Web Technologies Js Notes

WEB TECHNOLOGIES
MCA III SEMESTER
S.Jaswanthi
Assistant Professor
K.G.R.L P.G College
Bhimavaram
WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 1

MCA-20304 WEB TECHNOLOGIES
UNIT I
Networking Protocols and OSI Model: Protocols in Computer Communications,
the OSI Model, OSI Layer Functions.
Internetworking Concepts, Devices, Basics, History and Architecture:
Internetworking, Problems in Internetworking, Dealing with Incompatibility Issues,
A Virtual Network, Internetworking Devices, Repeaters, Bridges, Routers,
Gateways, A Brief History of the Internet, Growth of the Internet, Internet topology,
Internal Architecture of an ISP
TCP/IP Part I (Introduction to TCP/IP, IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP):TCP/IP Basics,
Why IP Addresses? Logical Addresses,TCP/IP Example, the Concept of IP Address,
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Reverse ARP, Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP), Datagram, Fragmentation and Reassembly.
UNIT II
TCP/IP Part II (TCP, UDP):Basics of TCP, Features of TCP, Relationship between

TCP and IP, Ports and Sockets, Connections-Passive Open and Active Open, TCP
connections, What Makes TCP Reliable? TCP Packet Format, Persistent TCP
Connections, User Datagram Protocol, UDP Packet, Difference between UDP and
TCP
TCP/IP Part III (DNS, Email, FTP, TFTP): Domain Name System (DNS),
Electronic Mail (Email), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP)
TCP/IP Part IV (WWW, HTTP, TELNET): A Brief History of WWW, Basics of
WWW and Browsing, Locating Information on the Internet, HTML, Web Browser
Architecture, Web Pages and Multimedia, Remote Login (TELNET).
An Introduction to Electronic Commerce: Aspects of Electronic Commerce,
Types of E Commerce, Approaches for Developing E Commerce Solutions,
Electronic Procurement, Phases in a Procurement Process, E-Procurement Models,
E-Procurement Solutions, Trading Models, Buyer Side Purchasing, Supply Chain
Management (SCM) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM)

UNIT III
Introduction to Web Technology: Features Required for Enabling e-commerce,

Web pages-Types and Issues, Tiers, The Concept of a Tier, A Concept of Microsoft
and Java Technologies, Web Pages, Static Web Pages, Plug-ins, Introduction to
Frames and Forms.
Dynamic Web Pages: Need for Dynamic Web Pages, Magic of Dynamic Web
Pages, Overview of Dynamic Web Page Technologies, Overview of Dynamic
HTML (DHTML), Common Gateway Interface (CGI), Microsoft’s Active Server
Pages (ASP), Basics of ASP Technology, ASP Example, Modern Trends in ASP,
Java and the Concept a Virtual Machine, Java Servlets and Java Sever Pages(JSP),
Java Servlets, Java Sever pages (JSP).
Active Web Pages: Active Web pages is a Better Solution, Java Applets, Why are
Active Web Pages Powerful? When not to use Active Web Pages, Lifecycle of Java
Applets, Java Beans, Active X Controls.
UNIT IV
Middleware and Component-based E-commerce Architectures: CORBA, Java

Remote Method Invocation (RMI), Microsoft’s Distributed Component Object
Model
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): An Overview of EDI, the Origins of EDI,
Understanding EDI, Data Exchange Standards, EDI Architecture, The Significance
of EDI in International Trade, Financial EDI, EDI and the Internet.
Extensible Markup Language (XML): Standard Generalized Markup Language
(SGML), Basics of XML, XML parsers, The Need for a Standard.
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP): Limitations of Mobile Devices, The
emergence of WAP, WAP Architecture, The WAP Stack, Concerns about WAP and
its Future, Alternatives to WAP.
Text Book:
Web Technologies: TCP/IP to Internet Application Architectures-TATA McGraw
Hill Publications - Achyut S Godbole, AtulKahate.

UNIT I
Networking Protocols and OSI Model: Protocols in Computer Communications,

the OSI Model, OSI Layer Functions.
Internetworking Concepts, Devices, Basics, History and Architecture:
Internetworking, Problems in Internetworking, Dealing with Incompatibility Issues,
A Virtual Network, Internetworking Devices, Repeaters, Bridges, Routers,
Gateways, A Brief History of the Internet, Growth of the Internet, Internet topology,
Internal Architecture of an ISP
TCP/IP Part I (Introduction to TCP/IP, IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP):TCP/IP Basics,
Why IP Addresses? Logical Addresses,TCP/IP Example, the Concept of IP Address,
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Reverse ARP, Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP), Datagram, Fragmentation and Reassembly.
Networking Protocols and OSI Model
Protocols in Computer Communications:
There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role
in communicating with different devices across the network. These are:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher
Let's discuss each of them briefly:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication

protocol which is used for communicating over a network. It divides any

message into series of packets that are sent from source to destination and there
it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is
mostly used with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through
different nodes in a network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is
the most popular protocol connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol
to Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-
tolerating and low-latency linking between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and
distribute outgoing E-Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one
machine to another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files,
text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a
hypertext among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links.
These links may be in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on
Client-server principles which allow a client system for establishing a
connection with the server machine for making a request. The server
acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the
communication among two computers one using the browser and other fetching
data from web server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the client
browser (request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format, same in
case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted
format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or
modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another.
The connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which
requests for connection is the local computer, and the system which accepts the
connection is the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving
as well as displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the
client/server principle.
*****

The OSI Model:
OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the
exact services and protocols for each layer. It simply tells what each layer should
do by defining its input and output data. It is up to network architects to
implement the layers according to their needs and resources available.
These are the seven layers of the OSI model −
 Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two
systems that need to communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages
simplex or duplex transmission by modem. It also manages Network
Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like cabling, cable
terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc.
 Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It
assembles datagrams into frames and adds start and stop flags to each
frame. It also resolves problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate
frames.
 Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling
flow of information between the workstations. It also breaks down
transport layer datagrams into smaller datagrams.
 Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport
layer breaks it down into data frames, provides error checking at network
segment level and prevents a fast host from overrunning a slower one.
Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network hardware.
 Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session
between two workstations that want to exchange data.
 Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation
of data, i.e. syntax and semantics of information. It controls file level
security and is also responsible for converting data to network standards.
 Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is
responsible for sending application requests by the user to the lower levels.
Typical applications include file transfer, E-mail, remote logon, data entry,
etc.

It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example, network
layer is not there in broadcast networks.
When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a request
over the network, it is received by the application layer. Data then proceeds to
lower layers after processing till it reaches the physical layer.
At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the
physical layer of the destination workstation. There, the data proceeds to upper
layers after processing till it reaches application layer.
At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation. So each
layer has opposite functions for source and destination workstations. For
example, data link layer of the source workstation adds start and stop flags to the
frames but the same layer of the destination workstation will remove the start
and stop flags from the frames.
*****
OSI Layer Functions:
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1.Physical layer:
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual

bits from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the
network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
2.Data-Link Layer:
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
 It contains two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control Layer

 Media Access Control Layer
Functions of the Data-link layer:-
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer
to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.

 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link
layer. It is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained
on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the

transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not
exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's
trailer which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical
layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
3.Network Layer:
 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of

devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:-
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.

 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to
the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the
internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to
the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
4.Transport Layer:
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in

the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller
units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-
point connection between source and destination to deliver the data
reliably.
Functions of Transport Layer:-
 Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs

simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to
the destination not only from one computer to another computer but also
from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address.
The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one
computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer
is to transmit the message to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the
message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control.
Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link.
The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination
without any error.
5.Session Layer:
 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:-
 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a

dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or
full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting
the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the
transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from the
checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
6.Presentation Layer:
 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:-
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in

the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the
data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.

 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form
and sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e.,
it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
7.Application Layer:
 An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application
layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:-
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files
from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.
*****

Internetworking Concepts, Devices, Basics, History and Architecture
Internetworking:
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over
the web. However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer
networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which
identifies a computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to
the IP Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
 For example, a DNS server will resolve a
name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to
uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.
Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several
technological & Infrastructural changes as discussed below:
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research
Project Agency Network (ARPANET).
 ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the
various bodies of government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at
different countries and thus became known as Internet.

 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols,
DNS, WWW, browsers, scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a
medium to publish and access information over the web.
*****
Problems in Internetworking:
Over the course of the last two decades, the internet has become nearly
ubiquitous. From the ages of rare dial-up connections, our relatively reliable 4G
network and endless options for free Wi-Fi at public establishments is its own
kind of digital paradise. However, the internet isn’t perfect, and if we want to
build a world where our entire population has fast, reliable, and affordable
internet access, there are a number of problems we’ll need to solve.
The Biggest Standing Internet Issues

These are some of the biggest problems facing our development of the internet:
1. Global inconsistencies in internet availability: One of the internet’s biggest
advantages is its ability to connect people all over the world but that world
appears significantly smaller when you realize how unavailable or slow the
internet is in many countries other than the United States, Japan, and other world
leaders. Many African countries like Chad, Niger, and Somalia have single-digit
percentages of their respective populations with internet access, and internet
speeds vary wildly from country to country.
If we want the fullest possible use and benefit out of the internet, we need
to take measures to assure the greatest number of people from countries all over
the world have reliable access. Companies like Facebook are trying to solve this
problem by beaming internet to remote locations via automatically piloted
balloons, but it will be some time before the world is fully connected.
2. The ever-rising demand for bandwidth: Consumers are hungry for more
bandwidth, and that increasing hunger isn’t going to wane for a long time.
Consumers want higher-definition movies, faster and more frequent points of
information retrieval, and more advanced user interfaces for their favorite apps
and websites. That results in a projected 30-40 percent annual increase in
bandwidth demand for the next several years—and somebody needs to design an
infrastructural network capable of supporting that.
3. Unexpected fluctuations in use: Internet companies have learned to expect a

kind of ebb and flow to internet use. Late at night and early in the morning, few
people are accessing content online, but during peak working hours and prime
time, people stream large volumes. This isn’t problematic when you know what
to anticipate; the problem comes with unexpected fluctuations, which can pop up
at any time—for unpredictable reasons. Companies like 10Gbps.io are attempting

to resolve this by using unmetered bandwidth dedicated servers with high uplink
potential to provide ample reserve for their users.
4. Cybercriminal access: It’s a good thing that the internet is as widely available
as it is, but that also means it’s available to hackers and cybercriminals—and
wider access means more potential targets. There’s no way to eliminate
cybercrime, as improving technological defenses simply results in more
innovative hacking to get around them. However, we can better educate
consumers and give them the resources necessary to protect themselves—even
with simple measures, like choosing stronger passwords.
5. Overreliance on major corporations: Chances are, you’re using an internet

provider like Comcast, AT&T, Time Warner, or CenturyLink. There are a small
number of telecom companies capable of providing high-speed internet access,
and our reliance on those major corporations leaves us vulnerable to the decisions
they make—including price rate hikes and new paradigms for internet provision
(including bandwidth and/or download caps). Legislation on the provision of
internet to consumers is limited, and competition is too thin to keep these
companies in check with one another. Hopefully, new players or significant
corporate breakups will introduce some much-needed differentiation to this
group.
6. Patchwork fixes: This is a mentality problem rather than an infrastructural

problem, but it still has a significant impact on how the internet is available (and
when). Most internet providers and service providers are focused on providing
uninterrupted service, and promptly respond to emergencies in an effort to
minimize downtime. This isn’t bad by itself; the problem is, many organizations
resort to “patchwork” fixes, temporarily correcting systems to restore internet
service without addressing the infrastructural roots of the problem (or innovating
new solutions that bypass them). This keeps the internet stuck in place, and keeps
technicians putting out fires rather than preventing them from happening in the
first place. For example, technicians may respond to an internet outage from
a damaged underwater cable by repairing the cable, rather than better protecting
the cable, or attempting to find a backup source of data transference.
*****

Dealing with Incompatibility Issues:
The only network equipment compatibility issues you're likely to run into
are for wireless networks and wireless devices. The first compatibility issue is the
operating system. If you're really interested in wireless networking, every
computer in your house should be running Windows XP. The earlier versions of
Windows just don't offer the support for wireless communications and wireless
security that Windows XP offers.
WIRELESS ALPHABET SOUP COMPATIBILITY:-

Most of the wireless equipment you'll find today is 802.11g. If your existing
equipment is 802.11b, the 802.11g network devices interoperate with wireless-b
devices (this is called backward compatibility, or downward compatibility). Some
802.11g equipment is marked "wireless g-b" to indicate the compatibility, but
even if you don't see that designation on the box or on the web site specifications,
you can buy 802.11g devices with full confidence that they will work with your
existing 802.11b equipment.
WIRELESS SECURITY COMPATIBILITY:-

When you buy new wireless adapters, routers, or access points to expand your
network, you're going to find devices that support Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
security technologies. WPA is a higher-level security standard than Wired
Equivalent Privacy (WEP), the previous security standard. WPA substantially
raises the level of data protection and access control for wireless networks. WPA
provides several benefits to enhance security, not the least of which is its support
of user permissions and passwords for allowing network access. The data
encryption level provided by WPA is more robust than that of WEP.
*****
A Virtual Network:
Virtual networking enables communication between multiple
computers, virtual machines (VMs), virtual servers, or other devices across
different office and data center locations. While physical networking connects
computers through cabling and other hardware, virtual networking extends these
capabilities by using software management to connect computers and servers
over the Internet. It uses virtualized versions of traditional network tools, like
switches and network adapters, allowing for more efficient routing and
easier network configuration changes.
Virtual networking enables devices across many locations to function with

the same capabilities as a traditional physical network. This allows for data
centers to stretch across different physical locations, and gives network
administrators new and more efficient options, like the ability to easily modify

the network as needs change, without having to switch out or buy more hardware;
greater flexibility in provisioning the network to specific needs and applications;
and the capacity to move workloads across the network infrastructure without
compromising service, security, and availability.
Virtual networking working:
A virtual network connects virtual machines and devices, no matter their
location, using software. In a physical network, layer 2 and 3 functions of the OSI
model happen within physical switches and routers. Plus, physical network
interface cards (NIC) and network adapters are used to connect computers and
servers to the network. Virtual networking shifts these and other activities to
software. A software application, called a virtual switch or vSwitch, controls and
directs communication between the existing physical network and virtual parts of
the network, like virtual machines. And a virtual network adapter allows
computers and VMs to connect to a network, including making it possible for all
the machines on a local area network (LAN) to connect to a larger network.
In a physical network, LANs are created to connect multiple devices to shared

resources, like network storage, usually through Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi. But
virtual networking creates the possibility for virtual LANs (VLANs), where the
grouping is configured through software. This means that computers connected to
different network switches can behave as if they’re all connected to the same one,
and, conversely, computers that share cabling can be kept on separate networks,
rather than physically connecting machines using cabling equipment and
hardware.
Virtual networking delivers more centralized management and simplified
network management. Disparate parts of the network can be accessed remotely
for needed updates and changes, or even testing, making network management
cheaper and easier.
Virtual networking is the foundation for cloud architectures and applications,

since it enables the ability to access, connect, secure, and modify cloud resources.
*****
Internetworking Devices:
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and
other electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices
transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks.
Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network. Some devices are
installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part
of the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some of these devices in
greater detail.

Modem:- Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data
over telephone or cable lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas
a telephone line or cable wire can transmit only analog data.
The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice
versa. Modem is a combination of two devices modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent
by the computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data
when it is being received by the computer.
RJ45 Connector:- RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45
connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices to physically connect
to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a technology that
defines protocols for establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are
twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into
the corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to the network.
Ethernet Card:- Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC),
is a hardware component used by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and
communicate with other devices on the LAN. The earliest Ethernet cards were
external to the system and needed to be installed manually. In modern computer
systems, it is an internal hardware component. The NIC has RJ45 socket where
network cable is physically plugged in.
Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports. Old
Ethernet cards had maximum speed of 10 Mbps. However, modern cards
support fast Ethernets up to a speed of 100 Mbps. Some cards even have
capacity of 1 Gbps.

Router:- A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from
one LAN to another if both networks support the same set of protocols. So
a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and the internet service
provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets, which are data
frames with their destination address added. Router also strengthens the signals
before transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.
Switch:- Switch is a network device that connects other devices

to Ethernet networks through twisted pair cables. It uses packet
switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on the network.
The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected to
it.
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet
to the correct port. Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and
other network errors. The data is transmitted in full duplex mode
Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices
like hubs used for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed
with all the devices connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed
even during high traffic. In fact, higher data speeds are achieved on networks
through use of multiple switches.
Gateway:- Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar

networks. In networking parlance, networks that use different protocols
are dissimilar networks. A gateway usually is a computer with
multiple NICs connected to different networks. A gateway can also be configured
completely using software. As networks connect to a different network through
gateways, these gateways are usually hosts or end points of the network.

Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to
another. In this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can
transmit data only over networks that use same protocols.
Wi-Fi Card:- Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is
used to achieve wireless connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to
connect any device to the local network wirelessly. The physical area of the
network which provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot.
Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space. Hotspots themselves
are connected to the network through wires.
A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing,

downloading digital camera images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern
devices come with their in-built wireless network adapter.
*****
Repeaters:
Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model that
amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are
incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area. They are also known as
signal boosters.
When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated

depending upon the nature of the channel or the technology. This poses a
limitation upon the length of the LAN or coverage area of cellular networks. This
problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at certain intervals.

Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it. Digital repeaters
can even reconstruct signals distorted by transmission loss.So,repeaters are
popularly incorporated to connect between two LANs thus forming a large single
LAN. This is shown in the following diagram −
Types of Repeaters:According to the types of signals that they regenerate,

repeaters can be classified into two categories
 AnalogRepeaters : They can only amplify the analog signal.

 Digital Repeaters :They can reconstruct a distorted signal.
According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be
categorized into two types
 Wired Repeaters: They are used in wired LANs.

 Wireless Repeaters: They are used in wireless LANs and cellular
networks.
According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into
two categories
 Local Repeaters : They connect LAN segments separated by small

distance.
 Remote Repeaters : They connect LANs that are far from each other.
Advantages of Repeaters:
 Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the
coverage area of networks.
 They are cost effective.
 Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need
to be investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
 They can connect signals using different types of cables.

Disadvantages of Repeaters:
 Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
 They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
 They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
 Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be
deployed.
*****
Bridges:
A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area networks)
together to form a larger LAN. The process of aggregating networks is called
network bridging. A bridge connects the different components so that they appear
as parts of a single network. Bridges operate at the data link layer of the OSI
model and hence also referred as Layer 2 switches.
The following diagram showsa bridges connecting two LANs:
Uses of Bridge:
 Bridges connects two or more different LANs that has a similar protocol
and provides communication between the devices (nodes) in them.
 By joining multiple LANs, bridges help in multiplying the network
capacity of a single LAN.
 Since they operate at data link layer, they transmit data as data frames. On
receiving a data frame, the bridge consults a database to decide whether to
pass, transmit or discard the frame.
 If the frame has a destination MAC (media access control) address

in the same network, the bridge passes the frame to that node and
then discards it.

 If the frame has a destination MAC address in a connected network,
it will forward the frame toward it.
 By deciding whether to forward or discard a frame, it prevents a single

faulty node from bringing down the entire network.
 In cases where the destination MAC address is not available, bridges can
broadcast data frames to each node. To discover new segments, they
maintain the MAC address table.
 In order to provide full functional support, bridges ideally need to be
transparent. No major hardware, software or architectural changes should
be required for their installation.
 Bridges can switch any kind of packets, be it IP packets or AppleTalk
packets, from the network layer above. This is because bridges do not
examine the payload field of the data frame that arrives, but simply looks
at the MAC address for switching.
 Bridges also connect virtual LANs (VLANs) to make a larger VLAN.
A wireless bridge is used to connect wireless networks or networks having
a wireless segment.
*****
Routers:
Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI
model. They are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data
packets among the connected computer networks. When a data packet arrives, the
router inspects the destination address, consults its routing tables to decide the
optimal route and then transfers the packet along this route.
Types of Routers:
A variety of routers are available depending upon their usages. The main types of
routers are −
 Wireless Router: They provide WiFi connection WiFi devices like laptops,
smartphones etc. They can also provide standard Ethernet routing. For indoor
connections, the range is 150 feet while its 300 feet for outdoor connections.
 Broadband Routers: They are used to connect to the Internet through
telephone and to use voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology for
providing high-speed Internet access. They are configured and provided by the
Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 Core Routers: They can route data packets within a given network, but cannot
route the packets between the networks. They helps to link all devices within a
network thus forming the backbone of network. It is used by ISP and
communication interfaces.
 Edge Routers: They are low-capacity routers placed at the periphery of the
networks. They connect the internal network to the external networks, and are
suitable for transferring data packets across networks. They use Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP) for connectivity. There are two types of edge routers,
subscriber edge routers and label edge routers.
 Brouters:Brouters are specialised routers that can provide the functionalities
of bridges as well. Like a bridge, brouters help to transfer data between
networks. And like a router, they route the data within the devices of a
network.
*****
Gateways:
A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks
operating with different transmission protocols. The most common type of
gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e. network layer of the OSI
(open systems interconnection) model. However, depending upon the
functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI model. It
acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the
networks should pass through the gateway. Only the internal traffic between the
nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.

Types of Gateways:
On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two
categories −
 Unidirectional Gateways: They allow data to flow in only one direction.
Changes made in the source node are replicated in the destination node, but not
vice versa. They can be used as archiving tools.
 Bidirectional Gateways: They allow data to flow in both directions. They can
be used as synchronization tools.
On basis of functionalities, there can be a variety of gateways, the prominent
among them are as follows −
 Network Gateway: This is the most common type of gateway that provides as
interface between two dissimilar networks operating with different protocols.
Whenever the term gateway is mentioned without specifying the type, it
indicates a network gateway.
 Cloud Storage Gateway: It is a network node or server that translates storage
requests with different cloud storage service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple
Object Access Protocol) or REST (REpresentational State Transfer).It
facilitates integration of private cloud storage into applications without
necessitating transfer of the applications into any public cloud, thus
simplifying data communication.
 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O):It connects devices on the Internet to
satellites and spacecraft orbiting the earth. Two prominent I2O gateways are
Project HERMES and Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations
(GENSO).

 IoT Gateway:IoT gateways assimilates sensor data from IoT (Internet of
Things) devices in the field and translates between sensor protocols before
sending it to the cloud network. They connect IoT devices, cloud network and
user applications.
 VoiP Trunk Gateway:It facilitates data transmission between plain old
telephone service (POTS) devices like landline phones and fax machines, with
VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network.
*****
A Brief History of the Internet:
A computer network is a group of computers that has the potential to

transmit, receive and exchange voice, data, and video traffic. A network
connection can be set up with the help of either cable or wireless media. In
modern times, computer networks are very important as information technology
is increasing rapidly all over the world. The network and data communication are
the essential factors to rise information technology in the world as technology's
advancement is on the system, including the gadgets. ARPANET began the
networking long ago.
In 1957, when SPUTNIK Satellite was launched by Russia. An agency

named ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY (ARPA) was started by
American, and its first satellite was launched within 18 months after
establishment. Then they used ARPANET to share the information on another
computer. America's Dr. LIED LIEDER has this all responsibility. Then,
ARPANET came to India in 1969, and its name changed from Indian to
NETWORK.
For the United States Department of Defense, the funding of the design of
the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was began by
ARPA. In 1969, the network began to develop on the basis of the developed
designs in the 1960s.
*****
Growth of the Internet:
Since its creation in 1983, the Internet has grown exponentially in terms of
numbers of networks connected to it. By 1985, 100 networks, both public domain
and commercial utilizing TCP/IP protocol suite became available. By 1987, the
number had grown to two hundred; in 1989, it exceeded five hundred and by the
end of 1991, the Internet had grown to include some 5,000 networks in over 36
countries, serving over 700,000 host computers used by over 4,000,000 people.

Over the years, there has been wave of commercialization of the Internet.
Originally, commercial efforts mainly comprised vendors providing the basic
networking products, and service providers offering the connectivity and basic
Internet services. The Internet has now become almost a "commodity" service,
and much of the latest attention has been on the use of this global information
infrastructure for support of other commercial services. This has been
tremendously accelerated by the widespread and rapid adoption of browsers and
the World Wide Web technology, allowing users easy access to information
linked throughout the globe. New products developments in technology are
readily accessible as downloads that are providing increasingly sophisticated
information services on top of the basic Internet data communications.
Traffic and capacity of the public Internet grew at rates of about 100% per
year in the early 1990s. There was then a brief period of explosive growth in
1995 and 1996. During those two years, traffic grew by a factor of about 100,
which is about 1,000% per year. In 1997, it appeared that traffic growth has
slowed down to about 100% per year and reports, such as U. S. Department of
Commerce's The Emerging Digital Economy, which claim 1,000% growth rates
for the Internet, appear to be inaccurate today, since they are based on a brief
period of anomalously rapid growth a short while ago. Still, even a doubling each
year is fantastically fast by the standards of the communications industry. If
traffic on the Internet continues to double each year, data should exceed voice on
U. S. long distance networks around the year 2002.
*****
Internet topology:
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both
physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies
could be same or different in a same network.
Point-to-Point:-
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches

or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often,
the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-
versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and
see each other as if they are connected directly.
Bus Topology:-
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or

cable.Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or
recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple
forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other
devices. But failure of the shared communica tion line can make all other
devices stop functioning.
Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only
one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes
the data from the line.
Star Topology:-
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point
connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity
of all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes

place through only the hub.Star topology is not expensive as to connect one
more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.
Ring Topology:-
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or
send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the admi
nistrator may need only one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.Thus, every connection in
the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup
ring.
Mesh Topology:-
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This

topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may
also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.
Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have
direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host
in the network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required.
It provides the most reliable network structure among all network
topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every
other host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This
topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of
all.

Tree Topology:-
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently.This topology imitates as extended Star topology and
inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.
Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer
is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and
lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the
network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.
All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar to

the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers
even.though it is not the single point of failure. Every connection serves as point
of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable segment.
Daisy Chain:-
This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring
topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts.Means,
if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.
Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link
failure splits the network into two segments.Every intermediate host works as
relay for its immediate hosts.
Hybrid Topology:-
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the
incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining
topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies.
Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks
connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best
example of largest Hybrid topology.
*****
Internal Architecture of an ISP:
Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company which provides internet
connection to end user, but there are basically three levels of ISP. There are 3
levels of Internet Service Provider (ISP): Tier-1 ISP, Tier-2 ISP, and Tier-3
ISP.
These are explained as following below.

Tier-1 ISP:
These ISPs are at the top of the hierarchy and they have a global reach they do
not pay for any internet traffic through their network instead lower-tier ISPs
have to pay a cost for passing their traffic from one geolocation to another
which is not under the reach of that ISPs. Generally, ISPs at the same level
connect to each other and allow free traffic passes to each other. Such ISPs are
called peers. Due to this cost is saved. They build infrastructure, such as the

Atlantic Internet sea cables, to provide traffic to all other Internet service
providers, not to end users.
Examples:
Some examples of tier 1 Internet providers:
Cogent Communications,
Hibernia Networks,
AT&T
Tier-2 ISP:
These ISPs are service provider who connect between tier 1 and tier 3 ISPs.
They have regional or country reach and they behave just like Tier-1 ISP for
Tier-3 ISPs.
Examples:
Examples of tier 2 ISPs:
Vodafone,
Easynet,
BT
Tier-3 ISP:
These ISPs are closest to the end users and helps them to connect to the internet
by charging some money. These ISPs work on purchasing model. These ISPs
have to pay some cost to Tier-2 ISPs based on traffic generated.
Examples:
Examples of Tier-3 ISPs:
Comcast,
Deutsche Telekom,
Verizon Communications
*****

TCP/IP Part I
(Introduction to TCP/IP, IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP)
TCP/IP Basics:
 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each
of them provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or

more lower-level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:-
Network Access Layer:-
 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between
two devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram
into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into
physical addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
frame relay.
Internet Layer:-
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.
*****
Why IP Addresses?
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses are used to identify hardware devices on a

network. The addresses allow these devices to connect to one another and transfer
data on a local network or over the internet.
Each address is a string of numbers separated by periods. There are four numbers
in total and each number can range between 0 and 255. An example of an IP
address would be: 506.457.14.512
We need billions of IP addresses to identify every computer, router and website

on the internet. One day we’ll run out of unique addresses and a new IPv6
protocol has been designed to meet this need.
How Do I Find Out my IP Address?
If your computer is connected to both your local network and the internet, then it
will have two IP addresses. You’ll have a private IP address locally, and a public
IP address on the internet.
A private IP address is used to connect your computer or device to your home
or business network. This address is normally assigned by your network router.
Private IP addresses are in the range 40.xxx.xxx.xxx or 192.168.xxx.xxx. An

example of a private IP address is 192.168.1.1.
There are a few ways to discover your private IP address. For example, on
Windows you can type ipconfig on the command prompt. Similarly, Mac users
can type the command ifconfig in the Terminal app.
Your public IP address is used to connect your home or business network to the
internet. This address is assigned by your internet service provider (ISP).
To find your public IP address, simply go to WhatIsMyIP.com in your web

browser. This site will display your public IP address and other information.
If you have a WordPress website, it will also have a public IP address. You can
learn its address by visiting your hosting provider or checking the email they sent
you when you signed up.
Alternatively, you can use WhatIsMyIP’s DNS Lookup tool. Once you type in
your website’s URL the website will display its IP address.
*****
Logical Addresses:
Usually, computers communicate through the Internet. The packet(data)

transmitted by the sender computer may pass through several LANs or WANs
before reaching the destination computer. For this level of communication, we
need a global addressing scheme what we call logical addressing. An IP
address is used globally to refer to the logical address in the network layer of the
TCP/IP protocol.
The Internet addresses are 32 bits in length; this gives us a maximum

of 232 addresses. These addresses are referred to as IPv4 (IP version 4)
addresses or popularly as IP addresses.

IPV4 addresses:-
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the
connection of a device (for example, a computer or a router) to the Internet. They
are unique so that each address defines only one connection to the Internet. Two
devices on the Internet can never have the same IPV4 address at the same time.
On the other hand, if a device operating at the network layer has m connections to
the Internet, it needs to have m addresses, for example, a router.
The IPv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system must be
accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the Internet. That means
global addressing.
Address Space:-
IPv4 has a certain address space. An address space is the total number of
addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the
address space is 2N
IPv4 uses 32-bit address format, which means that the address space is 232 or
4,294,967,296
Notations:-
There are two notations to show an IPv4 address:
1. Binary notation
2. Dotted decimal notation
1) Binary Notation:-
In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. Each octet is often
referred to as a byte. So it is common to hear an IPv4 address referred to a 4-byte
address. The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary
notation: 01110111 10010101 00000001 00000011
2) Dotted-Decimal Notation:-
IPV4 addresses are usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot)
separating the bytes since it’s more compatible. The following is an
example: 119.149.1.3 (above one and this one is same just different notation)
*****

TCP/IP Example:
When a computer is installed on a TCP/IP network (or dials into a TCP/IP
network), it must be given four pieces of network layer addressing and routing
information before it can operate. This information can be provided by a
configuration file, or via a DHCP server. The information is
1. Its IP address
2. A subnet mask, so it can determine what addresses are part of its subnet
3. The IP address of a DNS server, so it can translate application layer addresses
into IP addresses
4. The IP address of an IP gateway (commonly called a router) leading outside of
its subnet, so it can route messages addressed to computers outside of its subnet
(this presumes the computer is using static routing and there is only one
connection from it to the outside world through which all messages must flow; if
it used dynamic routing, some routing software would be needed instead)
These four pieces of information are the minimum required. A server would also
need to know its application layer address.
In this section, we use the simple network shown in Figure 5.13 to illustrate how
TCP/IP works. This figure shows an organization that has four LANs connected
by a BN. The BN also has a connection to the Internet. Each building is
configured as a separate subnet. For example, Building A has the 128.192.98.x
subnet, whereas Building B has the 128.192.95.x subnet. The BN is its own
subnet: 128.192.254.x. Each building is connected to the BN via a router that has
two IP addresses and two data link layer addresses, one for the connection into
the building and one for the connection onto the BN. The organization has
several Web servers spread throughout the four buildings. The DNS server and
the router onto the Internet are located directly on the BN itself. For simplicity,
we will assume that all networks use Ethernet as the data link layer and will only
focus on Web requests at the application layer.
In the sections below, we describe how messages are sent through the
network. For the sake of simplicity, we will initially ignore the need to
establish and close TCP connections. Once you understand the basic
concepts, we will then add these in to complete the example.

Example Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
network
*****
The Concept of IP Address:
Here, IP stands for internet protocol. It is a protocol defined in the TCP/IP

model used for sending the packets from source to destination. The main task of
IP is to deliver the packets from source to the destination based on the IP
addresses available in the packet headers. IP defines the packet structure that
hides the data which is to be delivered as well as the addressing method that
labels the datagram with a source and destination information.
An IP protocol provides the connectionless service, which is accompanied by two

transport protocols, i.e., TCP/IP and UDP/IP, so internet protocol is also known
as TCP/IP or UDP/IP.
The first version of IP (Internet Protocol) was IPv4. After IPv4, IPv6 came into
the market, which has been increasingly used on the public internet since 2006.
History of Internet Protocol
The development of the protocol gets started in 1974 by Bob Kahn and Vint
Cerf. It is used in conjunction with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), so
they together named the TCP/IP.

The first major version of the internet protocol was IPv4, which was version 4.
This protocol was officially declared in RFC 791 by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) in 1981.
After IPv4, the second major version of the internet protocol was IPv6, which
was version 6. It was officially declared by the IETF in 1998. The main reason
behind the development of IPv6 was to replace IPv4. There is a big difference
between IPv4 and IPv6 is that IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing, while IPv6 uses
128 bits for addressing.
Function:
The main function of the internet protocol is to provide addressing to the hosts,
encapsulating the data into a packet structure, and routing the data from source to
the destination across one or more IP networks. In order to achieve these
functionalities, internet protocol provides two major things which are given
below.
An internet protocol defines two things:
o Format of IP packet
o IP Addressing system
IP packet:
Before an IP packet is sent over the network, two major components are added in
an IP packet, i.e., header and a payload.
An IP header contains lots of information about the IP packet which includes:
 Source IP address: The source is the one who is sending the data.
 Destination IP address: The destination is a host that receives the data from
the sender.
 Header length

 Packet length
 TTL (Time to Live): The number of hops occurs before the packet gets
discarded.
 Transport protocol: The transport protocol used by the internet protocol,
either it can be TCP or UDP.
There is a total of 14 fields exist in the IP header, and one of them is optional.
Payload: Payload is the data that is to be transported.
*****
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to

find the MAC (Media Access Control) address of a device from its IP address.
This protocol is used when a device wants to communicate with another device
on a Local Area Network or Ethernet.
Types of ARP:-
There are four types of Address Resolution Protocol, which is given below:
o Proxy ARP
o Gratuitous ARP
o Reverse ARP (RARP)
o Inverse ARP
1.Proxy ARP - Proxy ARP is a method through which a Layer 3 devices may
respond to ARP requests for a target that is in a different network from the
sender. The Proxy ARP configured router responds to the ARP and map the
MAC address of the router with the target IP address and fool the sender that it is
reached at its destination.

At the backend, the proxy router sends its packets to the appropriate destination
because the packets contain the necessary information.
Example - If Host A wants to transmit data to Host B, which is on the different

network, then Host A sends an ARP request message to receive a MAC address
for Host B. The router responds to Host A with its own MAC address pretend
itself as a destination. When the data is transmitted to the destination by Host A,
it will send to the gateway so that it sends to Host B. This is known as proxy
ARP.
2.Gratuitous ARP - Gratuitous ARP is an ARP request of the host that helps to
identify the duplicate IP address. It is a broadcast request for the IP address of the
router. If an ARP request is sent by a switch or router to get its IP address and no
ARP responses are received, so all other nodes cannot use the IP address
allocated to that switch or router. Yet if a router or switch sends an ARP request
for its IP address and receives an ARP response, another node uses the IP address
allocated to the switch or router.
There are some primary use cases of gratuitous ARP that are given below:
o The gratuitous ARP is used to update the ARP table of other devices.
o It also checks whether the host is using the original IP address or a
duplicate one.
3.Reverse ARP (RARP) - It is a networking protocol used by the client system

in a local area network (LAN) to request its IPv4 address from the ARP gateway
router table. A table is created by the network administrator in the gateway-router
that is used to find out the MAC address to the corresponding IP address.
When a new system is set up or any machine that has no memory to store the IP
address, then the user has to find the IP address of the device. The device sends a
RARP broadcast packet, including its own MAC address in the address field of
both the sender and the receiver hardware. A host installed inside of the local
network called the RARP-server is prepared to respond to such type of broadcast
packet. The RARP server is then trying to locate a mapping table entry in the IP
to MAC address. If any entry matches the item in the table, then the RARP server
sends the response packet along with the IP address to the requesting computer.
4.Inverse ARP (InARP) - Inverse ARP is inverse of the ARP, and it is used to
find the IP addresses of the nodes from the data link layer addresses. These are
mainly used for the frame relays, and ATM networks, where Layer 2 virtual
circuit addressing are often acquired from Layer 2 signaling. When using these
virtual circuits, the relevant Layer 3 addresses are available.

ARP conversions Layer 3 addresses to Layer 2 addresses. However, its opposite
address can be defined by InARP. The InARP has a similar packet format as
ARP, but operational codes are different.
*****
Reverse ARP:
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a network-specific standard
protocol. It is described in RFC 903. Some network hosts, such as a diskless
workstation, do not know their own IP address when they are booted. To
determine their own IP address, they use a mechanism similar to ARP, but now
the hardware address of the host is the known parameter, and the IP address is the
queried parameter.
The reverse address resolution is performed the same way as the ARP address
resolution. The same packet format is used for the ARP.
An exception is the operation code field that now takes the following values−
 3 for RARP request

 4 for RARP reply
The physical header of the frame will now indicate RARP as the higher-level
protocol (8035 hex) instead of ARP (0806 hex) or IP-(0800 hex) in the Ether type
field.

When a framework with a local disk is bootstrapped, it generally accepts its IP
address from a configuration document that's read from a disk file. But a system
without a disk, including an X terminal or a diskless workstation, needs some
other way to accept its IP address.
The feature of RARP is for the diskless framework to read its specific hardware
address from the interface card and send a RARP request asking for someone to
reply with the diskless systems IP address.
The format of a RARP packet is almost identical to an ARP packet. The only
difference is that the frame type is 0X8035 for a RARP request or reply, and the
op-field has a value of 3 for a RARP request and 4 for a RARP reply.
The problem with RARP includes its use of a link-layer broadcast, preventing
most routers from forwarding a RARP request, and the minimal information
returned just the system's IP address. While the RARP concept is easy, the
implementation of a RARP server is system dependent.
Some differences arise from the concept of RARP itself−
 ARP only assumes that every host knows the mapping between its own
hardware address and protocol address. RARP requires one or more server
hosts in the network to maintain a database of mapping between hardware
address and protocol address so that they will be able to reply to requests
from client hosts.
 Due to the size of this database, part of the server function is usually
implemented outside the adapter−s microcode, with optionally a small
cache in the microcode. The microcode part is then only responsible for
reception and transmission of the RARP frames, the RARP mapping itself
being taken care of by server software running as a normal process on the
host machine.
 The nature of this database also requires some software to create and
update the database manually.
 If there are multiple RARP servers in the network, the RARP requests only
uses the first RARP reply received in response to its broadcast RARP
request and discards the others.
*****

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):
The ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a network layer
protocol. It is used for error handling in the network layer, and it is primarily used
on network devices such as routers. As different types of errors can exist in the
network layer, so ICMP can be used to report these errors and to debug those
errors.
For example, some sender wants to send the message to some destination, but the
router couldn't send the message to the destination. In this case, the router sends
the message to the sender that I could not send the message to that destination.
The IP protocol does not have any error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism,

so it uses a message to convey the information. For example, if someone sends
the message to the destination, the message is somehow stolen between the
sender and the destination. If no one reports the error, then the sender might think
that the message has reached the destination. If someone in-between reports the
error, then the sender will resend the message very quickly.
Position of ICMP in the network layer:-
The ICMP resides in the IP layer, as shown in the below diagram.
Messages:-
The ICMP messages are usually divided into two categories:
Error-reporting messages:- The error-reporting message means that the router

encounters a problem when it processes an IP packet then it reports a message.

Query messages:- The query messages are those messages that help the host to
get the specific information of another host. For example, suppose there are a
client and a server, and the client wants to know whether the server is live or not,
then it sends the ICMP message to the server.
ICMP Message Format:-
The message format has two things; one is a category that tells us which type of
message it is. If the message is of error type, the error message contains the type
and the code. The type defines the type of message while the code defines the
subtype of the message.
The ICMP message contains the following fields:
 Type: It is an 8-bit field. It defines the ICMP message type. The values
range from 0 to 127 are defined for ICMPv6, and the values from 128 to 255
are the informational messages.
 Code: It is an 8-bit field that defines the subtype of the ICMP message
 Checksum: It is a 16-bit field to detect whether the error exists in the
message or not.
*****
Datagram, Fragmentation and Reassembly:
Datagram:-
In a connectionless communication systems, datagram refers to the smallest unit
via which data is transmitted. Datagrams are data packets which contain adequate
header information so that they can be individually routed by all intermediate
network switching devices to the destination. These networks are called datagram
networks since communication occurs via datagrams. They exist in packet
switching networks.
Features of Datagram Networks
 Datagram switching is done at the network layer of the communication
system.

 In datagram networks, each data packet or datagram is routed independently
from the source to the destination even if they belong to the same message.
The network treats the packet as if it exists alone.
 Since the datagrams are treated as independent units, no dedicated path is
fixed for data transfer. Each datagram is routed by the intermediate routers
using dynamically changing routing tables. So two successive packets from
the source may follow completely separate routes to reach destination.
 In these networks, no prior resource allocation is done for the individual
packets. This implies that no resources like buffers, processors, bandwidth,
etc. are reserved before the communication commences.
 In datagram networks, resources are allocated on demand on a First−Come
First−Serve (FCFS) basis. When a packet arrives at a router, the packet must
wait if there are other packets being processed, irrespective of its source or
destination.
 Datagram communication is generally guided by User Datagram Protocol or
UDP.
The following diagram shows datagram packets being send by host H1 to host
H2. The four datagram packets labelled as A, B, C and D, all belonging to same
message are being routed separately via separate routes. The packets in the
message arrives in the destination out of order. It is the responsibility of H2 to
reorder the packets in order to retrieve the original message.
Fragmentation:-
Fragmentation is done by the network layer when the maximum size of

datagram is greater than maximum size of data that can be held a frame i.e., its

Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). The network layer divides the datagram
received from transport layer into fragments so that data flow is not disrupted.
 Since there are 16 bits for total length in IP header so, maximum size of IP
datagram = 216 – 1 = 65, 535 bytes.
 It is done by network layer at the destination side and is usually done at routers.
 Source side does not require fragmentation due to wise (good) segmentation by
transport layer i.e. instead of doing segmentation at transport layer and
fragmentation at network layer, the transport layer looks at datagram data limit
and frame data limit and does segmentation in such a way that resulting data can
easily fit in a frame without the need of fragmentation.
 Receiver identifies the frame with the identification (16 bits) field in IP header.
Each fragment of a frame has same identification number.
 Receiver identifies sequence of frames using the fragment offset(13 bits) field in
IP header
 An overhead at network layer is present due to extra header introduced due to
fragmentation.
Fields in IP header for fragmentation –
 Identification (16 bits) – use to identify fragments of same frame.
 Fragment offset (13 bits) – use to identify sequence of fragments in the frame. It
generally indicates number of data bytes preceeding or ahead of the fragment.
Maximum fragment offset possible = (65535 – 20) – 1 = 65514

{where 65535 is maximum size of datagram and 20 is minimum size of IP
header}
So, we need ceil(log265514) = 16 bits for fragment offset but fragment offset
field has only 13 bits. So, to represent efficiently we need to scale down fragment
offset field by 216/213 = 8 which acts as a scaling factor. Hence, all fragments
except the last fragment should have data in multiples of 8 so that fragment offset
∈ N.
 More fragments (MF = 1 bit) – tells if more fragments ahead of this fragment
i.e. if MF = 1, more fragments are ahead of this fragment and if MF = 0, it is the
last fragment.
 Don’t fragment (DF = 1 bit) – if we don’t want the packet to be fragmented then
DF is set i.e. DF = 1.
Reassembly of Fragments –
It takes place only at destination and not at routers since packets take independent
path(datagram packet switching), so all may not meet at a router and hence a
need of fragmentation may arise again. The fragments may arrive out of order
also.
*****

UNIT II
TCP/IP Part II (TCP, UDP):Basics of TCP, Features of TCP, Relationship between
TCP and IP, Ports and Sockets, Connections-Passive Open and Active Open, TCP
connections, What Makes TCP Reliable? TCP Packet Format, Persistent TCP
Connections, User Datagram Protocol, UDP Packet, Difference between UDP and
TCP
TCP/IP Part III (DNS, Email, FTP, TFTP): Domain Name System (DNS),
Electronic Mail (Email), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP)
TCP/IP Part IV (WWW, HTTP, TELNET): A Brief History of WWW, Basics of
WWW and Browsing, Locating Information on the Internet, HTML, Web Browser
Architecture, Web Pages and Multimedia, Remote Login (TELNET).
An Introduction to Electronic Commerce: Aspects of Electronic Commerce,
Types of E Commerce, Approaches for Developing E Commerce Solutions,
Electronic Procurement, Phases in a Procurement Process, E-Procurement Models,
E-Procurement Solutions, Trading Models, Buyer Side Purchasing, Supply Chain
Management (SCM) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
TCP/IP Part II (TCP, UDP)
Basics of TCP:
 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each
of them provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or

more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:-
Network Access Layer:-
 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between
two devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram
into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into
physical addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
frame relay.
Internet Layer:-
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.
*****

Features of TCP: The following are the features of a TCP protocol:
 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP is a transport layer protocol as it is used in
transmitting the data from the sender to the receiver.
 Reliable: TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control
mechanism. It also supports the acknowledgment mechanism, which checks
the state and sound arrival of the data. In the acknowledgment mechanism,
the receiver sends either positive or negative acknowledgment to the sender
so that the sender can get to know whether the data packet has been received
or needs to resend.
 Order of the data is maintained: This protocol ensures that the data
reaches the intended receiver in the same order in which it is sent. It orders
and numbers each segment so that the TCP layer on the destination side can
reassemble them based on their ordering.
 Connection-oriented: It is a connection-oriented service that means the data
exchange occurs only after the connection establishment. When the data
transfer is completed, then the connection will get terminated.
 Full duplex: It is a full-duplex means that the data can transfer in both
directions at the same time.
 Stream-oriented: TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender
to send the data in the form of a stream of bytes and also allows the receiver
to accept the data in the form of a stream of bytes. TCP creates an
environment in which both the sender and receiver are connected by an
imaginary tube known as a virtual circuit. This virtual circuit carries the
stream of bytes across the internet.
*****
Relationship between TCP and IP:
The TCP/IP model is the default method of data communication on the Internet.
It was developed by the United States Department of Defense to enable the
accurate and correct transmission of data between devices. It breaks messages
into packets to avoid having to resend the entire message in case it encounters a
problem during transmission. Packets are automatically reassembled once they
reach their destination. Every packet can take a different route between the source
and the destination computer, depending on whether the original route used
becomes congested or unavailable.

TCP/IP divides communication tasks into layers that keep the process
standardized, without hardware and software providers doing the management
themselves. The data packets must pass through four layers before they are
received by the destination device, then TCP/IP goes through the layers in reverse
order to put the message back into its original format.
As a connection based protocol, the TCP establishes and maintains a connection

between applications or devices until they finish exchanging data. It determines
how the original message should be broken into packets, numbers and
reassembles the packets, and sends them on to other devices on the network, such
as routers, security gateways, and switches, then on to their destination. TCP also
sends and receives packets from the network layer, handles the transmission of
any dropped packets, manages flow control, and ensures all packets reach their
destination.
A good example of how this works in practice is when an email is sent using
SMTP from an email server. To start the process, the TCP layer in the server
divides the message into packets, numbers them, and forwards them to the IP
layer, which then transports each packet to the destination email server. When
packets arrive, they are handed back to the TCP layer to be reassembled into the
original message format and handed back to the email server, which delivers the
message to a user’s email inbox.
TCP/IP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection between a device

and a server, which ensures multiple TCP socket connections can be transferred
in both directions concurrently. Both the device and server must synchronize and
acknowledge packets before communication begins, then they can negotiate,
separate, and transfer TCP socket connections.
The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP Model:-
The TCP/IP model defines how devices should transmit data between them and
enables communication over networks and large distances. The model represents
how data is exchanged and organized over networks. It is split into four layers,
which set the standards for data exchange and represent how data is handled and
packaged when being delivered between applications, devices, and servers.
The four layers of the TCP/IP model are as follows:
1. Datalink layer:- The datalink layer defines how data should be sent, handles the
physical act of sending and receiving data, and is responsible for transmitting
data between applications or devices on a network. This includes defining how
data should be signaled by hardware and other transmission devices on a

network, such as a computer’s device driver, an Ethernet cable, a network
interface card (NIC), or a wireless network. It is also referred to as the link layer,
network access layer, network interface layer, or physical layer and is the
combination of the physical and data link layers of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, which standardizes communications functions on
computing and telecommunications systems.
2. Internet layer:- The internet layer is responsible for sending packets from a
network and controlling their movement across a network to ensure they reach
their destination. It provides the functions and procedures for transferring data
sequences between applications and devices across networks.
3. Transport layer:- The transport layer is responsible for providing a solid and
reliable data connection between the original application or device and its
intended destination. This is the level where data is divided into packets and
numbered to create a sequence. The transport layer then determines how much
data must be sent, where it should be sent to, and at what rate. It ensures that data
packets are sent without errors and in sequence and obtains the acknowledgment
that the destination device has received the data packets.
4. Application layer:- The application layer refers to programs that need TCP/IP
to help them communicate with each other. This is the level that users typically
interact with, such as email systems and messaging platforms. It combines the
session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI model.
*****
Ports and Sockets:
Ports:- A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be
connected to the computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through
which information flows from a program to the computer or over the Internet.
A network port which is provided by the Transport Layer protocols of Internet
Protocol suite, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Diagram
Protocol (UDP) is a number which serving endpoint communication between two
computers.
To determine what protocol incoming traffic should be directed to, different port
numbers are used. They allow a single host with a single IP address to run
network services. Each port number have a distinct service, and for each host can
have 65535 ports per IP address. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) is responsible for managing the uses of these ports. There are three
categories for ports by IANA −
 0 to 1023 – well known ports or system ports.

Some well-known ports are −

Port number Transport protocol Service name
20,21 TCP File Transfer Protocol
23 TCP Telnet
25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP)
53 TCP and UDP Domain Name System(DNS)
110 TCP Post Office Protocol(POP3)
123 UDP Network Time Protocol(NTP)
 1024 to 49151 – registered ports assigned by IANA to a specific service

upon application by a requesting entity.
 49152 to 65 535 – dynamic (private, high) ports range from 49,152 to
65,535. Can be used by private or customer service or temporal purposes.
Sockets:- Sockets allow communication between two different processes on the
same or different machines. To be more precise, it's a way to talk to other
computers using standard Unix file descriptors. In Unix, every I/O action is done
by writing or reading a file descriptor. A file descriptor is just an integer
associated with an open file and it can be a network connection, a text file, a
terminal, or something else.
To a programmer, a socket looks and behaves much like a low-level file
descriptor. This is because commands such as read() and write() work with
sockets in the same way they do with files and pipes.
Sockets were first introduced in 2.1BSD and subsequently refined into their
current form with 4.2BSD. The sockets feature is now available with most
current UNIX system releases.
Where is Socket Used?
A Unix Socket is used in a client-server application framework. A server is a

process that performs some functions on request from a client. Most of the

application-level protocols like FTP, SMTP, and POP3 make use of sockets to
establish connection between client and server and then for exchanging data.
Socket Types:- There are four types of sockets available to the users. The first
two are most commonly used and the last two are rarely used.
Processes are presumed to communicate only between sockets of the same type
but there is no restriction that prevents communication between sockets of
different types.
 Stream Sockets − Delivery in a networked environment is guaranteed. If you
send through the stream socket three items "A, B, C", they will arrive in the
same order − "A, B, C". These sockets use TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) for data transmission. If delivery is impossible, the sender receives
an error indicator. Data records do not have any boundaries.
 Datagram Sockets − Delivery in a networked environment is not guaranteed.
They're connectionless because you don't need to have an open connection as
in Stream Sockets − you build a packet with the destination information and
send it out. They use UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
 Raw Sockets − These provide users access to the underlying communication
protocols, which support socket abstractions. These sockets are normally
datagram oriented, though their exact characteristics are dependent on the
interface provided by the protocol. Raw sockets are not intended for the
general user; they have been provided mainly for those interested in
developing new communication protocols, or for gaining access to some of the
more cryptic facilities of an existing protocol.
 Sequenced Packet Sockets − They are similar to a stream socket, with the
exception that record boundaries are preserved. This interface is provided only
as a part of the Network Systems (NS) socket abstraction, and is very
important in most serious NS applications. Sequenced-packet sockets allow
the user to manipulate the Sequence Packet Protocol (SPP) or Internet
Datagram Protocol (IDP) headers on a packet or a group of packets, either by
writing a prototype header along with whatever data is to be sent, or by
specifying a default header to be used with all outgoing data, and allows the
user to receive the headers on incoming packets.
*****

Connections-Passive Open and Active Open:
TCP/IP is based on the client/server model of operation, and TCP connection

setup is based on the existence of these roles as well. The client and server each
prepare for the connection by performing an OPEN operation. However, there are
two different kinds of OPEN:
 Active OPEN: A client process using TCP takes the “active role” and
initiates the connection by actually sending a TCP message to start the
connection (a SYN message).
 Passive OPEN: A server process designed to use TCP, however, takes a

more “laid-back” approach. It performs a passive OPEN by contacting TCP
and saying “I am here, and I am waiting for clients that may wish to talk to
me to send me a message on the following port number”. The OPEN is
called passive because aside from indicating that the process is listening, the
server process does nothing.
A passive OPEN can in fact specify that the server is waiting for an
active OPEN from a specific client, though not all TCP/IP APIs support this
capability. More commonly, a server process is willing to accept connections
from all comers. Such a passive OPEN is said to be unspecified.
Preparation For Connection:-
Both the client and the server create the TCB for the connection at the time that
they perform the OPEN. The client already knows the IP addresses and port
numbers for both the client process and the server process it is trying to reach, so
it can use these to uniquely identify the connection and the TCB that goes with it.
For the server, the concept of a TCB at this stage of the game is a bit more
complex. If the server is in fact waiting for a particular client, it can identify the
connection using its own socket and the socket of the client for which it is
waiting. Normally, however, the server doesn't know what client is trying to
reach it. In fact, it could be contacted by more than one client nearly at the same
time.
In this case, the server creates a TCB with an unspecified (zero) client socket
number, and waits for an active OPEN to be received. It then binds the socket
number of the client to the TCB for the passive OPEN as part of the connection
process. To allow it to handle multiple incoming connections, the server process
may in fact perform several unspecified passive OPENs simultaneously.
*****
TCP connections:
Establishing a TCP connection requires that both the client and server participate
in what is known as a three-way handshake. The process can be broken down as
follows:
1. A client sends the server a SYN packet—a connection request from its
source port to a server’s destination port.
2. The server responds with a SYN/ACK packet, acknowledging the receipt
of the connection request.
3. The client receives the SYN/ACK packet and responds with an ACK
packet of its own.
*****
What Makes TCP Reliable?
TCP provides for the recovery of segments that get lost, are damaged, duplicated
or received out of their correct order. TCP is described as a 'reliable' protocol
because it attempts to recover from these errors.
The sequencing is handled by labling every segment with a sequence number.
These sequence numbers permit TCP to detect dropped segments. TCP also
requires that an acknowledge message be returned after transmitting data.
To verify that the segments are not damaged, a CRC check is performed on every
segment that is sent, and every segment that is received. Because every packet
has a time to live field, and that field is decremented during each forwarding
cycle, TCP must re-calculate the CRC value for the segment at each hop.
Segments that do not match the CRC check are discarded.
*****
TCP Packet Format:
TCP wraps each data packet with a header containing 10 mandatory fields
totaling 20 bytes (or octets). Each header holds information about the connection
and the current data being sent.
The 10 TCP header fields are as follows:
1. Source port – The sending device’s port.

2. Destination port – The receiving device’s port.

3. Sequence number – A device initiating a TCP connection must choose a
random initial sequence number, which is then incremented according to
the number of transmitted bytes.
4. Acknowledgment number – The receiving device maintains an
acknowledgment number starting with zero. It increments this number
according to the number of bytes received.
5. TCP data offset – This specifies the size of the TCP header, expressed in
32-bit words. One word represents four bytes.
6. Reserved data – The reserved field is always set to zero.
7. Control flags – TCP uses nine control flags to manage data flow in
specific situations, such as the initiating of a reset.
8. Window size TCP checksum – The sender generates a checksum and
transmits it in every packet header. The receiving device can use the
checksum to check for errors in the received header and payload.
9. Urgent pointer – If URG control flag is set, this value indicates an offset
from the sequence number, indicating the last urgent data byte.
10. mTCP optional data – These are optional fields for setting maximum
segment sizes, selective acknowledgments and enabling window scaling
for more efficient use of high-bandwidth networks.
*****
Persistent TCP Connections:
Persistent connections provide a mechanism by which a client and a server can
signal the close of a TCP connection. This signaling takes place using
the Connection1 header field. Once a close has been signaled, the client must not
send any more requests on that connection. Prior to persistent connections, a
separate TCP connection was established to fetch each URL, increasing the load
on HTTP servers and causing congestion on the Internet. The use of inline
images and other associated data often require a client to make multiple requests
of the same server in a short amount of time. Persistent HTTP connections have a
number of advantages:
 By opening and closing fewer TCP connections, CPU time is saved in routers
and hosts (clients, servers, proxies, gateways, tunnels, or caches), and memory
used for TCP protocol control blocks can be saved in hosts.
 HTTP requests and responses can be pipelined in a connection. Pipelining
allows a client to make multiple requests without waiting for each response,
allowing a single TCP connection to be used much more efficiently, with much
lower elapsed time.
 Network congestion is reduced by reducing the number of packets caused by
TCP opens (three-way handshakes' cost), and by allowing TCP sufficient time
to determine the congestion state of the network.

 Latency on subsequent requests is reduced since there is no time spent in
TCP's connection opening handshake.
 HTTP can evolve more gracefully, since errors can be reported without the
penalty of closing the TCP connection. Clients using future versions of HTTP
might optimistically try a new feature, but if communicating an older server,
retry with old semantics after an error is reported.
*****
User Datagram Protocol:
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is simplest Transport Layer communication
protocol available of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It involves minimum amount of
communication mechanism. UDP is said to be an unreliable transport protocol
but it uses IP services which provides best effort delivery mechanism.
In UDP, the receiver does not generate an acknowledgement of packet received
and in turn, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgement of packet sent.
This shortcoming makes this protocol unreliable as well as easier on processing.
Requirement of UDP:- A question may arise, why do we need an unreliable

protocol to transport the data? We deploy UDP where the acknowledgement
packets share significant amount of bandwidth along with the actual data. For
example, in case of video streaming, thousands of packets are forwarded towards
its users. Acknowledging all the packets is troublesome and may contain huge
amount of bandwidth wastage. The best delivery mechanism of underlying IP
protocol ensures best efforts to deliver its packets, but even if some packets in
video streaming get lost, the impact is not calamitous and can be ignored easily.
Loss of few packets in video and voice traffic sometimes goes unnoticed.
Features:-
 UDP is used when acknowledgement of data does not hold any

significance.
 UDP is good protocol for data flowing in one direction.
 UDP is simple and suitable for query based communications.
 UDP is not connection oriented.
 UDP does not provide congestion control mechanism.
 UDP does not guarantee ordered delivery of data.
 UDP is stateless.

 UDP is suitable protocol for streaming applications such as VoIP,
multimedia streaming.
UDP Header:- UDP header is as simple as its function.
UDP header contains four main parameters:

 Source Port - This 16 bits information is used to identify the source port
of the packet.
 Destination Port - This 16 bits information, is used identify application
level service on destination machine.
 Length - Length field specifies the entire length of UDP packet
(including header). It is 16-bits field and minimum value is 8-byte, i.e. the
size of UDP header itself.
 Checksum - This field stores the checksum value generated by the sender
before sending. IPv4 has this field as optional so when checksum field
does not contain any value it is made 0 and all its bits are set to zero.
UDP application:-
Here are few applications where UDP is used to transmit data:

 Domain Name Services
 Simple Network Management Protocol
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol
 Routing Information Protocol
 Kerberos
*****
UDP Packet:
UDP wraps datagrams with a UDP header, which contains four fields totaling
eight bytes.
The fields in a UDP header are:
 Source port – The port of the device sending the data. This field can be set to
zero if the destination computer doesn’t need to reply to the sender.
 Destination port – The port of the device receiving the data. UDP port numbers
can be between 0 and 65,535.
 Length – Specifies the number of bytes comprising the UDP header and the
UDP payload data. The limit for the UDP length field is determined by the
underlying IP protocol used to transmit the data.
 Checksum – The checksum allows the receiving device to verify the integrity
of the packet header and payload. It is optional in IPv4 but was made mandatory
in IPv6.
*****
Difference between UDP and TCP:
As we know that both TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) are the most widely used Internet protocols among which
TCP is connection oriented − once a connection is established, data can be sent
bidirectional. UDP is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol. Multiple
messages are sent as packets in chunks using UDP. Now on the basis of features
of attributes we can distinguish between TCP and UDP
Following are the important differences between TCP and UDP.
Sr. Key TCP (Transmission UDP (User Datagram

No. Control Protocol) Protocol)
1 Definition It is a communications It is same as the TCP protocol

protocol, using which the except this doesn’t guarantee
data is transmitted between the error-checking and data
systems over the network. recovery.
In this, the data is If you use this protocol, the
transmitted into the form of data will be sent continuously,
packets. irrespective of the issues in the
It includes error-checking, receiving end.
guarantees the delivery and
preserves the order of the
data packets.
2 Design TCP is a connection UDP is a connection less

oriented protocol. protocol.
3 Reliable As TCP provides error While on other hand UDP does

checking support and also provided only basic error

Sr. Key TCP (Transmission UDP (User Datagram
No. Control Protocol) Protocol)
guarantees delivery of data checking support using

to the destination router this checksum so the delivery of
make it more reliable as data to the destination cannot
compared to UDP. be guaranteed in UDP as
compared to that in case of
TCP.
4 Data In TCP the data is On other hand there is no

transmission transmitted in a particular sequencing of data in UDP in
sequence which means that order to implement ordering it
packets arrive in-order at the has to be managed by the
receiver. application layer.
5 Performance TCP is slower and less On other hand UDP is faster

efficient in performance as and more efficient than TCP.
compared to UDP. Also
TCP is heavy-weight as
compared to UDP.
6 Retransmission Retransmission of data On other hand retransmission

packets is possible in TCP of packets is not possible in
in case packet get lost or UDP.
need to resend.
*****

TCP/IP Part III (DNS, Email, FTP, TFTP)
Domain Name System (DNS):
An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on

different systems, pass the messages to each other.
 DNS stands for Domain Name System.

 DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a
host on the network and its numerical address.
 DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
 Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a
sequence of symbols specified by dots.
 DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking
for other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
 For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of
132.147.165.50, most people would reach this site by specifying
ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP
address.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and
inverse domain.
Generic Domains:-
 It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.

 Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.

 It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization
type.
Label Description
aero Airlines and aerospace companies
biz Businesses or firms
com Commercial Organizations
coop Cooperative business Organizations
edu Educational institutions
gov Government institutions
info Information service providers
int International Organizations
mil Military groups
museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations
name Personal names
net Network Support centers
org Nonprofit Organizations
pro Professional individual Organizations

Country Domain:-
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-
character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three
character organizational abbreviations.
Inverse Domain:-
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server
has received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only
authorized clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not,
it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.
Working of DNS:
 DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send

requests to the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
 Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address
known as a forward DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address
which is converted into a name known as reverse DNS lookups.
 DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts
available on the internet.
 If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a
piece of software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server
to obtain the IP address of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the
IP address associated with a hostname, then it forwards the request to
another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver, which in turn
completes the request over the internet protocol.
*****
Electronic Mail (Email):
E-mail is defined as the transmission of messages on the Internet. It is one of the

most commonly used features over communications networks that may contain
text, files, images, or other attachments. Generally, it is information that is stored
on a computer sent through a network to a specified individual or group of
individuals.
Email messages are conveyed through email servers; it uses multiple protocols
within the TCP/IP suite. For example, SMTP is a protocol, stands for simple mail

transfer protocol and used to send messages whereas other protocols IMAP or
POP are used to retrieve messages from a mail server. If you want to login to
your mail account, you just need to enter a valid email address, password, and the
mail servers used to send and receive messages.
Although most of the webmail servers automatically configure your mail account,
therefore, you only required to enter your email address and password. However,
you may need to manually configure each account if you use an email client like
Microsoft Outlook or Apple Mail. In addition, to enter the email address and
password, you may also need to enter incoming and outgoing mail servers and
the correct port numbers for each one.
Email messages include three components, which are as follows:
 Message envelope: It depicts the email's electronic format.

 Message header: It contains email subject line and sender/recipient
information.
 Message body: It comprises images, text, and other file attachments.
The email was developed to support rich text with custom formatting, and the
original email standard is only capable of supporting plain text messages. In
modern times, email supports HTML
(Hypertext markup language), which makes it capable of emails to support the

same formatting as websites
. The email that supports HTML can contain links, images, CSS layouts
, and also can send files or "email attachments" along with messages. Most of the
mail servers enable users to send several attachments with each message. The
attachments were typically limited to one megabyte in the early days of email.
Still, nowadays, many mail servers are able to support email attachments of 20
megabytes or more in size.
In 1971, as a test e-mail message, Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail to himself.
This email was contained the text "something like QWERTYUIOP." However,
the e-mail message was still transmitted through ARPANET, despite sending the
e-mail to himself. Most of the electronic mail was being sent as compared to
postal mail till 1996.
*****

File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
 FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
 FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for
transmitting the files from one host to another.
 It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to
the computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
 It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
 It provides the sharing of files.

 It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
 It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and
straightforward, but sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems
may have different file conventions. Two systems may have different ways to
represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP
protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between
hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, and another connection is used for
the control connection.
Mechanism of FTP:
The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
server has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer
process.

There are two types of connections in FTP:
1.Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of command
or line of response at a time. The control connection is made between the control
processes. The control connection remains connected during the entire interactive
FTP session.
2.Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types
may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer processes. The data
connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and closes
when the file is transferred.
FTP Clients:
 FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which

allows you to transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
 It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the
files.
 It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the
files between you and your host and close the connection.
 The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web
browser. This GUI based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy and
also does not require to remember the FTP commands.
Advantages of FTP:
 Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of
the fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
 Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the
operations to get the entire file.
 Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username
and password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.

 Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and
forth. Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some
information to all the employees, and they all send information back on the
same server.
Disadvantages of FTP:
 The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions
should be encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not
all the providers offer encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP
providers that provides encryption.
 FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a
network. However, the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also
doesn't allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
 Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted
eavesdropping. So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute
force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
 It is not compatible with every system.
*****
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP):
TFTP Server is used for simple file transfer (typically for boot-loading remote
devices).
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple protocol

for exchanging files between two TCP/IP machines. TFTP servers allow
connections from a TFTP Client for sending and receiving files. The TFTP
protocol supports only file send and receive operations. File delete, move, and
rename are not supported. Due to its limitations, TFTP is a complement to the
regular FTP and not a replacement. It is only used when its simplicity is
important, and its lack of features is acceptable. The most common application is
bootstrapping, although it can be used for other purposes as well.
The TFTP Server can also be used to upload HTML pages onto the HTTP
Server or to download log files to a remote PC. In this case, the File System
Component must be used, and the HTTP Server must be properly configured.

1.Control Interface explains how to start/stop the TFTP Server and to manage
built-in user accounts.
2.Access Interface shows how to filter out hosts, which are not allowed to
connect to the TFTP Server.
3.File System Interface gives you details about the functions that are used to
read/write data on the TFTP server's storage device.
4.Configuration explains the configuration options of the TFTP server.
TFTP Client:--
TFTP Client is used to connect to a TFTP Server for simple file transfer.
A TFTP Client can exchange files with a TFTP Server. File delete, file move,
and file rename are not impossible, because the TFTP protocol does not support
these file operations in general.
1.Control Interface: explains how to start the TFTP Client.
2.User Callback: describes the operation of a TFTP client session and how an
event notification is sent to the user application.

3.File System Interface: gives you details about the functions that are used to
read/write data on the TFTP server's storage device.
4.Configuration: explains the configuration options of the TFTP client.
*****
TCP/IP Part IV (WWW, HTTP, TELNET)
A Brief History of WWW:

The web is a wonderful place. It connects people from across the globe, keeps us
updated with our friends and family, and creates revolutions never before seen in
our lifetime. It has certainly come a long way since its humble beginnings back in
the early 1980's..
World Wide Web thumbnail Dribbbled by Zachary VanDeHey and featured in

Smashing Magazine's “Redesign The Web” Poster Contest
In this article I'm going to look at the journey the World Wide Web's gone
through to become the powerhouse that it is today and establish what we can
learn from the past.
In order to understand the history of the World Wide Web it's important to
understand the differences between the World Wide Web and The Internet. Many
people refer to them as the same thing, but in fact, although the end result is the
common perception of most everyday users, they are very different.
The internet is a series of huge computer networks that allows many computers to
connect and communicate with each other globally. Upon the internet reside a
series of languages which allow information to travel between computers. These
are known as protocols. For instance, some common protocols for transferring
emails are IMAP, POP3 and SMTP. Just as email is a layer on the internet, the
World Wide Web is another layer which uses different protocols.
The World Wide Web uses three protocols:
 HTML (Hypertext markup language) - The language that we write our

web pages in.
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol ) - Although other protocols can be
used such as FTP, this is the most common protocol. It was developed
specifically for the World Wide Web and favored for its simplicity and

speed. This protocol requests the 'HTML' document from the server and
serves it to the browser.
 URLS (Uniform resource locator) - The last part of the puzzle required to
allow the web to work is a URL. This is the address which indicates where
any given document lives on the web. It can be defined
as <protocol>://<node>/<location>
Basics of WWW and Browsing:
World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or

web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the
internet. These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc.
Users can access the content of these sites from any part of the world over the
internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The
WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to
your device.
The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and
connected by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP.
These links are electronic connections that link related pieces of information so
that users can access the desired information quickly. Hypertext offers the
advantage to select a word or phrase from text and thus to access other pages that
provide additional information related to that word or phrase.
A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator

(URL). A particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is
called a website, e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World
Wide Web is like a huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple
servers across the world.
Small websites store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites or
organizations place their WebPages on different servers in different countries so
that when users of a country search their site they could get the information
quickly from the nearest server.

So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and
exchange information over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one
page to another in a sequence, on World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext
links to visit a web page and from that web page to move to other web pages.
You need a browser, which is installed on your computer, to access the Web.
Browsing:
A browser is a software program that is used to explore, retrieve, and display the
information available on the World Wide Web. This information may be in the
form of pictures, web pages, videos, and other files that all are connected via
hyperlinks and categorized with the help of URLs (Uniform Resource
Identifiers). For example, you are viewing this page by using a browser.
A browser is a client program as it runs on a user computer or mobile device and

contacts the webserver for the information requested by the user. The web server
sends the data back to the browser that displays the results on internet supported
devices. On behalf of the users, the browser sends requests to web servers all
over the internet by using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). A browser
requires a smartphone, computer, or tablet and internet to work.
Features of Web Browser:- Most Web browsers offer common features such as:
1. Refresh button: Refresh button allows the website to reload the contents
of the web pages. Most of the web browsers store local copies of visited
pages to enhance the performance by using a caching mechanism.
Sometimes, it stops you from seeing the updated information; in this case,
by clicking on the refresh button, you can see the updated information.
2. Stop button: It is used to cancel the communication of the web browser
with the server and stops loading the page content. For example, if any
malicious site enters the browser accidentally, it helps to save from it by
clicking on the stop button.
3. Home button: It provides users the option to bring up the predefined home
page of the website.
4. Web address bar: It allows the users to enter a web address in the address
bar and visit the website.
5. Tabbed browsing: It provides users the option to open multiple websites
on a single window. It helps users to read different websites at the same
time. For example, when you search for anything on the browser, it

provides you a list of search results for your query. You can open all the
results by right-clicking on each link, staying on the same page.
6. Bookmarks: It allows the users to select particular website to save it for
the later retrieval of information, which is predefined by the users.
*****
Locating Information on the Internet:
Four Steps to Locating Information on the Internet
Step One:
 Define and refine the research question
 Narrow the topic to several specific questions
 Keep refining research questions. It is easy to get off on a side track and waste
time on topics that are related, but don't really address the question that you are
researching
 Graphic organizers and outlines are useful
 Develop a list of key words for your research questions
Step Two
 Locate Sources: using search engines listed below
 Utilize Multiple web pages – 3 required for presentation
 Going on the Internet:
o First choice: www.google.com www.av.com
o Second Choice: www.yahoo.com or www.wikipedia.org
o Third Choice: www.dogpile www.mamma.com
www.yahooligans.com
o Look first for good sources, don't just start taking notes from the first
thing that you find. Reading the website information is a must. Do not
just copy and paste. Know your topic information inside and out before
you present.
Step Three
 Check the source of the information that you find:
 Who posted this information?
 Is this a reliable source?
 Is this a biased source?
 Is this site trying to sell you something?
 Always confirm information found on this page with another source on or off
the Internet.

Step Four
 Look at Content
 Does the information on this page address my research question?
 easy to read?
 subheadings?
 table of Contents?
 Copy and paste the Web address (URL) so you can credit the source
information in your work. You must have all URLs on a reference slide listed
for any information, pictures, and sound files you used in your presentation.
*****
HTML:
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. It is a formatting language
used to define the appearance and contents of a web page. It allows us to
organize text, graphics, audio, and video on a web page.
Key Points:
 The word Hypertext refers to the text which acts as a link.
 The word markup refers to the symbols that are used to define structure of
the text. The markup symbols tells the browser how to display the text and
are often called tags.
 The word Language refers to the syntax that is similar to any other
language.
HTML was created by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN.
HTML Versions
The following table shows the various versions of HTML:
Version Year
HTML 1.0 1991
HTML 2.0 1995
HTML 3.2 1997

HTML 4.0 1999
XHTML 2000
HTML5 2012
HTML Tags:- Tag is a command that tells the web browser how to display the
text, audio, graphics or video on a web page.
Key Points:
 Tags are indicated with pair of angle brackets.
 They start with a less than (<) character and end with a greater than (>)
character.
 The tag name is specified between the angle brackets.
 Most of the tags usually occur in pair: the start tag and the closing tag.
 The start tag is simply the tag name is enclosed in angle bracket whereas
the closing tag is specified including a forward slash (/).
 Some tags are the empty i.e. they don’t have the closing tag.
 Tags are not case sensitive.
 The starting and closing tag name must be the same. For example <b>
hello </i> is invalid as both are different.
 If you don’t specify the angle brackets (<>) for a tag, the browser will treat
the tag name as a simple text.
 The tag can also have attributes to provide additional information about
the tag to the browser.
Basic tags
The following table shows the Basic HTML tags that define the basic web page:
Tag Description
<html> </html> Specifies the document as a web page.

<head> </head> Specifies the descriptive information about the web documents.
<title> </title> Specifies the title of the web page.
<body> </body> Specifies the body of a web document.
The following code shows how to use basic tags.

<html>
<head> Heading goes here…</head>
<title> Title goes here…</title>
<body> Body goes here…</body>
</html>
*****
Web Browser Architecture:

web Browser is an application software that allows us to view and explore
information on the web. User can request for any web page by just entering a
URL into address bar.
Web browser can show text, audio, video, animation and more. It is the
responsibility of a web browser to interpret text and commands contained in the
web page.
Earlier the web browsers were text-based while now a days graphical-based or
voice-based web browsers are also available. Following are the most common
web browser available today:
Browser Vendor
Internet Explorer Microsoft
Google Chrome Google
Mozilla Firefox Mozilla
Netscape Navigator Netscape Communications Corp.

Opera Opera Software
Safari Apple
Sea Monkey Mozilla Foundation
K-meleon K-meleon
Architecture:- There are a lot of web browser available in the market. All of
them interpret and display information on the screen however their capabilities
and structure varies depending upon implementation. But the most basic
component that all web browser must exhibit are listed below:
 Controller/Dispatcher
 Interpreter
 Client Programs
Controller works as a control unit in CPU. It takes input from the keyboard or
mouse, interpret it and make other services to work on the basis of input it
receives.
Interpreter receives the information from the controller and execute the
instruction line by line. Some interpreter are mandatory while some are optional
For example, HTML interpreter program is mandatory and java interpreter is
optional.
Client Program describes the specific protocol that will be used to access a
particular service. Following are the client programs tat are commonly used:
 HTTP
 SMTP
 FTP
 NNTP
 POP

*****
Web Pages and Multimedia:
Web Pages:
web page is a document available on world wide web. Web Pages are stored on
web server and can be viewed using a web browser.
A web page can contain huge information including text, graphics, audio, video
and hyper links. These hyper links are the link to other web pages.
Static Web page:-
Static web pages are also known as flat or stationary web page. They are loaded
on the client’s browser as exactly they are stored on the web server. Such web
pages contain only static information. User can only read the information but
can’t do any modification or interact with the information.
Static web pages are created using only HTML. Static web pages are only used
when the information is no more required to be modified.
Dynamic Web page:-

Dynamic web page shows different information at different point of time. It is
possible to change a portion of a web page without loading the entire web page.
It has been made possible using Ajax technology.

Server-side dynamic web page:-
It is created by using server-side scripting. There are server-side scripting
parameters that determine how to assemble a new web page which also include
setting up of more client-side processing.
Client-side dynamic web page:-
It is processed using client side scripting such as JavaScript. And then passed in
to Document Object Model (DOM).
Scripting Languages:-
Scripting languages are like programming languages that allow us to write

programs in form of script. These scripts are interpreted not compiled and
executed line by line.
Client-side Scripting:-
Client-side scripting refers to the programs that are executed on client-side.
Client-side scripts contains the instruction for the browser to be executed in
response to certain user’s action.
Client-side scripting programs can be embedded into HTML files or also can be
kept as separate files.

Server-side Scripting:-
Sever-side scripting acts as an interface for the client and also limit the user
access the resources on web server. It can also collects the user’s characteristics
in order to customize response.
*
Multimedia:
Multimedia comes in many different formats. It can be almost anything you can
hear or see, like images, music, sound, videos, records, films, animations, and
more.
Web pages often contain multimedia elements of different types and formats.
Browser Support:-
The first web browsers had support for text only, limited to a single font in a
single color.
Later came browsers with support for colors, fonts, images, and multimedia!
Multimedia Formats:-
Multimedia elements (like audio or video) are stored in media files.
The most common way to discover the type of a file, is to look at the file
extension.

Multimedia files have formats and different extensions like: .wav, .mp3, .mp4,
.mpg, .wmv, and .avi.
Common Video Formats

There are many video formats out there.
The MP4, WebM, and Ogg formats are supported by HTML.
The MP4 format is recommended by YouTube.
Format File Description
MPEG .mpg MPEG. Developed by the Moving Pictures Expert Group.

.mpeg
The first popular video format on the web. Not supported any
more in HTML.
AVI .avi AVI (Audio Video Interleave). Developed by Microsoft.
Commonly used in video cameras and TV hardware. Plays well
on Windows computers, but not in web browsers.
WMV .wmv WMV (Windows Media Video). Developed by Microsoft.
Commonly used in video cameras and TV hardware. Plays well
on Windows computers, but not in web browsers.
QuickTime .mov QuickTime. Developed by Apple. Commonly used in video
cameras and TV hardware. Plays well on Apple computers, but
not in web browsers.

RealVideo .rm RealVideo. Developed by Real Media to allow video streaming
.ram
with low bandwidths. Does not play in web browsers.
Flash .swf Flash. Developed by Macromedia. Often requires an extra

.flv
component (plug-in) to play in web browsers.
Ogg .ogg Theora Ogg. Developed by the Xiph.Org Foundation. Supported
by HTML.
WebM .webm WebM. Developed by Mozilla, Opera, Adobe, and Google.
Supported by HTML.
MPEG-4 .mp4 MP4. Developed by the Moving Pictures Expert Group.

or MP4
Commonly used in video cameras and TV hardware. Supported
by all browsers and recommended by YouTube.
*****
Remote Login (TELNET):

 The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example, users
want to run different application programs at the remote site and transfers a
result to the local site. This requires a client-server program such as FTP,
SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a specific program for each
demand.
 The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the
user access any application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a
program that allows a user to log on to a remote computer. A popular client-
server program Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation
for Terminal Network.

 Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a local
terminal appears to be at the remote side.
There are two types of login:
Local Login:-
 When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local login.
 When the workstation running terminal emulator, the keystrokes entered by the
user are accepted by the terminal driver. The terminal driver then passes these
characters to the operating system which in turn, invokes the desired application
program.
 However, the operating system has special meaning to special characters. For
example, in UNIX some combination of characters have special meanings such
as control character with "z" means suspend. Such situations do not create any
problem as the terminal driver knows the meaning of such characters. But, it can
cause the problems in remote login.
Remote login:-
 When the user wants to access an application program on a remote computer,

then the user must perform remote login.

How remote login occurs:
At the local site:-
The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver, the characters are then
sent to the TELNET client. The TELNET client which in turn, transforms the
characters to a universal character set known as network virtual terminal
characters and delivers them to the local TCP/IP stack
At the remote site:-
The commands in NVT forms are transmitted to the TCP/IP at the remote
machine. Here, the characters are delivered to the operating system and then
pass to the TELNET server. The TELNET server transforms the characters
which can be understandable by a remote computer. However, the characters
cannot be directly passed to the operating system as a remote operating
system does not receive the characters from the TELNET server. Therefore it
requires some piece of software that can accept the characters from the
TELNET server. The operating system then passes these characters to the
appropriate application program.
Network Virtual Terminal (NVT):-
 The network virtual terminal is an interface that defines how data and
commands are sent across the network.
 In today's world, systems are heterogeneous. For example, the operating system
accepts a special combination of characters such as end-of-file token running a
DOS operating system ctrl+z while the token running a UNIX operating system
is ctrl+d.

 TELNET solves this issue by defining a universal interface known as network
virtual interface.
 The TELNET client translates the characters that come from the local terminal
into NVT form and then delivers them to the network. The Telnet server then
translates the data from NVT form into a form which can be understandable by
a remote computer.
*****
An Introduction to Electronic Commerce
Aspects of Electronic Commerce:

E-Commerce or Electronics Commerce is a methodology of modern business,
which addresses the need of business organizations, vendors and customers to
reduce cost and improve the quality of goods and services while increasing the
speed of delivery. Ecommerce refers to the paperless exchange of business
information using the following ways −
 Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

 Electronic Mail (e-mail)
 Electronic Bulletin Boards
 Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)
 Other Network-based technologies
Features:-
E-Commerce provides the following features −

 Non-Cash Payment − E-Commerce enables the use of credit cards, debit
cards, smart cards, electronic fund transfer via bank's website, and other
modes of electronics payment.
 24x7 Service availability − E-commerce automates the business of
enterprises and the way they provide services to their customers. It is
available anytime, anywhere.
 Advertising / Marketing − E-commerce increases the reach of advertising
of products and services of businesses. It helps in better marketing
management of products/services.

 Improved Sales − Using e-commerce, orders for the products can be
generated anytime, anywhere without any human intervention. It gives a big
boost to existing sales volumes.
 Support − E-commerce provides various ways to provide pre-sales and post-
sales assistance to provide better services to customers.
 Inventory Management − E-commerce automates inventory management.
Reports get generated instantly when required. Product inventory
management becomes very efficient and easy to maintain.
 Communication improvement − E-commerce provides ways for faster,
efficient, reliable communication with customers and partners.
****
*****
Types of E Commerce:
Generally speaking, when we think of e-commerce, we think of an online
commercial transaction between a supplier and a client. However, and although
this idea is right, we can be more specific and actually divide e-commerce into
six major types, all with different characteristics.
There are 6 basic types of e-commerce:
1. Business-to-Business (B2B)
2. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
3. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
4. Consumer-to-Business (C2B).
5. Business-to-Administration (B2A)
6. Consumer-to-Administration (C2A)

1.Business-to-Business (B2B):- Business-to-Business (B2B) e-commerce
encompasses all electronic transactions of goods or services conducted between
companies. Producers and traditional commerce wholesalers typically operate
with this type of electronic commerce.
2.Business-to-Consumer (B2C):- The Business-to-Consumer type of e-
commerce is distinguished by the establishment of electronic business
relationships between businesses and final consumers. It corresponds to the retail
section of e-commerce, where traditional retail trade normally operates.
These types of relationships can be easier and more dynamic, but also
more sporadic or discontinued. This type of commerce has developed greatly, due
to the advent of the web, and there are already many virtual stores and malls on
the Internet, which sell all kinds of consumer goods, such as computers, software,
books, shoes, cars, food, financial products, digital publications, etc.
When compared to buying retail in traditional commerce, the consumer

usually has more information available in terms of informative content and there
is also a widespread idea that you’ll be buying cheaper, without jeopardizing an
equally personalized customer service, as well as ensuring quick processing and
delivery of your order.
3. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C):- Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) type e-

commerce encompasses all electronic transactions of goods or services conducted
between consumers. Generally, these transactions are conducted through a third
party, which provides the online platform where the transactions are actually
carried out.
4. Consumer-to-Business (C2B):- In C2B there is a complete reversal of the
traditional sense of exchanging goods. This type of e-commerce is very common
in crowd sourcing based projects. A large number of individuals make their
services or products available for purchase for companies seeking precisely these
types of services or products.
Examples of such practices are the sites where designers present several
proposals for a company logo and where only one of them is selected and
effectively purchased. Another platform that is very common in this type of
commerce are the markets that sell royalty-free photographs, images, media and
design elements, such as iStockphoto.
5. Business-to-Administration (B2A):- This part of e-commerce encompasses

all transactions conducted online between companies and public administration.
This is an area that involves a large amount and a variety of services, particularly
in areas such as fiscal, social security, employment, legal documents and
registers, etc. These types of services have increased considerably in recent years
with investments made in e-government.

6. Consumer-to-Administration (C2A):- The Consumer-to-Administration
model encompasses all electronic transactions conducted between individuals and
public administration.
Examples of applications include:
 Education – disseminating information, distance learning, etc.

 Social Security – through the distribution of information, making
payments, etc.
 Taxes – filing tax returns, payments, etc.
 Health – appointments, information about illnesses, payment of health
services, etc.
Both models involving Public Administration (B2A and C2A) are strongly
associated to the idea of efficiency and easy usability of the services provided to
citizens by the government, with the support of information and communication
technologies.
*****
Approaches for Developing E Commerce Solutions:
1.Increase eCommerce Search Usability:-
To optimize the UX of your online store even more, organize your web store for
these two main groups of potential customers:
 Visitors who know what they want to buy.

 Visitors who only want to browse.
Customers who know exactly what they are looking for want to find the right
information as quickly as possible. Designing a high-performing search
experience is a key feature for your users because if users can’t find what they are
looking for, they will buy it from another store.
The second category is potential customers who just want to browse through the
online store and compare items. They will use navigation menus and move
between product categories and pages. To make their experience smooth,
organize the menu bar and categories in intuitive easy-to-use sections.
Your website’s search and navigation functions need to be well-designed and

user-oriented in order to be effective and help improve the overall experience
customers have on your eCommerce site.

To boost conversions as part of your eCommerce strategy you can improve the
search usability in the following fields:
 Design and behavior of the search field.

 Search scope selection.
 How should the autocomplete be designed?
 Results layout and features.
 Filtering and sorting the search results on the results page.
2. Use High-Quality Photographs and Good Product Descriptions:-

High-quality product images and photos are an essential part of your eCommerce
digital strategy and necessary for attracting the attention of potential customers.
Outside the brick-and-mortar world, customers can’t touch the product and are
making their buying decisions entirely dependent on product imagery and
feedback.
Showing good viewable thumbnails in the search results page will help users find
the desired product in one click and get a better idea of what you are offering.
Additionally, make your product descriptions concise and straight to the point.
Avoid fluff and create a comprehensive list of features and benefits. Your target
customers want to know everything about a potential purchase and how this
product would help them and improve their everyday life, and keep this a
consistent theme in your eCommerce digital strategy.
3. Try Personalizing the Home Page:-

Personalization is a technique that records what customers viewed or visited on
their last session on your website and makes new buying suggestions on every
following visit based on past experience in the store. This can be a
personalization based on previous behavior such as previous purchases or based
on real-time data such as a location or time.
59% of online shoppers believe that it is easier to find more interesting products
on personalized online retail stores”, invespcro.com, Online Shopping
Personalization – Statistics and Trends

Amazon is the pioneer of the user-centric shopping experience. Their
homepage helps people easily find the right product in the personalized block in
the first section when you log in under the “related to items you’ve viewed” tag.
This allows visitors to concentrate on the category that they are most
interested in and shop without any distractions, which means a better customer
experience for them and an improved conversion rate for you.
4. Focus on Consistent and Unique Content:-

Why? Because content marketing is still the most effective eCommerce business
strategy you can apply today. The world of advertising is constantly changing,
consumers are trying to avoid ads in many ways. With a strong eCommerce
content marketing strategy implemented the right way, you can provide more
value to your customers.
To do this, you first need to understand your customers – their wants, needs, and
pain points as well as their customer journey. It’s essential that you know your
target market well, and in particular how they consume content and what kind of
information they need depending on each stage of their journey.
To ensure you focus your eCommerce business strategy on the right areas, do
tests with headlines, measure how well different types of content work, which
generates the most traffic to your online store, and which of them led to the most
sales.
If your target audience are millennials we have great ideas on how you can attract
them to your eCommerce website.
5. Optimize Shopping Cart Functionality:-

To prevent customers from abandoning their shopping carts, you should ensure
that your shopping cart functions welland is easy to navigate. The way to
understand weaknesses is to analyze the performance frequently. Evaluate your
analytics data to see at which stages customers tend to drop off and brainstorm
ideas on how to improve them. Then, use A/B testing to determine which solution
has the highest potential to reduce shopping cart abandonment.

During the optimization process, pay attention to the user journey. Clear the
checkout page and remove distractions and/or possible places to exit. This will
prevent any confusion during the checkout process. Plenty of conversion studies
have shown that the fewer clicks during checkout, the higher your conversion rate
will be.
Here’s a little bonus for readers that own a WooCommerce shop – check Tyche
Softwares’ Abandoned Cart Pro Plugin for minimizing cart abandonment rates.
6. Build Email Lists:-

If your eCommerce business strategy doesn’t include email marketing as a
communication channel, you are missing out on huge sales. Use sign-up forms,
give something in exchange for an e-mail address like a discount code or even a
small present. Make sure you win the customer’s trust and never send out emails
without the user’s consent, otherwise you risk winding up in the SPAM folder
and no one wants to ruin their brand like that.
Include sign-up fields at the end of your blog posts or buying guides. If the
visitors enjoyed the content you provided them, they will be happy to keep in
touch and get information about news, discounts, and promotions and thus be
willing to leave their email.
7. Improve Your Social Media Strategy:-

The social media strategy your eCommerce marketing team prepares should be
connected with your content strategy. This means repurposing your website
content across your social media channels. as it will guarantee you a larger
audience and boost your visibility.
Social networks such as Instagram, Snapchat, and Pinterest, are usually best for
an eCommerce marketing strategy focused on selling products, however, don’t
underestimate Twitter and Facebook as more than 75% of all internet users are
also there.
*****

Electronic Procurement:
E-Procurement is short for electronic procurement and describes the purchasing of
goods or services with electronic systems often via digital networks such as the
Internet. Electronic procurement is usually an integral part of e-commerce and thus
also of e-business. In the area of e-procurement, modern communication methods
are combined with classical procurement procedures and the associated processes
are managed electronically or digitally. The electronic processing of orders is called
e-fulfillment. The advantage of e-procurement is time and thus cost savings in the
handling of order processes.
Types of e-procurement systems:-

There are various features that can be used to classify e-procurement systems.
The system participants play a role for example. Usually, e-procurement is
usually carried out in the B2B area. The type of goods procured through the
system is also a factor. In addition, the costs of the procurement process are
relevant as well as the relationships between the responsible persons within the
eProcurement cycle.
In principle, three different systems can be distinguished on the basis of the listed
features:
 Supplier systems (sell-side solutions): The supplier implements the e-

procurement system. It provides the necessary platform and customers can
procure their goods there. The supplier determines both the goods availability and
the prices.
 Purchaser systems (buy-side solutions): In this case, the purchaser defines the
conditions such as prices and quantities for their procurement process. If, for
example, large industrial companies have a need for spare parts, a call for tender
can be posted through the e-procurement system. A number of suppliers have the
possibility to obtain the contract for the production of these parts via the system.
 Marketplaces (many-to-many solutions): These systems are mixed with both

procurement and delivery systems. Manufacturers can offer their goods and
customers can specify their needs at the same time. The marketplace is then
usually regulated by a third party. A modern example of such a marketplace is the
trade platform Alibaba, which also partially blends the B2B with the B2C area.
*****

Phases in a Procurement Process:
PHASE 1: IDENTIFY A NEED FOR PRODUCTS AND/OR SERVICES:-
Before the procurement process can begin, a specific need must be
recognized. For example, an organization may be interested in purchasing new
computer monitors, re-ordering their monthly supply of paper products, or
acquiring updated software.
Depending on the company structure, this step might be managed by the
business owners, department heads, executive team, staff, and/or procurement
managers. In this stage, a budget will be set and a comprehensive view of
spending will often be assessed.
PHASE 2: CREATE AND SUBMIT A PURCHASE REQUEST:-
A purchase request (or purchase requisition) is a formal request for goods or
services and is generally submitted using specialized procurement software.
Oftentimes, the purchase request will originate with an employee or manager,
then be reviewed by the organization’s procurement team.
When a purchase request is approved, it becomes a purchase order.
However, should the request be denied, it will typically be returned to the
submitter with a brief explanation. A rejected purchase order, while not ideal, can
be a good learning opportunity.
PHASE 3: EVALUATE AND SELECT SUPPLIERS/VENDORS:-
The next step is to assess various vendors, then choose one that meets key
requirements. Some organizations maintain a catalog of approved vendors,
featuring various suppliers that have already proven themselves.
Soliciting vendors is a process that can range from simple to complex, with
its scope determined by the requirement(s) at hand. Usually, several requests for
quotation (RFQ) will be sent to various vendors, so that the
organization/procurement team can compare prices and options.
Remember that price shouldn’t be the only determinant when choosing a
vendor. For best results, consider the “big picture” of what a vendor can offer,
including:
 Ease of communication
 Company ethics
 Accountability
 Production capabilities

After a vendor has been selected, investing time and energy into the relationship
is important. A good relationship with a supplier can unlock better savings and
service, delivering maximum value in the long term.
PHASE 4: NEGOTIATE THE TERMS OF A CONTRACT WITH THE SELECTED

SUPPLIER
Once you have chosen the best-fit vendor, it’s time to move on to contract
negotiations. In terms of successful procurement, this is one of the most critical
stages by far.
It is in this stage that you will outline – and agree to – pricing, as well as
details such as delivery schedules, specific terms and conditions, and more. It can
often be useful to assess previous contracts to pinpoint opportunities for
improvement, allowing you to take a more informed approach going forward.
PHASE 5: FINALIZE A PURCHASE ORDER
After the final contract has been approved, the next order of business is the
purchase order (PO). The contract typically governs the full buyer/supplier
relationship, while a purchase order zooms in on a specific purchase.
Think of this document as another formal contract, which fully details the
following:
 Total costs/price
 Detailed description of the goods and/or services
 Quantity
 Any other specific terms and conditions
PHASE 6: ORDER MANAGEMENT:-

As the goods/services are delivered, there should be someone responsible, ideally
the end-user of the product or services, for checking that all standards have been
met: delivery deadlines, product quantities, and quality, etc. If there are issues
with the items (e.g. damaged products), you have the option to reject the delivery.
Clear communication with the vendor is key in the event of any delivery
problems.
*****

E-Procurement Models:
AD HOC MODEL:-
The term ad hoc implies that procurement is carried out without clear
consideration or planning. An organization carrying out procurement in this way
will not have defined procurement policies, procedures or processes. Typically, a
variety of staff in different departments will undertake ‘buying’ activity for the
agency and this will probably only be co-ordinated through the accounting
system. There will be no anticipation of the procurement requirements for the
agency and suppliers will be able to dictate their own terms and conditions. The
language and philosophy of procurement will be absent. Buying will be perceived
as a simple task and, at best, a basic clerical activity.
PROCESS MODEL:-
Organizations operating within a Process model view procurement as a number

of actions which bring about a series of results. An agency managing
procurement in this way will still not have clear policies, but will have a set of
formal ‘buying’ processes. Procurement decisions will tend to be made in the
absence of any formal procurement structure. The language and philosophy of
procurement still remains immature with procurement not being seen as a core
competence, but as a minor element of finance.
POLICY MODEL:-
An organization operating within a policy model will view procurement as a

regulated activity. The agency will recognize the importance of procurement as
an activity with established procurement plans and policies. Although there will
be clear evidence of a procurement department managing procurement activities,
there will be limited and/or inconsistent co-ordination. The language and
philosophy of procurement will be accepted as formal procurement processes will
exist.However, formal training of procurement staff is not given priority.
TACTICAL MODEL:-
An organization operating within the Tactical model will have recognised the
importance of procurement and it will be seen as a distinct function. Reliable
procurement processes will exist to ensure that procurement activity is carried out
in accordance with standard practices across the agency and there will be
established methods of mandating approved procurement practices that reduce
‘maverick’ spend and other anomalous buying behaviour. Procurement policies
will be established across all major aspects of procurement. The language and

philosophy of procurement will now be maturing with procurement recognised as
a value-adding function and represented at senior level by a Chief Procurement
Officer (or similar title).
STRATEGIC MODEL:-
An organization operating at a Strategic level of maturity will have a well-

designed and established procurement function. The organisation will see
procurement as a strategic activity that is aligned with the strategic goals and
longer-term plans of the agency. Supplier selection procedures, supplier
relationship management and contract management processes will have been
developed to ensure that the outcomes of buying decisions match the strategic
intent of the original buying decision. All positions within the procurement team
will be filled with staff possessing recognized training and education in addition
to relevant experience. Continuous professional development will be encouraged
throughout the team and cross-disciplinary and cross-functional interactions
between staff and end–users will be seen as the norm. The language and
philosophy of procurement will be mature within the agency with procurement
decisions governed by an overarching set of procurement policies.
*****
E-Procurement Solutions:
An e-procurement solution or software is enterprise software that integrates and

automates the entire procurement cycle in an organization. E-procurement
solutions enhance the transparency of the spending and approval processes in the
procurement cycle. Businesses can choose the e-Procurement solution provider
based on the features provided by them. Unlike conventional procurement
solutions, e-procurement transactions are done via the Internet. E-procurement
not only includes the use of internet applications but uses Intranet and Extranet
applications. E-Procurement solutions are classified based on the type of
procurement activity that is taken care of.
Some of the e-procurement types like e-sourcing or web-ERP have already

received a lot of attention and are being used by companies, other lesser-known
types like e-informing or e-reverse auctioning are yet to mature and gain
popularity among businesses. A brief of various forms of e-Procurement
solutions is given below.
E-sourcing solution – It is a type of procurement solution that focuses on

identifying new suppliers for a spend category. The search for prospective

suppliers is done via the Internet. By identifying new suppliers, businesses can
increase competitiveness in the tactical procurement process. The offers from
various suppliers, product and service reviews are available online for
comparison by the buyers. The supply risk associated with various categories can
be reduced by using an e-sourcing solution. E-sourcing supports the specification
phase of procurement.
E-ordering solution – e-Ordering is concerned with the creation and approval of

purchase requisitions, submitting PRs, and receiving goods and services that are
ordered through a procurement solution that operates via the Internet. Typically,
the goods and services ordered via e-ordering solutions are indirect goods and
services (not related to goods and services). The ordering catalog provided by the
software is used by all employees. Ordering of indirect goods or services may
happen in an ad-hoc manner.
E-tendering – The tendering process involves sending RFPs and RFIs to

suppliers identified in the sourcing process and receiving their responses. When
the tendering process is carried out via the Internet, it is referred to as e-
Tendering. E-tendering is supported by an e-tendering system or software. The
analysis and comparison of received tenders can be performed by the tendering
software. The scope of e-tendering process ends with an assessment of tenders,
closing or negotiation with the vendor is not included in its scope. E-tendering
supports the selection phase in procurement and facilitates the RFI and RFP
activities.
Web-based ERP – Web-based ERP is concerned with the process of creating

and approving purchase requisitions that are ordered via the Internet. The main
intent of e-ordering and web-ERP solutions is similar. The goods and services
ordered by a web-ERP system are directly related to the product. These are
referred to as direct goods and services. Supporting software systems for the web-
ERP system are used only by the employees of the purchasing department.
Ordering of direct goods and services happens in a planned manner.
E-reverse auctioning – Surplus goods and services are usually auctioned off by
a business to other buying organizations. The buying organizations submit bids to
the selling organization for the purchase of goods. The auction operates in an
upward or a downward pricing mechanism. A reverse auction operates in the
opposite fashion where a buying organization asks for goods and services it
requires from a number of suppliers. E-reverse auctioning is the reverse
auctioning function done through Internet technology. E-reverse auctioning
focuses on the price of goods and services auctioned, other factors like the
quality, reputation of suppliers, etc. are taken care of by the preceding phases

in procurement. E-reverse auctioning closes the deal between the buyer and the
seller when a mutual agreement is reached.
E-informing – The informing process is not directly associated with the steps of
the procurement process. E-informing is concerned with the gathering and
distributing purchasing information from and to internal and external parties with
the help of Internet technology. Publishing purchasing management information
on an extranet that is accessible to internal clients and suppliers is a type of e-
informing. The data gathered by e-informing software is used for purchasing
intelligence and spend control management.
E-contract management – All the activities related to a supplier contract are

managed by the e-contract management solution. Management of receivables,
contract settlements, payments, performance securities, contract variations, and
auditing and control activities are covered under e-contract management.
E-Purchasing solution – An e-purchasing solution is used for procuring low-

value, high-volume goods, and services. The E-tendering solution is used for
procuring high-value, low-volume goods. Using an e-purchasing solution
simplifies the purchase of goods and services. The main component upon which
an e-purchasing solution is built in the e-catalog. The suppliers publish the items
online for buyers to choose from. Choosing from published items, placing the
order, receiving the order, and payment – everything is done online.
E-Invoicing solution – An e-invoicing solution presents the customer with an

invoice for payment. In most companies, the Finance or Accounts payable
department issues invoices for approval, processing, and payment.
*****
Trading Models:
E-commerce business models can generally be categorized into the following
categories.
 Business - to - Business (B2B)

 Business - to - Consumer (B2C)
 Consumer - to - Consumer (C2C)
 Consumer - to - Business (C2B)
 Business - to - Government (B2G)
 Government - to - Business (G2B)
 Government - to - Citizen (G2C)

Business - to – Business:- A website following the B2B business model sells its
products to an intermediate buyer who then sells the product to the final
customer. As an example, a wholesaler places an order from a company's website
and after receiving the consignment, sells the end product to the final customer
who comes to buy the product at one of its retail outlets.
Business - to – Consumer:- A website following the B2C business model sells

its products directly to a customer. A customer can view the products shown on
the website. The customer can choose a product and order the same. The website
will then send a notification to the business organization via email and the
organization will dispatch the product/goods to the customer.
Consumer - to – Consumer:- A website following the C2C business model

helps consumers to sell their assets like residential property, cars, motorcycles,
etc., or rent a room by publishing their information on the website. Website may
or may not charge the consumer for its services. Another consumer may opt to
buy the product of the first customer by viewing the post/advertisement on the
website.

Consumer - to – Business:- In this model, a consumer approaches a website
showing multiple business organizations for a particular service. The consumer
places an estimate of amount he/she wants to spend for a particular service. For
example, the comparison of interest rates of personal loan/car loan provided by
various banks via websites. A business organization who fulfills the consumer's
requirement within the specified budget, approaches the customer and provides
its services.
Business - to – Government:- B2G model is a variant of B2B model. Such

websites are used by governments to trade and exchange information with
various business organizations. Such websites are accredited by the government
and provide a medium to businesses to submit application forms to the
government.
Government - to – Business:- Governments use B2G model websites to

approach business organizations. Such websites support auctions, tenders, and
application submission functionalities.

Government - to – Citizen:- Governments use G2C model websites to approach
citizen in general. Such websites support auctions of vehicles, machinery, or any
other material. Such website also provides services like registration for birth,
marriage or death certificates. The main objective of G2C websites is to reduce
the average time for fulfilling citizen’s requests for various government services.
*****
Buyer Side Purchasing:
A business involved in buy-side activities will purchase stocks, bonds, and other
financial products based on the needs and strategy of their company's or client's
portfolio. The buy-side activity takes place in many settings not limited to the
financial institutions mentioned above. They also include trusts, equity funds,
and high-net-worth individuals.
The whole point of buy-side investing is to create value for a firm's clients. They
do this by identifying and purchasing underpriced assets that they believe will
appreciate over time. Since the buy-side involves buying large blocks of market
securities, the most prestigious companies often have a great deal of market
power. These market titans are also closely watched by investors and the media.
*****
Supply Chain Management (SCM) & Customer Relationship Management

(CRM):
Supply Chain Management (SCM):-
Global supply and production chains and increasing digitalization are not just a
challenge for companies, but also an opportunity. By organizing the future flow
of goods and information through supply chain management, companies can not
only balance out market uncertainties but also create a flexible network of
services.
Supply chain management represents the overview and optimization of physical
and digital supply chains, from raw material suppliers to the end consumer. An
efficient SCM enables supply and production processes at competitive prices and
a constant flow within the value chain. Here, it’s not about optimizing the
weakest link in the supply chain, but that every link plays its part.
An open and transparent exchange of information between dealers, suppliers,
and producers guarantees that companies can react flexibly and quickly to

fluctuations in demand, as with the bullwhip effect. This ensures that the flow of
goods is as uninterrupted as possible and inventories don’t accumulate. The
supply chain can only be made more efficient if short communication channels,
big data analytics, and innovative technologies are used to influence suppliers
and the flow of goods.
Central to efficient supply chain management is the implementation of modern
information and communication technology in the form of software solutions and
machine learning. The faster, more uniform, and automated the data exchange,
the better the links in the supply chain interlock.
The three fields of application of supply chain management (SCM):-
SCM can be split into three fields of application:

Product flow: Not only do companies need to maintain a good relationship with
affiliate companies; companies also need to know which sub-contractors are used
along the supply chain. Only if they are fully aware of a product’s journey from
the raw material suppliers to manufacturing and to the end consumer can they
manage the product flow of deliveries and returns.
Information flow: Information must flow in two directions along the supply
chain. To deliver products efficiently, companies must rely on customer behavior.
How much are they buying? Are there places where consumers request certain
products? Are there regular peaks in demand? These transfers of data from sales
outlets to companies make sure supply flows are effectively managed.
Information about transport routes and a comprehensive communication
infrastructure are an integral part of SCM.
Financial flow: Financial flows take place parallel to and in connection with
production processes. Each link in the value chain has its own financial interests
and wants to benefit from the cooperation. The control and optimization of
financial flows is essential for SCM in order to reduce costs and increase profits
for all involved.
*
Customer Relationship Management (CRM):-
Customer relationship management (CRM) is the combination of practices,
strategies and technologies that companies use to manage and analyze customer
interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle. The goal is to improve
customer service relationships and assist in customer retention and drive sales
growth. CRM systems compile customer data across different channels, or points
of contact, between the customer and the company, which could include the
company's website, telephone, live chat, direct mail, marketing materials
and social networks. CRM systems can also give customer-facing staff members
detailed information on customers' personal information, purchase history,
buying preferences and concerns.
Components of CRM:-
At the most basic level, CRM software consolidates customer information and
documents it into a single CRM database so business users can more easily
access and manage it.
Over time, many additional functions have been added to CRM systems to make
them more useful. Some of these functions include recording various customer
interactions over email, phone, social media or other channels; depending on
system capabilities, automating various workflow automation processes, such as
tasks, calendars and alerts; and giving managers the ability to track performance
and productivity based on information logged within the system.
 Marketing automation. CRM tools with marketing automation capabilities

can automate repetitive tasks to enhance marketing efforts at different points
in the lifecycle for lead generation. For example, as sales prospects come into
the system, it might automatically send email marketing content, with the goal
of turning a sales lead into a full-fledged customer.
 Sales force automation. Sales force automation tools track customer
interactions and automate certain business functions of the sales cycle that are
necessary to follow leads, obtain new customers and build customer loyalty.
 Contact center automation. Designed to reduce tedious aspects of a contact
center agent's job, contact center automation might include prerecorded audio
that assists in customer problem-solving and information dissemination.
Various software tools that integrate with the agent's desktop tools can handle

customer requests in order to cut down on the length of calls and to simplify
customer service processes. Automated contact center tools, such as chatbots,
can improve customer user experiences.
 Geolocation technology, or location-based services. Some CRM systems
include technology that can create geographic marketing campaigns based on
customers' physical locations, sometimes integrating with popular location-
based GPS (global positioning system) apps. Geolocation technology can also
be used as a networking or contact management tool in order to find sales
prospects based on a location.
 Workflow automation. CRM systems help businesses optimize processes by
streamlining mundane workloads, enabling employees to focus on creative
and more high-level tasks.
 Lead management. Sales leads can be tracked through CRM, enabling sales
teams to input, track and analyze data for leads in one place.
 Human resource management (HRM). CRM systems help track employee
information, such as contact information, performance reviews and benefits
within a company. This enables the HR department to more effectively
manage the internal workforce.
 Analytics. Analytics in CRM help create better customer satisfaction rates by
analyzing user data and helping create targeted marketing campaigns.
 Artificial intelligence. AI technologies, such as Salesforce Einstein, have
been built into CRM platforms to automate repetitive tasks, identify customer-
buying patterns to predict future customer behaviors and more.
 Project management. Some CRM systems include features to help users
keep track of client project details such as objectives, strategic alignment,
processes, risk management and progress.
 Integration with other software. Many CRM systems can integrate with
other software, such as call center and enterprise resource planning (ERP)
systems.
*****

UNIT III
Introduction to Web Technology: Features Required for Enabling e-commerce,

Web pages-Types and Issues, Tiers, The Concept of a Tier, A Concept of Microsoft
and Java Technologies, Web Pages, Static Web Pages, Plug-ins, Introduction to
Frames and Forms.
Dynamic Web Pages: Need for Dynamic Web Pages, Magic of Dynamic Web
Pages, Overview of Dynamic Web Page Technologies, Overview of Dynamic
HTML (DHTML), Common Gateway Interface (CGI), Microsoft’s Active Server
Pages (ASP), Basics of ASP Technology, ASP Example, Modern Trends in ASP,
Java and the Concept a Virtual Machine, Java Servlets and Java Sever Pages(JSP),
Java Servlets, Java Sever pages (JSP).
Active Web Pages: Active Web pages is a Better Solution, Java Applets, Why are
Active Web Pages Powerful? When not to use Active Web Pages, Lifecycle of Java
Applets, Java Beans, Active X Controls.
Introduction to Web Technology
Features Required for Enabling e-commerce:

An eCommerce website is essential for running an online business.
However, it is equally important to have one with all the important eCommerce
features to assure success. A good eCommerce website will offer all the means to
the customer and the merchant to help them get involved in a fruitful transaction.
Here are the top 10 features for an eCommerce website which you should look
out for:
Shopping Cart:-
This is an integral part of any eCommerce store, the shopping cart. This is where
your end consumers store their products to continue with the checkout process. A
flexible cart allows both the guest user and registered user to checkout. In
comparison, the guest checkout does not require the user to sign up on the site,
hence making the process faster.
Payment Gateway Integrations:-

A good eCommerce website gives you the option of integrating with diverse
payment gateways by not limiting your choices to a selected few. It is an integral
feature of eCommerce websites that can make or break the customer
experience. Shiprocket 360 comes with pre-approved payment gateways that you
can easily integrate with your online store.

Order Management:-
A wholesome order management panel simplifies the merchants’ task to get the
deed information regarding buyer cancellation, refunds, COD order verification,
exchange order status update, and more. The panel helps the merchant manage
his order fulfillment and oversee the completion of the same.
Security:-
This feature is one of the most important feature as it ensures that no crucial data
such as credit card information is saved and for all prepaid shipments the
checkout is carried out through a secure payment gateway. The passwords are
hashed and not stored in a readable format. All web pages should be protected by
SSL. The servers are secure and protected using state of the art services.
Scalable Infrastructure:-
Your hosting infrastructure should be able to scale as you get more and more
traffic. A higher latency leads to drops in transaction rates and leads to loss of
marketing dollars. CDN should be used to improve the website’s performance
and to manage the products online. It also provides excellent uptime, ensuring
that the website is readily available everywhere and at any time.
Mobile Compatibility:-
Great eCommerce websites usually offer three types of solutions for mobile
compatibility. First is ensuring that the mobile view is responsive and properly
accommodated according to the device. The WAP is a mobile-specific template
which optimizes the website in size and generates less loading time. API’s for
building mobile apps is essential since everyone now likes to browse via phones.
It is one of the most relevant features of eCommerce websites as it drives
engagement and visits on a relatively large channel.
Reports and Analytics:-
The reports should be available as exports which contain detailed information
regarding the orders, customer database, and product reports in terms of
catalogue. It is quite useful for analyzing the growth of the business. The
websites should be pre-integrated with marketing tools and analytics to better
market the brand and read reports about the performance of the store.
Logistics integration:-
Integrating logistics services allows not only seamless shipping but also ensures
that the merchant and the consumer get real time courier updates along with order
tracking capability. This allows the user to manage shipments from the same
panel instead of approaching the courier partners separately.
Shiprocket is a platform that can help you with shipping across 26000+ pin
codes, at the cheapest rates starting from Rs. 22/500g. The best part is that
Shiprocket has integrations with 17+ courier partners. This gives you a wider pin

code reach as compared to shipping with a single courier partner. Also, you can
manage undelivered orders from an automated NDR panel that you find in the
app. Furthermore, you get a customizable tracking page that gives the buyer a
chance to give their feedback on undelivered orders and also take quick action on
them.
Communications and Regular Updates:-
Provisions to send and receive timely notifications regarding your orders are
available on the panel. This way a merchant can keep his customers informed
about the status of the order and receive the same via the system.
Content Management Systems:-

Content Management System is used to manage the website content such as,
Logo, banner, Footer links, Policies, and Products from the back end itself.
*****
Web pages-Types and Issues:

A web page can contain huge information including text, graphics, audio, video
Collection of linked web pages on a web server is known as website. There is
unique Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is associated with each web page.
Static Web page:-

Dynamic Web page:-
Dynamic web page shows different information at different point of time. It is
possible to change a portaion of a web page without loading the entire web page.
It has been made possible using Ajax technology.
Server-side dynamic web page:-
It is created by using server-side scripting. There are server-side scripting
parameters that determine how to assemble a new web page which also include
setting up of more client-side processing.
Client-side dynamic web page:-
It is processed using client side scripting such as JavaScript. And then passed in
to Document Object Model (DOM).
Scripting Languages:-
Scripting languages are like programming languages that allow us to write

programs in form of script. These scripts are interpreted not compiled and
executed line by line.
Scripting language is used to create dynamic web pages.
Client-side Scripting:-
Client-side scripting refers to the programs that are executed on client-side.
Client-side scripts contains the instruction for the browser to be executed in
response to certain user’s action.
Client-side scripting programs can be embedded into HTML files or also can be
kept as separate files.

Server-side Scripting:-
Sever-side scripting acts as an interface for the client and also limit the user
access the resources on web server. It can also collects the user’s characteristics
in order to customize response.

Issues:-
1.Messy Code:-
A lot of coding is involved in the building of a website, especially as you add

more functions and features to your site. If your code is unorganized and messy,
it can result in a variety of issues. Not only can it affect how your website is
supposed to function, but it can affect the ability of search engines to properly
index your site’s content, thereby hurting your search rankings.
2. Presence Of Broken Links:-
Broken links are links on your site that don’t work, whether they are links
directing visitors to a page off of your website or that exists on your website.
When you click on a broken link, you’ll be taken to a 404 page, which displays a
message indicating that the page could not be found. There are several issues
with having broken links. Visitors will be frustrated if they click on a link and it
doesn’t take them to where they’re expecting to go. This reflects poorly on your
site and on your brand. If you can’t maintain your website, how can visitors be
expected to trust in the quality of your brand?
Broken links also indicate to Google and other search engines that you’re not
keeping your website up to date. This can hurt your search engine rankings.
When your rankings decline, so will your website’s exposure, resulting in fewer
visitors.
3. Poor Or Outdated Website Design:-
The overall design of a website needs to be both functional and aesthetically

pleasing. Visitors will judge how your website looks, after all. However, website
design trends change relatively often. This means that if it’s been a few years
since you’ve updated your site, it’s likely now outdated. The more outdated it
looks, the more unprofessional your brand will appear to be. You need to update
your site regularly to adhere to modern website design principles.
4. Slow Loading Time:-
Slow loading times can absolutely kill the website experience of your visitors.
Few people have the patience to wait more than a few seconds for a page to load–
especially when they’ve become so accustomed to how quickly other high-
quality websites load. If your site won’t load, they can find a site that will.

Generally speaking, the majority of your visitors will expect your page to load
within two seconds. If it takes more than three seconds to load, expect to lose
around 90 percent of the visitors trying to visit that page. 79 percent of all visitors
who experience slow loading speeds won’t come back to your website.
If that wasn’t bad enough, losing visitors as a result of slow loading times will
cause your bounce rate to spike. The bounce rate is a metric referring to how
many people leave your page without engaging further. A high bounce rate will
hurt your search engine rankings.
5. Cluttered Homepage:-
Your homepage is the introduction to not just your website, but to your business.
As such, you need to make sure it leaves a good first impression on new visitors.
One of the more common mistakes businesses make on their homepage is trying
to present too much information. This causes it to become cluttered. A cluttered
homepage can be overwhelming and difficult to read, making it hard for visitors
to find what they’re looking for.
*****
Tiers:
In client server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server provides
that resource. A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client
is in contact with only one server.
The different structures for two tier and three tier are given as follows –
Two - Tier Client/Server Structure:-
The two tier architecture primarily has two parts, a client tier and a server tier.The
client tier sends a request to the server tier and the server tier responds with the
desired information.
An example of a two tier client/server structure is a web server. It returns the
required web pages to the clients that requested them.
An illustration of the two-tier client/server structure is as follows −

Advantages of Two - Tier Client/Server Structure
Some of the advantages of the two-tier client/server structure are −
 This structure is quite easy to maintain and modify.

 The communication between the client and server in the form of request
response messages is quite fast.
Disadvantages of Two - Tier Client/Server Structure
A major disadvantage of the two-tier client/server structure is −
 If the client nodes are increased beyond capacity in the structure, then the
server is not able to handle the request overflow and performance of the
system degrades.
Three - Tier Client/Server Structure:-
The three tier architecture has three layers namely client, application and data
layer. The client layer is the one that requests the information. In this case it
could be the GUI, web interface etc. The application layer acts as an interface
between the client and data layer. It helps in communication and also provides
security. The data layer is the one that actually contains the required data.
An illustration of the three-tier client/server structure is as follows −
Advantages of Three - Tier Client/Server Structure

Some of the advantages of the three-tier client/server structure are −
 The three tier structure provides much better service and fast performance.
 The structure can be scaled according to requirements without any
problem.
 Data security is much improved in the three tier structure.
Disadvantages of Three - Tier Client/Server Structure
A major disadvantage of the three-tier client/server structure is −
 Three - tier client/server structure is quite complex due to advanced

features.
*****
The Concept of a Tier:
The web tier consists of components that handle the interaction between clients
and the business tier. Its primary tasks are the following:
 Dynamically generate content in various formats for the client.

 Collect input from users of the client interface and return appropriate
results from the components in the business tier.
 Control the flow of screens or pages on the client.
 Maintain the state of data for a user's session.
 Perform some basic logic and hold some data temporarily in JavaBeans
components.
*****
A Concept of Microsoft and Java Technologies:
Concept of Microsoft:-
Microsoft is a leading global vendor of computer software; hardware for

computer, mobile and gaming systems; and cloud services. Microsoft's corporate
headquarters is located in Redmond, Wash., and it has offices in more than 60
countries.
Company origins:-
Microsoft's roots go back at least as far as 1975, when the first commercially
available personalcomputer appeared on the cover of Popular
Electronics magazine. The Altair 8800 was a rudimentary system, but it found a
market for home-based computers and created a new demand for software to use
with these systems.
Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen immediately saw the potential. Gates
contacted the manufacturer Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems
(MITS) and offered to write a program for the new computer. Gates and Allen
created an interpreter for BASIC -- then a mainframe programming language -- to
use with the Altair.

MITS hired Gates and Allen in 1975. But by 1976, they had left to devote more
time to their own fledgling company, Microsoft, which they incorporated in
1981. The company went public in March 1986.
Microsoft Office:-
Building on the success of its operating systems, Microsoft moved into the
development of productivity software.
Microsoft Office first appeared in 1990. The productivity package features a

number of bundled applications and includes the word processor named
Word, Excel spreadsheet, Access database, PowerPoint presentation
creator, Outlook email client and other tools in the same package. In addition to
the desktop applications for Windows and Mac OS operating systems, Microsoft
also offers Office Mobile for smartphones.
Concept of Java Technologies:
Java technology is both a programming language and a platform.
The Java Programming Language
The Java programming language is a high-level language that can be

characterized by all of the following buzzwords:
 Simple  Architecture neutral

 Object oriented  Portable
 Distributed  High performance
 Multithreaded  Robust
 Dynamic  Secure
Each of the preceding buzzwords is explained in The Java Language

Environment , a white paper written by James Gosling and Henry McGilton.
In the Java programming language, all source code is first written in plain text
files ending with the .java extension. Those source files are then compiled
into .class files by the javac compiler. A .class file does not contain code that is
native to your processor; it instead contains bytecodes — the machine language
of the Java Virtual Machine1 (Java VM). The java launcher tool then runs your
application with an instance of the Java Virtual Machine.
An overview of the software development process:-
Because the Java VM is available on many different operating systems, the

same .class files are capable of running on Microsoft Windows, the Solaris™
Operating System (Solaris OS), Linux, or Mac OS. Some virtual machines, such
as the Java SE HotSpot at a Glance, perform additional steps at runtime to give
your application a performance boost. This includes various tasks such as finding
performance bottlenecks and recompiling (to native code) frequently used
sections of code.
Through the Java VM, the same application is capable of running on multiple
platforms.
*****

Web Pages:
A webpage is a document written in HTML and can be viewed on any web browser.
It is contained within the web server, which can be accessed by entering the URL for
that web page, and once it is loaded, it appears on the user's web browser. Each
webpage is linked with a unique URL; hence two pages cannot have the same URL.
A webpage may contain text, links for other pages, graphics, videos, etc.
Moreover, it is mainly used to provide information to the user in text, images, etc.
A webpage is a part of a website; it means a website contains different web

pages. Such as javaTpoint.com is a website, and the page currently you are
accessing is the webpage. It can be understood as an example of a book. So, a
Website is like a complete book, and a webpage is like a page of that book.
The WWW or Internet contains millions of web pages, and daily, a lot is being
added. Tim Berners-Lee developed the first webpage.
Let's understand some basic terms that are used with Webpage:
 WebSite: A website is a collection of several web pages. These pages are

linked together with hyperlinks. A website has a unique domain name, and
we can access it by entering that domain name in the URL.
 Search Engine: A search engine is an internet service that helps users find
any information available on the internet. Some examples of search engines
are Google, Yahoo, Bing, It is usually accessed with the help of Web
browser.
 Web Browser: A web browser or simply browser is application software
used to access the internet. Some examples of Web browsers are Google
Chrome, Microsoft Internet Explorer, Safari, etc. It does two things:
 It connects to a web server on the internet and requests a page that the user
wants to view; once it finds that page, it displays it on its device.
 It can interpret the set of HTML tags within a page to display the page in the
correct format.
 Webserver: A web server can be understood as a computer that hosts or

provide a website on the internet. It contains webserver software and
component files of a website such as HTML document, images, CSS
stylesheet, and JS files.
 HTML: HTML is an abbreviation of Hyper-Text Markup Language. A
markup language is a computer language that specifies how a page should be
formatted. With the help of HTML, one can specify fonts, colors, images,
headings, and everything that he wants to display on a page displayed by the
browser.
*****
Static Web Pages:
*****
Plug-ins:
A plug-in is piece of code written in a standard JavaScript file. These files
provide useful jQuery methods which can be used along with jQuery library
methods.
There are plenty of jQuery plug-in available which you can download from
repository link at https://jquery.com/plugins.
How to use Plugins:- To make a plug-in's methods available to us, we include

plug-in file very similar to jQuery library file in the <head> of the document.

We must ensure that it appears after the main jQuery source file, and before our
custom JavaScript code.
Following example shows how to include jquery.plug-in.js plugin −
<html>
<head>
<title>The jQuery Example</title>
<script type = "text/javascript"

src = "https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/2.1.3/jquery.min.js">
</script>
<script src = "jquery.plug-in.js" type = "text/javascript"></script>

<script src = "custom.js" type = "text/javascript"></script>
<script type = "text/javascript" language = "javascript">

$(document).ready(function() {
.......your custom code.....
});
</script>
</head>
<body>
.............................
</body>
</html>
*****
Introduction to Frames and Forms:
Frames:-
HTML frames are used to divide your browser window into multiple sections
where each section can load a separate HTML document. A collection of frames
in the browser window is known as a frameset. The window is divided into
frames in a similar way the tables are organized: into rows and columns.
Disadvantages of Frames:-
There are few drawbacks with using frames, so it's never recommended to use
frames in your webpages −
 Some smaller devices cannot cope with frames often because their screen
is not big enough to be divided up.

 Sometimes your page will be displayed differently on different computers
due to different screen resolution.
 The browser's back button might not work as the user hopes.
 There are still few browsers that do not support frame technology.
Creating Frames:-
To use frames on a page we use <frameset> tag instead of <body> tag. The
<frameset> tag defines, how to divide the window into frames.
The rows attribute of <frameset> tag defines horizontal frames and cols attribute
defines vertical frames. Each frame is indicated by <frame> tag and it defines
which HTML document shall open into the frame.
Note − The <frame> tag deprecated in HTML5. Do not use this element.
Example:-
Following is the example to create three horizontal frames −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Frames</title>
</head>
<frameset rows = "10%,80%,10%">

<frame name = "top" src = "/html/top_frame.htm" />
<frame name = "main" src = "/html/main_frame.htm" />
<frame name = "bottom" src = "/html/bottom_frame.htm" />
<noframes>
<body>Your browser does not support frames.</body>
</noframes>
</frameset>
</html>
Forms:-
HTML Forms are required, when you want to collect some data from the site
visitor. For example, during user registration you would like to collect
information such as name, email address, credit card, etc.

A form will take input from the site visitor and then will post it to a back-end
application such as CGI, ASP Script or PHP script etc. The back-end application
will perform required processing on the passed data based on defined business
logic inside the application.
There are various form elements available like text fields, textarea fields, drop-
down menus, radio buttons, checkboxes, etc.
The HTML <form> tag is used to create an HTML form and it has following
syntax −
<form action = "Script URL" method = "GET|POST">
form elements like input, textarea etc.
</form>
HTML Form Controls:-
There are different types of form controls that you can use to collect data using
HTML form −
 Text Input Controls

 Checkboxes Controls
 Radio Box Controls
 Select Box Controls
 File Select boxes
 Hidden Controls
Text Input Controls:-
There are three types of text input used on forms −

 Single-line text input controls − This control is used for items that
require only one line of user input, such as search boxes or names. They
are created using HTML <input> tag.
 Password input controls − This is also a single-line text input but it
masks the character as soon as a user enters it. They are also created using
HTMl <input> tag.
 Multi-line text input controls − This is used when the user is required to
give details that may be longer than a single sentence. Multi-line input
controls are created using HTML <textarea> tag.

Single-line text input controls:-
This control is used for items that require only one line of user input, such as
search boxes or names. They are created using HTML <input> tag.
Example
Here is a basic example of a single-line text input used to take first name and last
name −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Text Input Control</title>
</head>
<body>
<form >
First name: <input type = "text" name = "first_name" />
<br>
Last name: <input type = "text" name = "last_name" />
</form>
</body>
</html>
Password input controls:-
This is also a single-line text input but it masks the character as soon as a user
enters it. They are also created using HTML <input>tag but type attribute is set
to password.
Example
Here is a basic example of a single-line password input used to take user
password −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Password Input Control</title>
</head>
<body>

<form >
User ID : <input type = "text" name = "user_id" />
<br>
Password: <input type = "password" name = "password" />
</form>
</body>
</html>
Multiple-Line Text Input Controls:-
This is used when the user is required to give details that may be longer than a
single sentence. Multi-line input controls are created using HTML <textarea>
tag.
Example
Here is a basic example of a multi-line text input used to take item description −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Multiple-Line Input Control</title>
</head>
<body>
<form>
Description : <br />
<textarea rows = "5" cols = "50" name = "description">
Enter description here...
</textarea>
</form>
</body>
</html>
Checkbox Control:-
Checkboxes are used when more than one option is required to be selected. They
are also created using HTML <input> tag but type attribute is set to checkbox..
Example
Here is an example HTML code for a form with two checkboxes −

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Checkbox Control</title>
</head>
<body>
<form>
<input type = "checkbox" name = "maths" value = "on"> Maths
<input type = "checkbox" name = "physics" value = "on"> Physics
</form>
</body>
</html>
Radio Button Control:-
Radio buttons are used when out of many options, just one option is required to
be selected. They are also created using HTML <input> tag but type attribute is
set to radio.
Example
Here is example HTML code for a form with two radio buttons −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Radio Box Control</title>
</head>
<body>
<form>
<input type = "radio" name = "subject" value = "maths"> Maths
<input type = "radio" name = "subject" value = "physics"> Physics
</form>
</body>
</html>

Select Box Control:-
A select box, also called drop down box which provides option to list down
various options in the form of drop down list, from where a user can select one
or more options.
Example
Here is example HTML code for a form with one drop down box
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Select Box Control</title>
</head>
<body>
<form>
<select name = "dropdown">
<option value = "Maths" selected>Maths</option>
<option value = "Physics">Physics</option>
</select>
</form>
</body>
</html>
File Upload Box:-
If you want to allow a user to upload a file to your web site, you will need to use
a file upload box, also known as a file select box. This is also created using the
<input> element but type attribute is set to file.
Example
Here is example HTML code for a form with one file upload box −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>File Upload Box</title>
</head>
<body>

<form>
<input type = "file" name = "fileupload" accept = "image/*" />
</form>
</body>
</html>
Button Controls:-
There are various ways in HTML to create clickable buttons. You can also
create a clickable button using <input>tag by setting its type attribute to button.
Hidden Form Controls
Hidden form controls are used to hide data inside the page which later on can be
pushed to the server. This control hides inside the code and does not appear on
the actual page. For example, following hidden form is being used to keep
current page number. When a user will click next page then the value of hidden
control will be sent to the web server and there it will decide which page will be
displayed next based on the passed current page.
Example
Here is example HTML code to show the usage of hidden control −
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>File Upload Box</title>
</head>
<body>
<form>
<p>This is page 10</p>
<input type = "hidden" name = "pagename" value = "10" />
<input type = "submit" name = "submit" value = "Submit" />
<input type = "reset" name = "reset" value = "Reset" />
</form>
</body>
</html>
*****

Dynamic Web Pages
Need for Dynamic Web Pages:

A dynamic page displays different content for different users while retaining the
same layout and design. Such pages, usually written in CGI, AJAX, ASP or
ASP.NET, take more time to load than simple static pages. They’re frequently
implemented to show information that changes frequently, e.g., weather updates
or stock prices.
Dynamic pages usually contain application programs for different services and
require server-side resources like databases. A database allows the page creator to
separate the website’s design from the content to be displayed to users. Once they
upload content into the database, it is retrieved by the website in response to a
user request.
Two Types of Dynamic Web Pages:-
 Client-side Scripting: A web page that changes in response to an action within it

(“client-side event”) uses client-side scripting. These scripts generate “client-side
content” on the user’s computer, rather than the webserver.
 Server-side Scripting: A web page that changes when it’s loaded or visited, or
based on what’s submitted to it, uses server-side scripting. When the pages are
loaded, server-side content is generated. Examples include login pages, shopping
carts and submission forms.
How are Dynamic Web Pages Processed?
When the webserver receives a user request for a dynamic page, it does not send
the page directly to the requesting browser as it would do with a static page.
Instead, it passes the page to the application server which then completes three
activities:
 Read the code on the page

 Finish the page according to the code’s instructions
 Remove the code from the page

This results in a static page that’s passed back to the web server by the
application server, and then to the requesting browser for display.
The application server cannot communicate directly with the database, so it

requires a database driver that functions as an interpreter and lets the application
read and manipulate data that would otherwise be indecipherable.
*****
Magic of Dynamic Web Pages:

A dynamic web page is a web page that displays different content each time it's
viewed. For example, the page may change with the time of day, the user that
accesses the webpage, or the type of user interaction. There are two types of
dynamic web pages.
CLIENT-SIDE SCRIPTING:-
Web pages that change in response to an action within that web page, such as a
mouse or a keyboard action, use client-side scripting.
Client-side scripts generate client-side content. Client-side content is content

that's generated on the user's computer rather than the server. In these cases, the
user's web browser would download the web page content from the server,
process the code that's embedded in the web page, and then display the updated
content to the user.
Scripting languages such as JavaScript and Flash allow a web page to respond to
client-side events.
SERVER-SIDE SCRIPTING:-
Web pages that change when a web page is loaded or visited use server-side
scripting. Server-side content is content that's generated when a web page is
loaded. For example, login pages, forums, submission forms, and shopping carts,
all use server-side scripting since those web pages change according to what is
submitted to it.
Scripting languages such as PHP, ASP, ASP.NET, JSP, ColdFusion and Perl
allow a web page to respond to submission events.
*****

Overview of Dynamic Web Page Technologies:
A server-side dynamic web page is a web page whose construction is controlled

by an application server processing server-side scripts. In server-side
scripting, parameters determine how the assembly of every new web
page proceeds, including the setting up of more client-side processing.
A client-side dynamic web page processes the web page using HTML
scripting running in the browser as it loads. JavaScript and other scripting
languages determine the way the HTML in the received page is parsed into
the Document Object Model, or DOM, that represents the loaded web page. The
same client-side techniques can then dynamically update or change the DOM in
the same way. Even though a web page can be dynamic on the client-side, it can
still be hosted on a static hosting service such as GitHub Pages or Amazon S3 as
long as there isn’t any server-side code included.
A dynamic web page is then reloaded by the user or by a computer program to

change some variable content. The updating information could come from the
server, or from changes made to that page’s DOM. This may or may not truncate
the browsing history or create a saved version to go back to, but a dynamic web
page update using AJAX technologies will neither create a page to go back to,
nor truncate the web browsing history forward of the displayed page. Using
AJAX, the end user gets one dynamic page managed as a single page in the web
browser while the actual web content rendered on that page can vary. The AJAX
engine sits only on the browser requesting parts of its DOM, the DOM, for its
client, from an application server.
*****
Overview of Dynamic HTML (DHTML):
DHTML stands for Dynamic Hypertext Markup language i.e., Dynamic HTML.
Dynamic HTML is not a markup or programming language but it is a term that

combines the features of various web development technologies for creating the
web pages dynamic and interactive.
The DHTML application was introduced by Microsoft with the release of the
4th version of IE (Internet Explorer) in 1997.
Components of Dynamic HTML

DHTML consists of the following four components or languages:Difference
between JDK, JRE, and JVM
o HTML 4.0
o CSS
o JavaScript
o DOM.
HTML 4.0:-
HTML is a client-side markup language, which is a core component of the

DHTML. It defines the structure of a web page with various defined basic
elements or tags.
CSS:-
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheet, which allows the web users or developers
for controlling the style and layout of the HTML elements on the web pages.
JavaScript:-
JavaScript is a scripting language which is done on a client-side. The various

browser supports JavaScript technology. DHTML uses the JavaScript technology
for accessing, controlling, and manipulating the HTML elements. The statements
in JavaScript are the commands which tell the browser for performing an action.
DOM:-
DOM is the document object model. It is a w3c standard, which is a standard

interface of programming for HTML. It is mainly used for defining the objects
and properties of all elements in HTML.
Uses of DHTML:-
Following are the uses of DHTML (Dynamic HTML):
o It is used for designing the animated and interactive web pages that are
developed in real-time.
o DHTML helps users by animating the text and images in their documents.
o It allows the authors for adding the effects on their pages.
o It also allows the page authors for including the drop-down menus or
rollover buttons.

o This term is also used to create various browser-based action games.
o It is also used to add the ticker on various websites, which needs to refresh
their content automatically.
Features of DHTML:-
Following are the various characteristics or features of DHTML (Dynamic

HTML):
 Its simplest and main feature is that we can create the web page
dynamically.
 Dynamic Style is a feature, that allows the users to alter the font, size, color,
and content of a web page.
 It provides the facility for using the events, methods, and properties. And,
also provides the feature of code reusability.
 It also provides the feature in browsers for data binding.
 Using DHTML, users can easily create dynamic fonts for their web sites or
web pages.
 With the help of DHTML, users can easily change the tags and their
properties.
 The web page functionality is enhanced because the DHTML uses low-
bandwidth effect.
*****
Common Gateway Interface (CGI):
The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a set of standards that define how
information is exchanged between the web server and a custom script.
The CGI specs are currently maintained by the NCSA and NCSA defines CGI is
as follows −
The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a standard for external gateway
programs to interface with information servers such as HTTP servers.
The current version is CGI/1.1 and CGI/1.2 is under progress.
Web Browsing:-
To understand the concept of CGI, lets see what happens when we click a hyper
link to browse a particular web page or URL.

 Your browser contacts the HTTP web server and demand for the URL ie.
filename.
 Web Server will parse the URL and will look for the filename in if it finds
that file then sends back to the browser otherwise sends an error message
indicating that you have requested a wrong file.
 Web browser takes response from web server and displays either the
received file or error message.
However, it is possible to set up the HTTP server so that whenever a file in a
certain directory is requested that file is not sent back; instead it is executed as a
program, and whatever that program outputs is sent back for your browser to
display. This function is called the Common Gateway Interface or CGI and the
programs are called CGI scripts. These CGI programs can be a PERL Script,
Shell Script, C or C++ program etc.
CGI Architecture Diagram:-
Web Server Support & Configuration
Before you proceed with CGI Programming, make sure that your Web Server
supports CGI and it is configured to handle CGI Programs. All the CGI
Programs be executed by the HTTP server are kept in a pre-configured directory.
This directory is called CGI Directory and by convention it is named as /cgi-bin.
By convention PERL CGI files will have extention as .cgi.
First CGI Program
#!/usr/bin/perl
print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n";
print '<html>';
print '<head>';
print '<title>Hello Word - First CGI Program</title>';
print '</head>';
print '<body>';

print '<h2>Hello Word! This is my first CGI program</h2>';
print '</body>';
print '</html>';
1;
Output:-
Hello Word! This is my first CGI program
*****
Microsoft’s Active Server Pages (ASP):
ASP stands for Active Server Page. ASP was developed by Microsoft to allow
programmers to create a dynamic website. It is the first server side script engine
and now has been superseded by ASP.NET. ASP is an HTML page that includes
one or more scripts. Scripts are processed by an ASP interpreter on a web server
by using input requested for a page to access data from a database before
delivering it to the receiver.
File Extension: .asp (for ASP)
File Extension: .aspx (for ASP.NET)
ASP supports multiple programming languages like JavaScript and C#. It is

similar to other scripting languages just like PHP, and JSP. When your browser
URL show an ".asp" or ".aspx" suffix, then you are visiting an ASP page.
ASP is a feature of Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS), but as it handles

HTML page, it is supported by all browsers. You can create an ASP file by
including Jscript or VBScript in an HTML file.
What ASP Can Do:-
 It responds to user's request submitted from HTML forms.

 It is simple and provides a greater speed in comparison to Perl and CGI.
 It is secured as ASP code is hidden in the browser and can't be viewed.
 It can add or change the content of the web page.
 It can access any type of data and returns the result to browser.
ASP: Application Service Provider:- ASP also stands for Application Service
Provider. An ASP is business providing internet applications and other related
services to their customers across a wide area network.

ASPs are a way for companies to outsource their services related to information
technology to the customers. They may be private enterprises or government
organizations.
*****
Basics of ASP Technology:
ASP.NET is a web development platform, which provides a programming
model, a comprehensive software infrastructure and various services required to
build up robust web applications for PC, as well as mobile devices.
ASP.NET works on top of the HTTP protocol, and uses the HTTP commands
and policies to set a browser-to-server bilateral communication and cooperation.
ASP.NET is a part of Microsoft .Net platform. ASP.NET applications are
compiled codes, written using the extensible and reusable components or objects
present in .Net framework. These codes can use the entire hierarchy of classes in
.Net framework.
The ASP.NET application codes can be written in any of the following
languages:
 C#
 Visual Basic.Net
 Jscript
 J#
ASP.NET is used to produce interactive, data-driven web applications over the
internet. It consists of a large number of controls such as text boxes, buttons, and
labels for assembling, configuring, and manipulating code to create HTML
pages.
ASP.NET Web Forms Model:-
ASP.NET web forms extend the event-driven model of interaction to the web
applications. The browser submits a web form to the web server and the server
returns a full markup page or HTML page in response.
All client side user activities are forwarded to the server for stateful processing.
The server processes the output of the client actions and triggers the reactions.
Now, HTTP is a stateless protocol. ASP.NET framework helps in storing the
information regarding the state of the application, which consists of:
 Page state

 Session state
The page state is the state of the client, i.e., the content of various input fields in
the web form. The session state is the collective information obtained from
various pages the user visited and worked with, i.e., the overall session state. To
clear the concept, let us take an example of a shopping cart.
User adds items to a shopping cart. Items are selected from a page, say the items
page, and the total collected items and price are shown on a different page, say
the cart page. Only HTTP cannot keep track of all the information coming from
various pages. ASP.NET session state and server side infrastructure keeps track
of the information collected globally over a session.
The ASP.NET runtime carries the page state to and from the server across page
requests while generating ASP.NET runtime codes, and incorporates the state of
the server side components in hidden fields.
This way, the server becomes aware of the overall application state and operates
in a two-tiered connected way.
The ASP.NET Component Model:-
The ASP.NET component model provides various building blocks of ASP.NET

pages. Basically it is an object model, which describes:
 Server side counterparts of almost all HTML elements or tags, such as
<form> and <input>.
 Server controls, which help in developing complex user-interface. For
example, the Calendar control or the Gridview control.
ASP.NET is a technology, which works on the .Net framework that contains all
web-related functionalities. The .Net framework is made of an object-oriented
hierarchy. An ASP.NET web application is made of pages. When a user requests
an ASP.NET page, the IIS delegates the processing of the page to the ASP.NET
runtime system.
The ASP.NET runtime transforms the .aspx page into an instance of a class,
which inherits from the base class page of the .Net framework. Therefore, each
ASP.NET page is an object and all its components i.e., the server-side controls
are also objects.
*****

ASP Example:
<!DOCTYPEhtml>
<html>
<body>
<%
response.write("MyfirstASPscript!")
%>
</body>
</html>
Output:
ASP can output plain text:
Hello World!
*****
Modern Trends in ASP:

Talking About Key Trends for ASP.Net, ASP.NET is a popular open source web
framework developed by Microsoft to allow willing developers to build dynamic
web pages and web applications based on HTML5, CSS & JavaScript. ASP.NET is
still one of the best web development technologies because it offers better features
and functionality that helps to enhance your application and grow your business. In
fact, ASP.NET is not limited to script languages- it supports Visual Basic, C#, and
J# and you can create compelling ASP.NET applications using Visual Studio, which
is again a Microsoft product.
Here we will discuss the key trends for ASP .NET which is important and
beneficial for the developers and the industry.
A New Framework:-
If you are using ASP.NET core for .Net Development for a long time or
enthusiastic about it, then you might be aware that Microsoft already announced a
new framework named ASP.NET Core 1.0 to build cloud-based, Internet-
connected applications but it came as a surprise to the renowned
developers. ASP.NET Core is a cross-platform, high-performance and
lightweight framework with which you can build IoT apps, development tools on
Windows, Linux & macOS and deploy to the cloud.

Talking About Key Trends for ASP.Net, With the new version of Core 2.0,
Microsoft gave developers the privilege to create .NET Core console apps, xUnit
test projects, standard class libraries and provided a better support for multiple
target frameworks. The latest version Core 2.1 is bundled with improved security,
commitment to GDPR(General data protection regulation), SignalR(provides a
simplified scale-out model, new JavaScript client with no jQuery dependency),
Razor class libraries that you can share across multiple projects and a lot more.
Big Data & IoT:-
Nowadays, trends revolving around Big data & IoT is not new. With Big Data
present in the picture, it became easy for the industry to store huge amounts of
data on the cloud that can be accessed easily from any place and it helped the
analytics to take proper decisions in real-time depending on the organized data.
Now, the interesting part is that ASP.NET platform allows the industry to take
advantage of IoT and Big Data technologies. IIS or Internet Information Server is
one of the most powerful web servers from Microsoft that is used to host
ASP.NET web applications and the combination of both can deliver a highly
scalable solution which is indeed an advantage for any business!
Cloud Service:-
Cloud service became popular in recent times because of its storage property. A
huge amount of data can be stored and accessed from anywhere around the world
and that too, anytime! With an increasing trend of business to shift towards cloud,
Microsoft developed Azure, an operating system for the cloud to play with big
data and provide a complete analytics solution. Through Azure, the .NET
application whose business logic is based on ASP .NET can be deployed on the
cloud that has been developed using ASP .NET MVC front-end.
Talking About Key Trends for ASP.Net, With the latest releases of the software
and .NET technologies in the market, .NET is becoming a popular choice of the
framework because it provides flexible business application within budget.
Whether you are developing dynamic websites or mobile apps or business
intelligence applications- reliable & scalable ASP .NET is your best solution in
2018!
*****

Java and the Concept a Virtual Machine:
JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract machine. It is a specification that

provides runtime environment in which java bytecode can be executed.
JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms (i.e. JVM is
platform dependent).
What is JVM
1. A specification where working of Java Virtual Machine is specified. But
implementation provider is independent to choose the algorithm. Its
implementation has been provided by Oracle and other companies.
2. An implementation Its implementation is known as JRE (Java Runtime
Environment).
3. Runtime Instance Whenever you write java command on the command
prompt to run the java class, an instance of JVM is created.
What it does
The JVM performs following operation:
 Loads code
 Verifies code
 Executes code
 Provides runtime environment
JVM provides definitions for the:
 Memory area
 Class file format
 Register set
 Garbage-collected heap
 Fatal error reporting etc.
JVM Architecture:
Let's understand the internal architecture of JVM. It contains classloader,

memory area, execution engine etc.

1) Classloader:-
Classloader is a subsystem of JVM which is used to load class files. Whenever

we run the java program, it is loaded first by the classloader. There are three
built-in classloaders in Java.
 Bootstrap ClassLoader: This is the first classloader which is the super

class of Extension classloader. It loads the rt.jar file which contains all
class files of Java Standard Edition like java.lang package classes, java.net
package classes, java.util package classes, java.io package classes, java.sql
package classes etc.
 Extension ClassLoader: This is the child classloader of Bootstrap and
parent classloader of System classloader. It loades the jar files located
inside $JAVA_HOME/jre/lib/ext directory.
 System/Application ClassLoader: This is the child classloader of
Extension classloader. It loads the classfiles from classpath. By default,
classpath is set to current directory. You can change the classpath using "-
cp" or "-classpath" switch. It is also known as Application classloader.
2) Class(Method) Area:-
Class(Method) Area stores per-class structures such as the runtime constant pool,
field and method data, the code for methods.
3) Heap:-
It is the runtime data area in which objects are allocated.

4) Stack:-
Java Stack stores frames. It holds local variables and partial results, and plays a
part in method invocation and return.
Each thread has a private JVM stack, created at the same time as thread.
A new frame is created each time a method is invoked. A frame is destroyed

when its method invocation completes.
5) Program Counter Register:-
PC (program counter) register contains the address of the Java virtual machine
instruction currently being executed.
6) Native Method Stack:-
It contains all the native methods used in the application.
7) Execution Engine:-
It contains:
 A virtual processor
 Interpreter: Read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.
 Just-In-Time(JIT) compiler: It is used to improve the performance. JIT
compiles parts of the byte code that have similar functionality at the same
time, and hence reduces the amount of time needed for compilation. Here, the
term "compiler" refers to a translator from the instruction set of a Java virtual
machine (JVM) to the instruction set of a specific CPU.
8) Java Native Interface:-
Java Native Interface (JNI) is a framework which provides an interface to

communicate with another application written in another language like C, C++,
Assembly etc. Java uses JNI framework to send output to the Console or interact
with OS libraries.
*****

Java Servlets and Java Sever Pages(JSP):
Java Servlets:-
Servlets provide a component-based, platform-independent method for building
Webbased applications, without the performance limitations of CGI programs.
Servlets have access to the entire family of Java APIs, including the JDBC API
to access enterprise databases. This tutorial will teach you how to use Java
Servlets to develop your web based applications in simple and easy steps.
Why to Learn Servlet?
Using Servlets, you can collect input from users through web page forms,
present records from a database or another source, and create web pages
dynamically.
Java Servlets often serve the same purpose as programs implemented using the
Common Gateway Interface (CGI). But Servlets offer several advantages in
comparison with the CGI.
 Performance is significantly better.
 Servlets execute within the address space of a Web server. It is not
necessary to create a separate process to handle each client request.
 Servlets are platform-independent because they are written in Java.
 Java security manager on the server enforces a set of restrictions to protect
the resources on a server machine. So servlets are trusted.
 The full functionality of the Java class libraries is available to a servlet. It
can communicate with applets, databases, or other software via the
sockets and RMI mechanisms that you have seen already.
Applications of Servlet:-
 Read the explicit data sent by the clients (browsers). This includes an
HTML form on a Web page or it could also come from an applet or a
custom HTTP client program.
 Read the implicit HTTP request data sent by the clients (browsers). This
includes cookies, media types and compression schemes the browser
understands, and so forth.
 Process the data and generate the results. This process may require talking
to a database, executing an RMI or CORBA call, invoking a Web service,
or computing the response directly.

 Send the explicit data (i.e., the document) to the clients (browsers). This
document can be sent in a variety of formats, including text (HTML or
XML), binary (GIF images), Excel, etc.
 Send the implicit HTTP response to the clients (browsers). This includes
telling the browsers or other clients what type of document is being
returned (e.g., HTML), setting cookies and caching parameters, and other
such tasks.
*
Java Sever Pages(JSP):
Java Server Pages (JSP) is a server-side programming technology that enables
the creation of dynamic, platform-independent method for building Web-based
applications. JSP have access to the entire family of Java APIs, including the
JDBC API to access enterprise databases. This tutorial will teach you how to use
Java Server Pages to develop your web applications in simple and easy steps.
Why to Learn JSP?
JavaServer Pages often serve the same purpose as programs implemented using
the Common Gateway Interface (CGI). But JSP offers several advantages in
 Performance is significantly better because JSP allows embedding
Dynamic Elements in HTML Pages itself instead of having separate CGI
files.
 JSP are always compiled before they are processed by the server unlike
CGI/Perl which requires the server to load an interpreter and the target
script each time the page is requested.
 JavaServer Pages are built on top of the Java Servlets API, so like Servlets,
JSP also has access to all the powerful Enterprise Java APIs,
including JDBC, JNDI, EJB, JAXP, etc.
 JSP pages can be used in combination with servlets that handle the
business logic, the model supported by Java servlet template engines.
Finally, JSP is an integral part of Java EE, a complete platform for enterprise
class applications. This means that JSP can play a part in the simplest
applications to the most complex and demanding.
Applications of JSP:-
As mentioned before, JSP is one of the most widely used language over the web.
I'm going to list few of them here:

JSP vs. Active Server Pages (ASP)
The advantages of JSP are twofold. First, the dynamic part is written in Java, not
Visual Basic or other MS specific language, so it is more powerful and easier to
use. Second, it is portable to other operating systems and non-Microsoft Web
servers.
JSP vs. Pure Servlets
It is more convenient to write (and to modify!) regular HTML than to have
plenty of println statements that generate the HTML.
JSP vs. Server-Side Includes (SSI)
SSI is really only intended for simple inclusions, not for "real" programs that use
form data, make database connections, and the like.
JSP vs. JavaScript
JavaScript can generate HTML dynamically on the client but can hardly interact
with the web server to perform complex tasks like database access and image
processing etc.
JSP vs. Static HTML
Regular HTML, of course, cannot contain dynamic information.
*****
Java Servlets:
Servlets provide a component-based, platform-independent method for
building Webbased applications, without the performance limitations of CGI
programs. Servlets have access to the entire family of Java APIs, including the
Java Servlets to develop your web based applications in simple and easy steps.
Using Servlets, you can collect input from users through web page forms,
present records from a database or another source, and create web pages
dynamically.
Java Servlets often serve the same purpose as programs implemented using
the Common Gateway Interface (CGI). But Servlets offer several advantages in
 Performance is significantly better.
 Servlets execute within the address space of a Web server. It is not
necessary to create a separate process to handle each client request.
 Servlets are platform-independent because they are written in Java.

 Java security manager on the server enforces a set of restrictions to protect
the resources on a server machine. So servlets are trusted.
 The full functionality of the Java class libraries is available to a servlet. It
can communicate with applets, databases, or other software via the
sockets and RMI mechanisms that you have seen already.
Applications of Servlet:-
 Read the explicit data sent by the clients (browsers). This includes an HTML
form on a Web page or it could also come from an applet or a custom HTTP
client program.
 Read the implicit HTTP request data sent by the clients (browsers). This
includes cookies, media types and compression schemes the browser
understands, and so forth.
 Process the data and generate the results. This process may require talking to a
database, executing an RMI or CORBA call, invoking a Web service, or
computing the response directly.
 Send the explicit data (i.e., the document) to the clients (browsers). This
document can be sent in a variety of formats, including text (HTML or XML),
binary (GIF images), Excel, etc.
 Send the implicit HTTP response to the clients (browsers). This includes
telling the browsers or other clients what type of document is being returned
(e.g., HTML), setting cookies and caching parameters, and other such tasks.
*****
Java Sever pages (JSP):
Java Server Pages (JSP) is a server-side programming technology that enables
the creation of dynamic, platform-independent method for building Web-based
applications. JSP have access to the entire family of Java APIs, including the
Java Server Pages to develop your web applications in simple and easy steps.
Why to Learn JSP?
JavaServer Pages often serve the same purpose as programs implemented using
the Common Gateway Interface (CGI). But JSP offers several advantages in
 Performance is significantly better because JSP allows embedding
Dynamic Elements in HTML Pages itself instead of having separate CGI
files.

 JSP are always compiled before they are processed by the server unlike
CGI/Perl which requires the server to load an interpreter and the target
script each time the page is requested.
 JavaServer Pages are built on top of the Java Servlets API, so like Servlets,
JSP also has access to all the powerful Enterprise Java APIs,
including JDBC, JNDI, EJB, JAXP, etc.
 JSP pages can be used in combination with servlets that handle the
business logic, the model supported by Java servlet template engines.
Finally, JSP is an integral part of Java EE, a complete platform for enterprise
class applications. This means that JSP can play a part in the simplest
applications to the most complex and demanding.
Applications of JSP:-
As mentioned before, JSP is one of the most widely used language over the web.
I'm going to list few of them here:
JSP vs. Active Server Pages (ASP)
The advantages of JSP are twofold. First, the dynamic part is written in Java, not
Visual Basic or other MS specific language, so it is more powerful and easier to
use. Second, it is portable to other operating systems and non-Microsoft Web
servers.
JSP vs. Pure Servlets
It is more convenient to write (and to modify!) regular HTML than to have
plenty of println statements that generate the HTML.
JSP vs. Server-Side Includes (SSI)
SSI is really only intended for simple inclusions, not for "real" programs that use
form data, make database connections, and the like.
JSP vs. JavaScript
JavaScript can generate HTML dynamically on the client but can hardly interact
with the web server to perform complex tasks like database access and image
processing etc.
JSP vs. Static HTML
Regular HTML, of course, cannot contain dynamic information.
*****

Active Web Pages
Active Web pages is a Better Solution:

A web page can cotain huge information including text, graphics, audio, video
An active web page is a page where the browser performs the logic instead of the
server. So for example when you've got a page where you're showing share
prices, then you want it to update e.g. every 5 seconds. A solution would be to
use AJAX with JavaScript. In contrast to PHP, your browser is able to execute
JavaScript, so it is happening without reloading the page. So with an active page,
everything is happening inside your browser without the need to reload the page
every time you want new information.
*****
Java Applets:
An applet is a Java program that runs in a Web browser. An applet can be a
fully functional Java application because it has the entire Java API at its
disposal.
There are some important differences between an applet and a standalone Java
application, including the following −
 An applet is a Java class that extends the java.applet.Applet class.
 A main() method is not invoked on an applet, and an applet class will not
define main().
 Applets are designed to be embedded within an HTML page.
 When a user views an HTML page that contains an applet, the code for the
applet is downloaded to the user's machine.
 A JVM is required to view an applet. The JVM can be either a plug-in of
the Web browser or a separate runtime environment.
 The JVM on the user's machine creates an instance of the applet class and
invokes various methods during the applet's lifetime.
 Applets have strict security rules that are enforced by the Web browser.
The security of an applet is often referred to as sandbox security,
comparing the applet to a child playing in a sandbox with various rules
that must be followed.

 Other classes that the applet needs can be downloaded in a single Java
Archive (JAR) file.
The Applet Class:-
Every applet is an extension of the java.applet.Applet class. The base Applet

class provides methods that a derived Applet class may call to obtain
information and services from the browser context.
These include methods that do the following −
 Get applet parameters

 Get the network location of the HTML file that contains the applet
 Get the network location of the applet class directory
 Print a status message in the browser
 Fetch an image
 Fetch an audio clip
 Play an audio clip
 Resize the applet
Additionally, the Applet class provides an interface by which the viewer or
browser obtains information about the applet and controls the applet's execution.
The viewer may −
 Request information about the author, version, and copyright of the applet
 Request a description of the parameters the applet recognizes
 Initialize the applet
 Destroy the applet
 Start the applet's execution
 Stop the applet's execution
The Applet class provides default implementations of each of these methods.
Those implementations may be overridden as necessary.
The "Hello, World" applet is complete as it stands. The only method overridden
is the paint method.
*****

Lifecycle of Java Applets:
Four methods in the Applet class gives you the framework on which you build
any serious applet −
 init − This method is intended for whatever initialization is needed for
your applet. It is called after the param tags inside the applet tag have been
processed.
 start − This method is automatically called after the browser calls the init
method. It is also called whenever the user returns to the page containing
the applet after having gone off to other pages.
 stop − This method is automatically called when the user moves off the
page on which the applet sits. It can, therefore, be called repeatedly in the
same applet.
 destroy − This method is only called when the browser shuts down
normally. Because applets are meant to live on an HTML page, you
should not normally leave resources behind after a user leaves the page
that contains the applet.
 paint − Invoked immediately after the start() method, and also any time
the applet needs to repaint itself in the browser. The paint() method is
actually inherited from the java.awt.
A "Hello, World" Applet
Following is a simple applet named HelloWorldApplet.java −

import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class HelloWorldApplet extends Applet {

public void paint (Graphics g) {
g.drawString ("Hello World", 25, 50);
}
}
These import statements bring the classes into the scope of our applet class −
 java.applet.Applet
 java.awt.Graphics
Without those import statements, the Java compiler would not recognize the
classes Applet and Graphics, which the applet class refers to.
*****

Java Beans:
A JavaBean is a specially constructed Java class written in the Java and coded
according to the JavaBeans API specifications.
Following are the unique characteristics that distinguish a JavaBean from other
Java classes −
 It provides a default, no-argument constructor.
 It should be serializable and that which can implement
the Serializable interface.
 It may have a number of properties which can be read or written.
 It may have a number of "getter" and "setter" methods for the properties.
JavaBeans Properties:-
A JavaBean property is a named attribute that can be accessed by the user of the
object. The attribute can be of any Java data type, including the classes that you
define.
A JavaBean property may be read, write, read only, or write only. JavaBean
properties are accessed through two methods in the JavaBean's implementation
class −
S.No. Method & Description
getPropertyName()
1
For example, if property name is firstName, your method name would
be getFirstName() to read that property. This method is called accessor.
setPropertyName()
2 For example, if property name is firstName, your method name would
be setFirstName() to write that property. This method is called mutator.
A read-only attribute will have only a getPropertyName() method, and a write-

only attribute will have only a setPropertyName() method.
JavaBeans Example
Consider a student class with few properties −

package com.tutorialspoint;

public class StudentsBean implements java.io.Serializable {
private String firstName = null;
private String lastName = null;
private int age = 0;
public StudentsBean() {
}
public String getFirstName(){
return firstName;
}
public String getLastName(){
return lastName;
}
public int getAge(){
return age;
}
public void setFirstName(String firstName){
this.firstName = firstName;
}
public void setLastName(String lastName){
this.lastName = lastName;
}
public void setAge(Integer age){
this.age = age;
}
}
Accessing JavaBeans
The useBean action declares a JavaBean for use in a JSP. Once declared, the
bean becomes a scripting variable that can be accessed by both scripting
elements and other custom tags used in the JSP. The full syntax for the useBean
tag is as follows −
<jsp:useBean id = "bean's name" scope = "bean's scope" typeSpec/>
*****

Active X Controls:
An ActiveX control container is a parent program that supplies the
environment for an ActiveX (formerly OLE) control to run.
 ActiveX control is a control using Microsoft ActiveX technologies.
 ActiveX is not a programming language, but rather a set of rules for how
applications should share information.
 Programmers can develop ActiveX controls in a variety of languages,
including C, C++, Visual Basic, and Java.
 You can create an application capable of containing ActiveX controls with
or without MFC, but it is much easier to do with MFC.
Let us look into simple example of add ActiveX controls in your MFC dialog
based application.
Step 1 − Right-click on the dialog in the designer window and select Insert
ActiveX Control.
Step 2 − Select the Microsoft Picture Clip Control and click OK.

Step 3 − Resize the Picture control and in the Properties window, click the
Picture field.
Step 4 − Browse the folder that contains Pictures. Select any picture.
Step 5 − When you run this application, you will see the following output.
Let us have a look into another simple example.

Step 1 − Right-click on the dialog in the designer window.
Step 2 − Select Insert ActiveX Control.

Step 3 − Select the Microsoft ProgressBar Control 6.0, click OK.
Step 4 − Select the progress bar and set its Orientation in the Properties Window
to 1 – ccOrientationVertical.
Step 5 − Add control variable for Progress bar.
Step 6 − Add the following code in the OnInitDialog()

m_progBarCtrl.SetScrollRange(0,100,TRUE);
m_progBarCtrl.put_Value(53);
Step 7 − When you run this application again, you will see the progress bar in
Vertical direction as well.

*****

UNIT IV
Middleware and Component-based E-commerce Architectures: CORBA, Java

Remote Method Invocation (RMI), Microsoft’s Distributed Component Object
Model
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): An Overview of EDI, the Origins of EDI,
Understanding EDI, Data Exchange Standards, EDI Architecture, The Significance
of EDI in International Trade, Financial EDI, EDI and the Internet.
Extensible Markup Language (XML): Standard Generalized Markup Language
(SGML), Basics of XML, XML parsers, The Need for a Standard.
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP): Limitations of Mobile Devices, The
emergence of WAP, WAP Architecture, The WAP Stack, Concerns about WAP and
its Future, Alternatives to WAP.
Middleware and Component-based E-commerce Architectures

CORBA:
The Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) is a standard
developed by the Object Management Group (OMG) to provide interoperability
among distributed objects. CORBA is the world's leading middleware solution
enabling the exchange of information, independent of hardware platforms,
programming languages, and operating systems. CORBA is essentially a design
specification for an Object Request Broker (ORB), where an ORB provides the
mechanism required for distributed objects to communicate with one another,
whether locally or on remote devices, written in different languages, or at
different locations on a network.
The CORBA Interface Definition Language, or IDL, allows the development of
language and location-independent interfaces to distributed objects. Using
CORBA, application components can communicate with one another no matter
where they are located, or who has designed them. CORBA provides the location
transparency to be able to execute these applications.
CORBA is often described as a "software bus" because it is a software-based
communications interface through which objects are located and accessed. The
illustration below identifies the primary components seen within a CORBA
implementation.

*****
Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI):
RMI stands for Remote Method Invocation. It is a mechanism that allows an
object residing in one system (JVM) to access/invoke an object running on
another JVM.
RMI is used to build distributed applications; it provides remote communication
between Java programs. It is provided in the package java.rmi.
Architecture of an RMI Application
In an RMI application, we write two programs, a server program (resides on

the server) and a client program (resides on the client).
 Inside the server program, a remote object is created and reference of that
object is made available for the client (using the registry).
 The client program requests the remote objects on the server and tries to
invoke its methods.
The following diagram shows the architecture of an RMI application.
Let us now discuss the components of this architecture.

 Transport Layer − This layer connects the client and the server. It
manages the existing connection and also sets up new connections.

 Stub − A stub is a representation (proxy) of the remote object at client. It
resides in the client system; it acts as a gateway for the client program.
 Skeleton − This is the object which resides on the server
side. stub communicates with this skeleton to pass request to the remote
object.
 RRL(Remote Reference Layer) − It is the layer which manages the
references made by the client to the remote object.
Working of an RMI Application
The following points summarize how an RMI application works −

 When the client makes a call to the remote object, it is received by the stub
which eventually passes this request to the RRL.
 When the client-side RRL receives the request, it invokes a method
called invoke() of the object remoteRef. It passes the request to the RRL
on the server side.
 The RRL on the server side passes the request to the Skeleton (proxy on
the server) which finally invokes the required object on the server.
 The result is passed all the way back to the client.
RMI Registry
RMI registry is a namespace on which all server objects are placed. Each time
the server creates an object, it registers this object with the RMIregistry
(using bind() or reBind() methods). These are registered using a unique name
known as bind name.
To invoke a remote object, the client needs a reference of that object. At that
time, the client fetches the object from the registry using its bind name
(using lookup() method).
The following illustration explains the entire process −

Goals of RMI
Following are the goals of RMI −
 To minimize the complexity of the application.

 To preserve type safety.
 Distributed garbage collection.
 Minimize the difference between working with local and remote objects.
*****
Microsoft’s Distributed Component Object Model:

DCOM is a programming technique that allows a computer to run programmes
on a remote computer as if they were running locally. The Distributed
Component Object Model (DCOM) is an acronym for Distributed Component
Object Model. It is a software component that enables COM objects to
communicate over the network.
DCOM is an extension of COM that addresses a few issues with the COM model
to make it more beneficial over a network −
 Marshalling − Marshalling solves the problem of delivering data from one
COM object instance to another on a different machine; in programming
words, this is referred to as "passing arguments."
 Distributed Garbage Collection − Designed to scale DCOM to handle
high-volume internet traffic, Distributed Garbage Collection also includes
a mechanism for deleting and reclaiming completed or abandoned DCOM
objects, preventing web server memory from being blown up. It then

communicates with the other servers in the transaction chain, informing
them that the transaction's objects are available for deletion.
 DCE/RPC is used as the underlying RPC mechanism − Microsoft built
DCE/RPC as the underlying technology for DCOM – where the D in
DCOM comes from – to achieve the goals mentioned earlier attempt to
scale to support a significant volume of web traffic.
The following table highlights the major points that differentiate COM and
DCOM –
COM DCOM
It stands for Component Object Model. It stands for Distributed Component Object
Model.
COM is a set of components tools which DCOM runs on the given server.
are executed on client-side environment.
COM objects require installation on It requires installation somewhere on the

machine where it is to be used. same network.
COM is an interface standard. DCOM is a model designed for distributed

applications.
It allows reusability of objects. It doesn't allow reusability.
*****

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
An Overview of EDI:
EDI stands for Electronic Data Interchange. EDI is an electronic way of
transferring business documents in an organization internally, between its
various departments or externally with suppliers, customers, or any subsidiaries.
In EDI, paper documents are replaced with electronic documents such as word
documents, spreadsheets, etc.
EDI Documents
Following are the few important documents used in EDI −
 Invoices
 Purchase orders
 Shipping Requests
 Acknowledgement
 Business Correspondence letters
 Financial information letters
Steps in an EDI System
Following are the steps in an EDI System.

 A program generates a file that contains the processed document.
 The document is converted into an agreed standard format.
 The file containing the document is sent electronically on the network.
 The trading partner receives the file.
 An acknowledgement document is generated and sent to the originating
organization.

Advantages of an EDI System
Following are the advantages of having an EDI system.

 Reduction in data entry errors. − Chances of errors are much less while
using a computer for data entry.
 Shorter processing life cycle − Orders can be processed as soon as they are
entered into the system. It reduces the processing time of the transfer
documents.
 Electronic form of data − It is quite easy to transfer or share the data, as it is
present in electronic format.
 Reduction in paperwork − As a lot of paper documents are replaced with
electronic documents, there is a huge reduction in paperwork.
 Cost Effective − As time is saved and orders are processed very effectively,
EDI proves to be highly cost effective.
 Standard Means of communication − EDI enforces standards on the
content of data and its format which leads to clearer communication.
*****
The Origins of EDI:

Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the computer-to-computer exchange of
business documents and information. Fundamentally, EDI is a methodology. It’s
a set of best practices, standards, processes and technology that enables the free
flow of information between different businesses — specifically, different
businesses within a single supply chain.
For example, a car manufacturer (e.g. BMW) buys parts from a load of different
companies. It then needs to distribute manufactured cars to auto-dealers — only
some of which are under the direct control of BMW. Each of those purchase
orders and invoices could be done manually (printing out orders, manually re-
entering data, email or mailing invoice etc.). Or it could just be done
electronically and automatically using EDI.
However, to automatically exchange information between different companies,

the different systems need to be able to understand each other. That means they
need to use standardised formatting and compatible technology. EDI is all of the
components and processes required to deliver this electronic and automated
outcome.
At Data Interchange, we’ve spent decades helping businesses implement EDI

systems, and are pioneering new ways to optimise modern EDI outcomes. Here,
we are going to explain EDI, how it works, how it’s changing, and how exactly it
stands to shape the future of supply chain management.
*****
Understanding EDI:
Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the digital exchange of business documents
between companies using computers, replacing old school faxing and mailing
methods. Standard documents exchanged through EDI include purchase orders,
invoices, and shipping documents. EDI is used in a variety of industries by more
than 100,000 companies, most of whom require their trading partners also to
adopt EDI to ensure continuity, collaboration, and the standardization or ordering
and communication.
Electronic data interchange is now widely used both in the United States and
globally, based on a number of standards that have been enacted that provide
basic guidelines for its use. The two standards bodies that are most frequently
associated with Electronic Data Interchange are the ANSI X12 standard, used
primarily in the US, and the UN EDIFACT standard that is used outside of the
United States.
Automated Communication
To truly understand EDI, you need to break down each step in the exchange
process. How EDI differs from traditional communication between businesses
lies within how information is transferred. EDI is a computer-to-computer
exchange, without the need for any manual input. It aims to completely replace
the time-consuming nature of mail, fax, or even electronic mail.
When humans intervene in a communication process, it inevitably slows the
exchange process while increasing the risk of error. With each supplier and client
having unique requirements when it comes to conducting business, trying to
remember small nuances can be impossible. EDI uses this data to seamlessly
ensure all business requirements are met in order for companies, suppliers,
manufacturers, and merchants can meet all expectations.
A traditional ordering process is a long and arduous process, that looks something
like this:
1. A buyer fills out a purchasing order and then faxes or mails it to a supplier.

2. The supplier checks inventory and then manually enters the order into an ERP
system.
3. The supplier sends an invoice to the buyer and waits.
4. The buyer enters the invoice manually into their ERP system and waits for
processing.
5. Once the supplier is paid, they send confirmation of shipment.
EDI dramatically simplifies the exchange between a buyer and supplier. A
buyer’s internal system uses EDI to send a purchase order, which is accepted by
the supplier’s internal network. Everything is exchanged in real-time without the
need for faxing, mailing, or manual entry.
This automated exchange between computer systems allows for much faster and
more accurate transactions between businesses. For retailers, distributors, and
vendors, speed is necessary to meet the needs of their clients and run a successful
company. EDI assists in orchestrating and organizing these transactions so
businesses can consistently meet the needs of their customers and clients. While
EDI is commonly implemented for the benefit of larger firms, it can be incredibly
beneficial for small and mid-sized businesses too. If a company expects explosive
growth, having an EDI solution in place will better prepare them for a successful
future in meeting increasing demand.
*****
Data Exchange Standards:
Data Exchange Standards facilitate the sharing of structured data across different
information systems. Data Exchange Standards are optimized to represent CDISC
content, and flexible enough to be used by information systems that haven’t
implemented the Foundational Standards (e.g., legacy data, academic studies).
Clinical Trial Registry (CTR)-XML: lets technology vendors implement tools

that support a “write once, use many times” solution based on a single XML file
that holds the information needed to generate submissions for multiple clinical
trials for clinical trial registry submissions primarily to the World Health
Organization (WHO),European Medicines Agency (EMA) EudraCT Registry and
United States ClinicalTrials.gov.

Operational Data Model (ODM)-XML:
is a vendor-neutral, platform-independent format for exchanging and archiving
clinical and translational research data, along with their associated metadata,
administrative data, reference data, and audit information. ODM-XML facilitates
the regulatory-compliant acquisition, archival and exchange of metadata and data.
It has become the language of choice for representing case report form content in
many electronic data capture (EDC) tools.
Study/Trial Design Model in XML (SDM-XML):
is an extension of ODM-XML and allows organizations to provide rigorous,
machine-readable, interchangeable descriptions of the designs of their clinical
studies, including treatment plans, eligibility and times and events. SDM-XML
defines three key sub-modules – Structure, Workflow, and Timing – permitting
various levels of detail in any representation of a clinical study’s design.
Define-XML:
transmits metadata that describes any tabular dataset structure. When used with
the CDISC Foundational standards, it provides the metadata for human and
animal model datasets using the SDTM and/or SEND standards and analysis
datasets using ADaM. Define-XML is required by the United States Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) and the Japanese Pharmaceuticals and Medical
Devices Agency (PMDA) for every study in each electronic submission to inform
the regulators which datasets, variables, controlled terms, and other specified
metadata were used.
Dataset-XML:
supports the exchange of dataset data based on Define-XML metadata. Dataset-
XML complements Define-XML and provides an alternative to the SAS V5
Transport format for the exchange of study datasets for CDISC's Foundational
standards. Dataset-XML is a truly non-proprietary, global standard, removing
many SAS V5 Transport file restrictions (the current file format required by the
FDA and PMDA), such as 8-character variable names and 200-character text
fields.
CDISC Standards in RDF:
provides a representation of the CDISC Foundational standards in a model based
on the Resource Description Framework (RDF). RDF provides executable,
machine-readable CDISC standards from CDISC Library. This file format is a
“linked data” view of the standards as an ontology.

The Laboratory Data Model (LAB):
provides a standard model for the acquisition and exchange of laboratory data,
primarily between labs and sponsors or CROs. The LAB standard was
specifically designed for the interchange of lab data acquired in clinical trials.
*****
EDI Architecture:
EDI architechture specifies 4 layers:-
1)Semantic (application layer)
2)Standard transaction layer
3)Packing (transport) layer
4)Physical n/w infrastructure layer.
1)Semantic layer:- It describes the business application that is driving EDI.
For a procurement application, this translates into requests for quotes, price
quotes, purchase orders, acknoledgements & involves.
The information seen at this layer must be translated from a company specific
from to a more generic form so that it can be send to various trading partners,
who could be using a varity of software applications at this end.
When a trading partner sends a document, the EDI translation software converts
the proprietary format into a standard mutually agreed on by the processing
system. When a company receivers the document, their EDI translation software
automatically changes the standard format into proprietary format of their
document processing software so that company can manipulate
the information in whatever way it chooses to.
2)EDI standards:- It specify business form structure and it also influence the
content at application layer.
The most two important standards are:-
– EDIPACT
– ANSI X12
3.EDI transport layer:- it corresponds closely with the non-electronic activity
of sending a business form from one company A to company B.
The business form could be sent via regular postal service, registered mail,
certified mail or private carrier such as united pariel service (UPS) or simply
faxed between the companies.
EDI semantic layer application level services

EDI standard layer EDIFACT
ANSI X12
EDI transport layer e- mail X 435
Point2point FTP
www HTTP
4.Physical layer :- Dial up lines
*****
The Significance of EDI in International Trade:

EDI was developed to solve the problems inherent in paper-based transaction
processing and in other forms of electronic communication. In solving these
problems, EDI is a tool that enables organizations to reengineer information
flows and business processes. Problems with the paper-based transaction system
are:
 Time delays: Delays are caused primarily by two factors. Paper documents
may take days to transport from one location to another. In addition, manual
processing delays are caused by the need to key, file, retrieve, and compare
data.
 Labor costs: In non-EDI systems, manual processing is required for data
keying, document storing and retrieving, sorting, matching, reconciling,
envelope stuffing, stamping, signing, etc. While automated equipment can
help with some of these processes, most managers will agree that labor costs
for document processing represents a significant proportion of
their overhead. In general, labor-based processes are much more expensive
than non-labor-intensive operations involving computers and
telecommunications.
 Errors: Because information is keyed multiple times and documents are
transported, stored, and retrieved by people, non-EDI systems tend to be error
prone.
 Uncertainty: Uncertainty exists in two areas. First, paper transportation and
other manual processing delays mean that the time the document is received
is uncertain. Once a transaction is sent, the sender does not know when the
transaction will be received nor when it will be processed. Second, the sender
does not even know whether the transaction has been received at all nor
whether the receiver agrees with what was sent in the transaction.
 High Inventories: Because of time delays and uncertainties in non EDI
processing, inventories are often higher than necessary. Lead times with
paper processing are long. In a manufacturing firm, it may be virtually

impossible to achieve a just-in-time inventory system with the time delays
inherent in non-EDI processing systems.
 Information Access: EDI permits user access to a vast amount of detailed
transaction data—in a non-EDI environment this is possible only with great
effort and time delay. Because EDI data is already in computer-retrievable
form, it is subject to automated processing and analysis. Such information
helps one retailer, for example, monitor sales of toys by model, color, and
customer zip code. This enables the retailer to respond very quickly to
changes in consumer taste.
*****
Financial EDI:
EDI technology is used in the Finance/Banking Industry to improve operational
efficiency and reduce transaction costs across the supply chain, comprising of
Manufacturers, Suppliers, Customers, and Logistics providers, Retailers,
Wholesalers etc. Financial EDI allows for funds to be transferred electronically
between financial institutions - EDT (Electronic Data Transfer). EDT enables
employers to directly deposit payroll cheques, consumer accounts can be directly
debited and businesses can pay government taxes electronically.
Examples of organizations using EDI in the Finance/Banking Industry:-
Standard Bank, FNB, Absa, KPMG, Pricewaterhouse Coopers, Ernst & Young,
Deloitte, Alexander Forbes, Capitec Bank, Santam Limited, Hollard Insurance
Group, Allan Gray.
Associations for EDI in the Finance/Banking Industry:- Bank Of

America, Finance, Christopher and Banks, SWIFT, ISO, NACHA, BIAN
*****
EDI and the Internet:
EDI traditional technology was updated during the Internet/e-business era

through the use of EDI/Internet (EDIINT) technology. EDIINT technology
makes it feasible for business of all sizes to process transactions in a structured
form by computer. EDIINT technology provides compatibility, open standards,
analytical capabilities, and an ease of use through the format of eXtensible
Markup Language (XML) while preserving EDI traditional structured standards
(Batson, 1997). The purpose of this article is to illustrate that hotels of all sizes

can use EDI in the Internet e-business era to conduct business with their trading
partners in a cost effective manner.
EDI is define as an interorganizational and intraorganizational, computer-to-

computer exchange of business documentation in a structured, computer-
processable data format in a timely manner.
This definition distinguishes EDI information flow from the traditional

information flow shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1 Traditional and EDI Information Flow.
There are a number of key points in the definition that makes EDI a unique form
of business data electronically transmitted. Interorganizational means that EDI
technology can be used for electronic processing and the communication of
information between trading partners. Intraorganizational is the use of EDI within
an organization to support internal business processes between individuals and
departments. Computer-to-computer indicates a direct link between computer
systems. Business documentation implies the use of official paper to support
transaction flow. For example, items such as customer name, product number,
quantity, unit price, and total value can be structured into an invoice or a
purchase order document. Structured means that there should be no discrepancies
between the data in a purchase order and the data in an invoice because of the
agreed upon method used in presenting the data. Computer processable
format means that the data must be in some pre-established structured format and
can be read and understood by the computer without human interpretation.
This definition distinguishes EDI from other forms of e-commerce because of its
structured format of data. Paper documents, e-mails, and faxes do not have a

specific, universally accepted data format. These forms of communication are
handled using computers, manually, or by a combination of both methods. With
EDI, data must be understood by the communicating computer systems. That
means data must be preformatted and should be based on standards acceptable to
the trading partners, and computers must be programmed to understand the
incoming and outgoing data format.
Figure 2 illustrates the four major groups of EDI applications that can be used in
a hotel business environment. Trade data interchange (TDI) is the electronic
transfer of trading documents such as purchase orders, invoices and
acknowledgements between hotels and their trading partners. Financial electronic
data interchange (FEDI) is the electronic transmission of payments deposits and
remittance information between a payer, payee and their respective banks
(Pushkin & Morris, 1997). Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is an automatic
transfer of debits and credits between banks, in which funds flow directly from
the payer's banks to the payee's bank. Value added banks (VAB) are banks that
act as communications and network intermediaries for their customers,
combining both TDI and FEDI services.
FIGURE 2 Four major groups as EDI applications that can be used in a hotel.
*****

Extensible Markup Language (XML)
Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML):
SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) is a standard for how to

specify a document markup language or tag set. Such a specification is itself a
document type definition (DTD). SGML is not in itself a document language, but
a description of how to specify one. It is metadata.
SGML is based on the idea that documents have structural and other semantic
elements that can be described without reference to how such elements should be
displayed. The actual display of such a document may vary, depending on the
output medium and style preferences. Some advantages of documents based on
SGML are:
 They can be created by thinking in terms of document structure rather than

appearance characteristics (which may change over time).
 They will be more portable because an SGML compiler can interpret any
document by reference to its document type definition (DTD).
 Documents originally intended for the print medium can easily be re-adapted
for other media, such as the computer display screen.
The language that this Web browser uses, Hypertext Markup Language (HTML),
is an example of an SGML-based language. There is a document type definition
for HTML (and reading the HTML specification is effectively reading an
expanded version of the document type definition). In today's distributed
networking environment, many documents are being described with the
Extensible Markup Language (XML) which is a data description language (and a
document can be viewed as a collection of data) that uses SGML principles.
SGML is based somewhat on earlier generalized markup languages developed at

IBM, including General Markup Language (GML) and ISIL.
*****

Basics of XML:
XML stands for Extensible Markup Language. It is a text-based markup
language derived from Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML).
XML tags identify the data and are used to store and organize the data, rather
than specifying how to display it like HTML tags, which are used to display the
data. XML is not going to replace HTML in the near future, but it introduces
new possibilities by adopting many successful features of HTML.
There are three important characteristics of XML that make it useful in a variety
of systems and solutions −
 XML is extensible − XML allows you to create your own self-descriptive
tags, or language, that suits your application.
 XML carries the data, does not present it − XML allows you to store
the data irrespective of how it will be presented.
 XML is a public standard − XML was developed by an organization
called the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and is available as an
open standard.
XML Usage:-
A short list of XML usage says it all −

 XML can work behind the scene to simplify the creation of HTML
documents for large web sites.
 XML can be used to exchange the information between organizations and
systems.
 XML can be used for offloading and reloading of databases.
 XML can be used to store and arrange the data, which can customize your
data handling needs.
 XML can easily be merged with style sheets to create almost any desired
output.
 Virtually, any type of data can be expressed as an XML document.
What is Markup?
XML is a markup language that defines set of rules for encoding documents in a
format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. So what exactly is a
markup language? Markup is information added to a document that enhances its
meaning in certain ways, in that it identifies the parts and how they relate to each
other. More specifically, a markup language is a set of symbols that can be

placed in the text of a document to demarcate and label the parts of that
document.
Following example shows how XML markup looks, when embedded in a piece
of text −
<message>
<text>Hello, world!</text>
</message>
This snippet includes the markup symbols, or the tags such as
<message>...</message> and <text>... </text>. The tags <message> and
</message> mark the start and the end of the XML code fragment. The tags
<text> and </text> surround the text Hello, world!.
Is XML a Programming Language?
A programming language consists of grammar rules and its own vocabulary

which is used to create computer programs. These programs instruct the
computer to perform specific tasks. XML does not qualify to be a programming
language as it does not perform any computation or algorithms. It is usually
stored in a simple text file and is processed by special software that is capable of
interpreting XML.
*****
XML parsers:
XML parser is a software library or a package that provides interface for client
applications to work with XML documents. It checks for proper format of the
XML document and may also validate the XML documents. Modern day
browsers have built-in XML parsers.
Following diagram shows how XML parser interacts with XML document −
The goal of a parser is to transform XML into a readable code.

To ease the process of parsing, some commercial products are available that
facilitate the breakdown of XML document and yield more reliable results.
Some commonly used parsers are listed below −
 MSXML (Microsoft Core XML Services) − This is a standard set of
XML tools from Microsoft that includes a parser.

 System.Xml.XmlDocument − This class is part of .NET library, which
contains a number of different classes related to working with XML.
 Java built-in parser − The Java library has its own parser. The library is
designed such that you can replace the built-in parser with an external
implementation such as Xerces from Apache or Saxon.
 Saxon − Saxon offers tools for parsing, transforming, and querying XML.
 Xerces − Xerces is implemented in Java and is developed by the famous
open source Apache Software Foundation.
*****
The Need for a Standard:
XML has a variety of uses for Web, e-business, and portable applications.
The following are some of the many applications for which XML is useful:
 Web publishing: XML allows you to create interactive pages, allows the
customer to customize those pages, and makes creating e-commerce
applications more intuitive. With XML, you store the data once and then
render that content for different viewers or devices based on style sheet
processing using an Extensible Style Language (XSL)/XSL
Transformation (XSLT) processor.
 Web searching and automating Web tasks: XML defines the type of
information contained in a document, making it easier to return useful
results when searching the Web:
For example, using HTML to search for books authored by Tom Brown is
likely to return instances of the term 'brown' outside of the context of
author. Using XML restricts the search to the correct context (for example,
the information contained in the <author> tag) and returns only the
information that you want. By using XML, Web agents and robots
(programs that automate Web searches or other tasks) are more efficient
and produce more useful results.
 General applications: XML provides a standard method to access

information, making it easier for applications and devices of all kinds to
use, store, transmit, and display data.
 e-business applications: XML implementations make electronic data
interchange (EDI) more accessible for information interchange, business-
to-business transactions, and business-to-consumer transactions.
 Metadata applications: XML makes it easier to express metadata in a
portable, reusable format.

 Pervasive computing: XML provides portable and structured information
types for display on pervasive (wireless) computing devices such as
personal digital assistants (PDAs), cellular phones, and others. For
example, WML (Wireless Markup Language) and VoiceXML are currently
evolving standards for describing visual and speech-driven wireless device
interfaces.
*****
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
Limitations of Mobile Devices:
Along with the numerous benefits, mobile phones also have various limitations.
Let's discuss the limitations of using mobile phones in detail.
Distraction:-
Sometimes mobile is a disturbing device that creates a distraction between your

works. It is seen in students that are easily distracted from their studies because of
mobiles, as the device contains applications that attract users to enjoy their
software. One such application is the various mobile games that are being played
a couple of days make the people addicted and distracted from their goals.
Ear problems:-
While listening to songs, watching movies, or calling for a long time with
headphones or headset can damage the listening potential of an individual. It has
been seen in researches that using headphones with the louder hearing sound
seriously disturbs the capability of ears to hear voice properly.

Wastage of time:-
Although mobiles are helpful in various aspects, it is one of the biggest thing
responsible for the wastage of time. Most students and teenagers are affected by
it. Students want to play games, watching movies, listening songs, and other
kinds of entertainment that waste their precious time.
Addiction to mobile phone:-
Addiction to mobile phones is termed "Nomophobia". In this mental disorder,

people are unable to stop themselves without using mobile phones. They even
can't imagine themself without a mobile. Using mobile phones too much makes a
person addicted to them.
Cyberbullying:-
Cyberbullying means to send, post, or share negative, false, and harmful content
about someone else. Research shows that most students and teenagers got
cyberbullied. Cyberbullying puts someone's life in danger.
Security issues:-
These are the common issues that happen with mobile users. iPhone IOS is little
bit secure but in android phones breaching someone's privacy and data is easier
for hackers. Security issues are the dangerous effects of using mobile phones for
people. People faced a lot of problems due to security issues, such as loss of
money, image, reputation, and others.
Loss of study:-
Using mobile phones in excessive amounts is a major disadvantage for students.

Mobile phones mostly affect the study of students. Mobile phones distract
students from the study. Students majorly focus on playing games, watching
movies, and other entertainment on mobile that decreases their grades.
Health problems:-
Excessive use of mobile phones causes the health problems such as swelling of
the eyes and other eyesight problems. Mobile phones include mental disorders
such as Anger, depression, anxiety, tension, and others.

Sleeping issues:-
Using the mobile phone in an excessive amount badly affects the sleeping
routine. People use mobile even during sleeping time. At night, some people
stuck on their mobile phone's screen that disturbed their sleeping routine a lot.
Accidents:-
People stuck in their mobiles, even walking on roads, or driving a car. Using a
mobile phone while driving causes accidents and puts the lives of others at risk. It
is very dangerous to use mobile while driving, as mobile users while driving can
injure them and can kill other people by accidents.
Distance from relatives:-
Although mobiles connect the people from a distance and we can communicate
with them easily, but if we do not use it properly, it can create distance from
friends, relatives, family members that are close to us. It is observed many times
that the members of a family are sitting in a restaurant and stuck to their phones
and not talking with each other.
*****
The emergence of WAP:
WAP is a protocol that is introduced in 1999, which stands for Wireless

application protocol. It offers Internet communications over wireless devices,
such as mobile phones. In the early 2000s, it accomplished some popularity and
was mainly superseded by more recent standards by the 2010s. Also, it offers a
way of creating web applications for mobile devices, and it is designed for micro-
browsers.
Most of the wireless networks are supported by WAP, as well as TDMA, CDMA,
and GSM. Also, all operating systems can support a wireless application
protocol. It enables access to the internet in mobile devices and uses the mark-up
language like WML, which stands for Wireless Markup Language that is referred
to as XML 1.0 application. WAP offers the facility to connect interactive wireless
devices (like mobile phones) to the internet and enhances wireless specification
interoperability.

WAP may be created on any kind of operating system, and it acts in an open
application environment. It is more beneficial for mobile users as it has the ability
to deliver electronic information efficiently. In 1998, Nokia, Motorola, Ericson,
and Unwired Planet founded the WAP Forum, whose objective was to
standardize several wireless technologies with the help of protocols.
The WAP CSS (cascading style sheet) makes capable of developers to format
screen sizes in order to mobile device adaptability. When the WAP CSS content
is used, then reformatting is not required. It controls page layout compatibility
with different mobile device's display screens.Hello Java Program for Beginners
The transport layer handles the physical network issues, by which wireless
gateways can be easily accessed by global wireless operations. A WAP gateway
is a server, which provides the facility to access the wireless network. The WAP
Forum offers specification development, WAP tool testing and also provides
support for all mobile services. Now, the WAP Forum is referred to as the Open
Mobile Alliance.
WAP Model:-
In the mobile device, the user opens the web browser and access the website and
visit webpages accordingly. The mobile device forwards the URL request to a
WAP gateway through the network using the WAP protocol. Then, the WAP
gateway refers to this request over the internet after translating it into a
conventional HTTP URL request. The specified Web server accepts the request
and processes the request. Then, it returns the response to the mobile device in
the WML file through the WAP gateway that will be displayed in the web
browser on the device.

*****
WAP Architecture:
WAP is designed in a layered fashion, so that it can be extensible, flexible, and
scalable. As a result, the WAP protocol stack is divided into five layers −
Layers of WAP Protocol:-
Application Layer:-
Wireless Application Environment (WAE). This layer is of most interest to
content developers because it contains among other things, device specifications,
and the content development programming languages, WML, and WMLScript.
Session Layer:-
Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). Unlike HTTP, WSP has been designed by the
WAP Forum to provide fast connection suspension and reconnection.
Transaction Layer:-
Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). The WTP runs on top of a datagram
service, such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and is part of the standard suite
of TCP/IP protocols used to provide a simplified protocol suitable for low
bandwidth wireless stations.
Security Layer:-
Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). WTLS incorporates security
features that are based upon the established Transport Layer Security (TLS)
protocol standard. It includes data integrity checks, privacy, service denial, and
authentication services.
Transport Layer:-
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP). The WDP allows WAP to be bearer-
independent by adapting the transport layer of the underlying bearer. The WDP
presents a consistent data format to the higher layers of the WAP protocol stack,
thereby offering the advantage of bearer independence to application developers.

Each of these layers provides a well-defined interface to the layer above it. This
means that the internal workings of any layer are transparent or invisible to the
layers above it. The layered architecture allows other applications and services
to utilise the features provided by the WAP-stack as well. This makes it possible
to use the WAP-stack for services and applications that currently are not
specified by WAP.
The WAP protocol architecture is shown below alongside a typical Internet
Protocol stack.
Note that the mobile network bearers in the lower part of the figure above are
not part of the WAP protocol stack.
*****
The WAP Stack:
1. Application Layer (WAE)
The Wireless Application Environment contains content development

programming languages like WML and mobile device specifications. It functions
much like a JavaScript and holds the tools that wireless Internet content
developers use. It includes scripting languages such as WML and WMLScript
that are used in conjunction with WML.

2. Session Layer (WSP)
It determines the session will be connection-oriented or connectionless between

the device and the network and offers a reconnection and fast connection
suspension. The data is passed both ways between the network and the device in
the connection-oriented session. Then, WSP forwards the packet to the next layer
WTP (Wireless Transaction Protocol). When the information is being streamed or
broadcast from the network to the device, commonly, the connectionless session
is used. Then, WSP forwards the packet to the WDP (Wireless Datagram
Protocol) layer.
3. Transaction Layer (WTP)
The Wireless Transaction Protocol offers transaction support. It is a part

of TCP/IP and runs on top of UDP, which stands for User Datagram Protocol.
4. Security Layer (WTLS)
The Wireless Transport Layer Security provides security in terms of data

integrity, privacy and authentication that help to save your data. It also has the
ability to work like Transport Layer Security. Also, it contains security features
that have Transport Layer Security.
5. Transport Layer (WDP)
With the network carrier layer, the Wireless Datagram Protocol functions in
conjunction and presents a constant data format to higher layers of WAP protocol
stack.
*****
Concerns about WAP and its Future:
The future of WAP depends largely on whether consumers decide to use WAP
devices to access the Web, and also on whether a new technology comes along
that would require a different infrastructure than WAP.
On the consumer side, the factors largely involve the limitations of WAP and of
handheld devices, the low bandwidth, the limited input ability, and the small
screens all require users to adapt from their regular Web-browsing expectations.
In the next few years, mobile phones will start to benefit from very high
bandwidth capabilities. The 2.5G/3G systems will allow much higher capacity
and data rates, than can be offered by the restricted bandwidth currently
available.

These wireless devices will be supported by a number of emerging technologies
including GPRS, EDGE, HSCSD, and UMTS:
So what is the future for WAP? It has been designed to be independent of the
underlying network technology. The original constraints WAP was designed for
- intermittent coverage, small screens, low power consumption, wide scalability
over bearers and devices, and one-handed operation - are still valid in 2.5G and
3G networks.
The bottom line is that WAP is not and can never be the Web on your mobile
phone. WAP is great as long as developers understand that it's what's inside the
applications that matters, and the perceived value of the content to the user. The
browser interface itself, while important will always be secondary to the content.
*****
Alternatives to WAP:
Double-barreled Critical Path Software Inc. rolled out an upgraded version of its
server designed to help service providers and businesses deliver two-way text
messaging to users.
Substitute for WAP Officials with the San Francisco company said InVoke
SMS (Short Message Service) Server 4.0 will give customers an alternative to
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) technologies.
New e-mail client Among InVokes features are a new IMAP4 e-mail client, a
wireless messaging technology for non-WAP devices that mirrors what a user
gets using a desktop and a software developers kit.
Ease of use Users can send messages across SMS carriers and access e-mail.
InVoke Server 4.0 is available now, with pricing averaging $2.50 per subscriber.
*****

Web Technologies Js Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Web Technologies Js Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Web Technologies Js Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WEB TECHNOLOGIES

MCA III SEMESTER

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 1

TCP/IP Part II (TCP, UDP):Basics of TCP, Features of TCP, Relationship between

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 2

Introduction to Web Technology: Features Required for Enabling e-commerce,

Middleware and Component-based E-commerce Architectures: CORBA, Java

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 3

Networking Protocols and OSI Model: Protocols in Computer Communications,

Networking Protocols and OSI Model

Protocols in Computer Communications:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 4

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 5

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 6

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 7

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual

Functions of a Physical layer:

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 8

 Logical Link Control Layer

Functions of the Data-link layer:-

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 9

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of

Functions of Network Layer:-

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 10

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in

Functions of Transport Layer:-

 Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 12

 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a

Functions of Presentation layer:-

 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 13

Functions of Application layer:-

 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 14

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 15

The Biggest Standing Internet Issues

3. Unexpected fluctuations in use: Internet companies have learned to expect a

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 16

5. Overreliance on major corporations: Chances are, you’re using an internet

6. Patchwork fixes: This is a mentality problem rather than an infrastructural

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 17

WIRELESS ALPHABET SOUP COMPATIBILITY:-

WIRELESS SECURITY COMPATIBILITY:-

Virtual networking enables devices across many locations to function with

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 18

In a physical network, LANs are created to connect multiple devices to shared

Virtual networking is the foundation for cloud architectures and applications,

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 19

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 20

Switch:- Switch is a network device that connects other devices

Gateway:- Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 21

A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing,

When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated

WEB TECHNOLOGIES (JASWANTHI) Page 22

Types of Repeaters:According to the types of signals that they regenerate,