing of various resources like storage, processing power, and data across distributed systems.19. Q:i) What is the need for distributed system? List the distributed systems challenges? (5) ii) Identify the five types of hardware resource and five types of data software resource that can be shared efficiently. Give examples? (8) NOV/DEC 2018 A: i) Need for distributed systems and challenges: Need for distributed systems: ~ Resource sharing and collaboration ~ Scalability and performance improvement - Reliability and fault tolerance - Cost-effectiveness through resource pooling Challenges in distributed systems: 1. Heterogeneity 2. Openness 3. Security 4, Scalability 5. Failure handling i) Five types of hardware and software resources that can be shared efficiently Hardware Resources: 1. Processing Units: - Example: Distributed computing clusters, grid computing 2, Storage Devices: - Example: Network-Attached Storage (NAS), Storage Area Networks (SAN) 3. Input/Output Devices: - Example: Network printers, shared scanners 4, Network Bandwidth ~ Example: Quality of Service (QoS) management in networks 5. Specialized Hardware: - Example: GPU clusters for scientific computing Software Resources: 1.File Systems: - Example: Distributed File Systems like NFS, HDFS 2. Databases: - Example: Distributed databases like Apache Cassandra, Google Spanner 3. Web Services: - Example: RESTful APIs, SOAP services 4, Application Software: - Example: Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) applications 5. Computational Resources: - Example: Distributed computing frameworks like Apache Hadoop 20. Q:/) Elaborate the design issues to be considered for spontaneous networking? (5) ii) A user arrives at a railway station for the first time, carrying a PDA that is capable of wireless networking. Suggest, how the user could be providing with information about the local services and amenities at that station, without entering the station's name or attributes, What are the technical challenges to be addressed? (8) NOV/DEC 2018 A: i) Design issues for spontaneous networking 1. Discovery - Automatically detecting and identifying available devices and services 2, Security: ~ Ensuring secure communication in ad-hoc networks, - Establishing trust between unknown devices 3. Interoperability:= Supporting communication between heterogeneous devices and protocols 4, Resource Management: - Efficiently allocating and sharing resources in dynamic environments. 5. Mobility - Handling device mobility and network topology changes ii) Providing information to a user at a railway station via PDA: Solution 1. Location-based Services: - Use GPS or indoor positioning systems to determine user's location 2. Wireless Access Points: - Station provides Wi-Fi hotspots with location-specific information 3. Beacon Technology: - Use Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) beacons to broadcast location-specific data 4, QR Codes: ~ Place QR codes around the station for easy access to information 5. Augmented Reality: = Develop an AR app that overlays information based on camera view Technical Challenges: 1. Indoor Positioning Accuracy: ~ GPS may not work well indoors; need alternative positioning methods 2. Device Compatibility: - Ensuring the solution works across various PDA models and operating systems 3. Network Security: - Protecting user privacy and securing data transmission 4, Content Management: ~ Keeping location-specific information up-to-date and relevant 5, User Interface: - Designing an intuitive interface for easy information access 6. Power Consumption: - Minimizing battery drain on the user's PDA 7. Scalability - Handling multiple users accessing information simultaneously 8. Connectivity: - Ensuring reliable wireless connectivity throughout the station 21.Q: Identify the five types of hardware resource and five types of software resource that can be shared efficiently. Give example, NOV/DEC 2018 ‘A: This question is a duplicate of question 19 part ii, Please refer to the answer provided there. 22. Q: Consider a WWW distributed application design. Describe the characteristics and challenges in the above design when considering resource sharing phenomenon? (13) NOV/DEC 2019 A: Characteristics and challenges of resource sharing in WWW distributed application design:1. Client-Server Architecture: ~ Characteristic: Web browsers (clients) request resources from web servers - Challenge: Balancing load across multiple servers 2. Stateless Communication: - Characteristic: HTTP requests are independent of each other ~ Challenge: Maintaining user sessions and application state 3. Caching: ~ Characteristic: Resources can be cached at various levels (client, proxy, server) ~ Challenge: Ensuring cache consistency and freshness 4, Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) - Characteristic: Distributed network of servers to deliver content efficiently - Challenge: Managing content replication and routing requests to optimal servers 5. Dynamic Content Generation: - Characteristic: Personalized or real-time content created on-demand - Challenge: Balancing server-side processing load and response time 6.Scalability - Characteristic: Ability to handle increasing numbers of users and requests, - Challenge: Designing systems that can scale horizontally and vertically 7. Security: - Characteristic: Need for secure communication and access control - Challenge: Implementing end-to-end security in a distributed environment 8. Heterogeneity - Characteristic: Diverse client devices and browsers - Challenge: Ensuring consistent user experience across platforms 9. Availability ~ Characteristic: 24/7 access expectation for web applications - Challenge: Implementing fault tolerance and disaster recovery 10. Performance: - Characteristic: Low latency expectation for web interactions - Challenge: Optimizing network usage and server response times 11. Data Consistency - Characteristic: Distributed data storage across multiple servers, - Challenge: Maintaining data consistency in distributed databases 12, Resource Discovery: - Characteristic: Ability to find and access relevant web resources - Challenge: Implementing efficient search and indexing mechanisms 13. Interoperability - Characteristic: Support for various web standards and protocols ~ Challenge: Ensuring compatibility across different systems and versions. These characteristics and challenges highlight the complexity of resource sharing in WWW distributed applications and the ongoing efforts to improve efficiency, reliability, and user experience. 23. Q: Write in detail about the characteristics of inter-process communication (16) A: Inter-Process Communication (IPC) in distributed systems has several key characteristics:1. Message Passing - Processes communicate by sending and receiving messages - Can be synchronous (blocking) or asynchronous (non-blocking) ~ Provides a clear separation between processes 2. Naming and Addressing - Processes need unique identifiers or addresses = Naming schemes can be direct (using network addresses) or indirect (using logical names) 3. Synchronization: - Coordination of actions between processes - Implemented through mechanisms like semaphores, mutexes, or condition variables 4. Reliability: - Ensuring messages are delivered correctly and in order - Handling lost or duplicated messages 5. Performance - Minimizing communication overhead and latency - Optimizing message size and frequency 6. Scalability - Ability to handle increasing numbers of processes and messages - Efficient routing and load balancing 7. Security: - Protecting communication from unauthorized access or tampering - Implementing authentication and encryption 8. Transparency: - Hiding the complexities of distribution from applications - Location transparency for communicating processes 9. Fault Tolerance: - Handling process failures and network partitions - Implementing retry mechanisms and error handling 10. Heterogeneity: - Supporting communication between processes on different systems - Handling differences in data representation (e.g., byte order) 11. Atomicity: - Ensuring that complex operations are executed as a single, indivisible unit - Implementing distributed transactions 12. Concurrency: - Managing simultaneous communication between multiple processes - Handling race conditions and deadlocks 13, Multicast and Broadcast: - Ability to send messages to multiple recipients, Efficient group communication 14. Quality of Service (QoS): - Providing guarantees on message delivery, ordering, and timing - Prioritizing certain types of communication 15. State Management: - Maintaining consistent state across communicating processes Handling process migration and recovery16. Buffering - Managing message queues for asynchronous communication ~ Handling flow control to prevent buffer overflows These characteristics highlight the complexity and importance of IPC in distributed systems, influencing the design and implementation of efficient and reliable distributed applications, 24. Q: Describe in detail about client-server communication, (16) A: Client-server communication is a fundamental model in distributed systems. Here's a detailed description 1. Basie Concept: - Clients request services or resources - Servers provide services or resources - Clear separation of rales and responsibilities 2. Communication Protocol: - Usually based on request-response model = Common protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP ~ Can be connection-oriented (TCP) or connectiontess (UDP) 3. Addressing and Naming - Servers identified by IP addresses or domain names - Port numbers used to identify specific services on a server 4, Message Formats: - Structured data formats for requests and responses ~ Examples: JSON, XML, Protocol Buffers 5. Stateless vs, Stateful Communication: - Stateless: Each request is independent (e.g., HTTP) -Stateful: Server maintains client session information 6. Authentication and Authorization: - Clients often need to prove identity = Servers control access to resources based on client credentials 7. Load Balancing: - Distribution of client requests across multiple servers = Improves performance and availability 8. Caching: - Storing frequently accessed data closer to clients ~ Reduces server load and improves response times, 9. Consistency and Replication: - Maintaining data consistency across multiple server instances ~ Replicating data for improved availability and performance 10. Error Handling and Reliability: ~ Dealing with network failures, server crashes, ete. Implementing retry mechanisms and idempotent operations 11. Security: - Encryption of data in transit (e.g., HTTPS) - Protection against various attacks (e.g., SQL injection, xSS) 12. Scalability: - Ability to handle increasing numbers of clients,= Vertical scaling (more powerful servers) and horizontal scaling (more servers) 13. API Design: = Well-defined interfaces for client-server interaction - RESTFUL APIs, GraphQL, gRPC, etc. 14. Versioning: Managing changes in server APIs over time - Ensuring backward compatibility 15. Monitoring and Logging: ~ Tracking server performance and client interactions = Debugging and troubleshooting communication issues 16. Asynchronous Communication: - Long-polling, WebSockets for real-time updates - Handling long-running operations without blocking This model forms the basis for many distributed applications, from web services to mobile apps, providing a scalable and flexible approach to building distributed systems. 25. Q: Discuss in detail the Cristian’s method and the Berkeley algorithm for synchronization. A Cristian's method and the Berkeley algorithm are two important clock synchronization algorithms used in distributed systems. Let's discuss each in detail Cristian's Method: 1. Basic Concept: - Used for synchronizing clocks with a 2. Process! a. Client requests current time from the time server b. Server responds with its current time c. Client adjusts its clock based on the received time and estimated round-trip delay 3. Round-Trip Delay Estimation: ~ Client measures time between sending request and receiving response - Assumes symmetric network delay for request and response 4, Clock Adjustment: = New time = Server time + (Round-trip delay / 2) 5. advantages: ~ Simple to implement = Works well in networks with low variability in message transit times 6. Disadvantages: = Accuracy depends on network delay consistency - Vulnerable to variations in server processing time 7. Error Estimation: = Minimum error = - Maximum erro! (if message delays are identical) Round-trip delay / 2) 8 Applications: - Used in systems where a reliable time server is available - Suitable for local area networks with low latency Berkeley Algorithm:1. Basic Concept: = Designed for synchronizing a group of computers without assuming a reliable time source 2. Process: a. A coordinator (master) periodically polls other machines (slaves) b. Slaves respond with their current time . Coordinator calculates average time and sends time adjustments to slaves 3. Time Calculatio - Coordinator collects times from all slaves - Calculates average, discarding any outliers - Determines time differences between average and each machine 4, Time Adjustment: - Coordinator sends relative adjustments to each slave ~ Slaves adjust their clocks based on received information 5. Advantages: = Does not rely on an accurate time source ~ Resistant to failures of individual machines 6. Disadvantages: - More complex than Cristian's method = Coordinator can be a single point of failure 7. Fault Tolerance: - Can handle faulty clocks by discarding outliers = Coordinator failure can be mitigated by election algorithms. 8 Network Overhead: ~ Requires more network communication than Cristian's method - Periodic polling can increase network traffic 9. Applications: - Suitable for closed networks without external