Numerical control

In machining, numerical control, also called computer numerical control (CNC),[1] is the automated
control of tools by means of a computer.[2] It is used to operate tools such as drills, lathes, mills,
grinders, routers and 3D printers. CNC transforms a piece of material (metal, plastic, wood, ceramic,
stone, or composite) into a specified shape by following coded programmed instructions and
without a manual operator directly controlling the machining operation.

A CNC machine that operates on

wood

CNC machines typically use some

kind of coolant, typically a water-
miscible oil, to keep the tool and parts
from getting hot.

A CNC metal lathe with the door open.

A CNC machine is a motorized maneuverable tool and often a motorized maneuverable platform,
which are both controlled by a computer, according to specific input instructions. Instructions are
delivered to a CNC machine in the form of a sequential program of machine control instructions
such as G-code and M-code, and then executed. The program can be written by a person or, far
more often, generated by graphical computer-aided design (CAD) or computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM) software. In the case of 3D printers, the part to be printed is "sliced" before the instructions
(or the program) are generated. 3D printers also use G-Code.[3]

CNC offers greatly increased productivity over non-computerized machining for repetitive
production, where the machine must be manually controlled (e.g. using devices such as hand
wheels or levers) or mechanically controlled by pre-fabricated pattern guides (see pantograph mill).
However, these advantages come at significant cost in terms of both capital expenditure and job
setup time. For some prototyping and small batch jobs, a good machine operator can have parts
finished to a high standard whilst a CNC workflow is still in setup.

In modern CNC systems, the design of a mechanical part and its manufacturing program are highly
automated. The part's mechanical dimensions are defined using CAD software and then translated
into manufacturing directives by CAM software. The resulting directives are transformed (by "post
processor" software) into the specific commands necessary for a particular machine to produce the
component and then are loaded into the CNC machine.

Since any particular component might require the use of several different tools – drills, saws, touch
probes etc. – modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single "cell". In other
installations, several different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic
operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the series of steps
needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that meets every specification
in the original CAD drawing, where each specification includes a tolerance.

Description

Motion is controlling multiple axes, normally at least two (X and Y),[4] and a tool spindle that moves
in the Z (depth). The position of the tool is driven by direct-drive stepper motors or servo motors to
provide highly accurate movements, or in older designs, motors through a series of step-down
gears. Open-loop control works as long as the forces are kept small enough and speeds are not too
great. On commercial metalworking machines, closed-loop controls are standard and required to
provide the accuracy, speed, and repeatability demanded.

Parts description

As the controller hardware evolved, the mills themselves also evolved. One change has been to
enclose the entire mechanism in a large box as a safety measure (with safety glass in the doors to
permit the operator to monitor the machine's function), often with additional safety interlocks to
ensure the operator is far enough from the working piece for safe operation. Most new CNC
systems built today are 100% electronically controlled.

CNC-like systems are used for any process that can be described as movements and operations.
These include laser cutting, welding, friction stir welding, ultrasonic welding, flame and plasma
cutting, bending, spinning, hole-punching, pinning, gluing, fabric cutting, sewing, tape and fiber
placement, routing, picking and placing, and sawing.

History

The first CNC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s, based on existing tools that were
modified with motors that moved the tool or part to follow points fed into the system on punched
tape.[3] These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers,
creating the modern CNC machine tools that have revolutionized machining processes.

Today

Now the CNC in the processing manufacturing field has been very extensive, not only the traditional
milling and turning, other machines and equipment are also installed with the corresponding CNC,
which makes the manufacturing industry in its support, greatly improving the quality and efficiency.
Of course, the latest trend in CNC[5] is to combine traditional subtractive manufacturing with
additive manufacturing (3D printing) to create a new manufacturing method[6] - hybrid additive
subtractive manufacturing (HASM).[7] Another trend is the combination of AI, using a large number
of sensors, with the goal of achieving flexible manufacturing.[8]
Examples of CNC machines

CNC
Description Image
machine

Translates programs consisting of specific numbers and letters to move the spindle (or
workpiece) to various locations and depths. Can either be a Vertical Milling Center (VMC) or
a Horizontal Milling Center, depending on the orientation of the spindle. Many use G-code.
Mill Functions include: face milling, shoulder milling, tapping, drilling and some even offer
turning. Today, CNC mills can have 3 to 6 axes. Most CNC mills require placing the
workpiece on or in them and must be at least as big as the workpiece, but new 3-axis
machines are being produced that are much smaller.

Cuts workpieces while they are rotated. Makes fast, precision cuts, generally using indexable
tools and drills. Effective for complicated programs designed to make parts that would be
unfeasible to make on manual lathes. Similar control specifications to CNC mills and can
often read G-code. Generally have two axes (X and Z), but newer models have more axes,
allowing for more advanced jobs to be machined. Most modern lathes have live tooling,
Lathe
allowing for limited milling operations to take place without having to remove the part from
the lathe spindle. Second operations can be completed by using a sub-spindle, which is co-
axial to the main spindle, but faces the other direction. This allows the part to be removed
from the main spindle, and for additional features to be machined in the back side of the
part.

Involves cutting a material using a plasma torch. Commonly used to cut steel and other
metals, but can be used on a variety of materials. In this process, gas (such as compressed
Plasma air) is blown at high speed out of a nozzle; at the same time, an electrical arc is formed
cutter through that gas from the nozzle to the surface being cut, turning some of that gas to
CNC plasma
plasma. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the material being cut and moves sufficiently cutting
fast to blow molten metal away from the cut.
 (EDM), also known as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking, or wire erosion, is
a manufacturing process in which the desired shape is obtained using electrical discharges
(sparks). Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring current
discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric fluid and subject to an electric
voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool electrode, or simply the "tool" or "electrode",
while the other is called the workpiece electrode, or "workpiece".

EDM can be broadly divided into "sinker" type processes, where the electrode Sinker EDM.
Electrolyte
is the positive shape of the resulting feature in the part, and the electric
solution
Electric
discharge erodes this feature into the part, resulting in the negative shape, saturates
discharge
the
machining
and "wire" type processes. Sinker processes are rather slow as compared to
workpiece,
conventional machining, averaging on the order of 100mm3/min,[9] as and voltage
6 3
compared to 8x10 mm /min for conventional machining, but it can generate is applied
between the
features that conventional machining cannot. Wire EDM operates by using a
sinker, top,
thin conductive wire, typically brass, as the electrode, and discharging as it and
runs past the part being machined. This is useful for complex profiles with workpiece,
bottom.
inside 90 degree corners that would be challenging to machine with
conventional methods.

Type of screw machine used in mass production. Considered to be highly efficient by

increasing productivity through automation. Can efficiently cut materials into small pieces
Multi- while simultaneously utilizing a diversified set of tooling. Multi-spindle machines have
spindle multiple spindles on a drum that rotates on a horizontal or vertical axis. The drum contains a
machine drill head which consists of several spindles that are mounted on ball bearings and driven by
gears. There are two types of attachments for these drill heads, fixed or adjustable,
depending on whether the center distance of the drilling spindle needs to be varied.[10]

Also known as a "waterjet", is a tool capable of slicing into metal or other materials (such as
granite) by using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, on the order of 60,000 PSI, or a
mixture of water and an abrasive substance, such as garnet powder. It is often used during
the fabrication or manufacture of parts for machinery and other devices. Waterjet cutting is
the preferred machining method when the materials being cut are sensitive to the high
Water jet temperatures generated by other methods. It has found applications in a diverse number of
cutter industries from mining to aerospace where it is used for operations such as cutting, shaping, Waterjet
carving, and reaming. The thickness of material processable via waterjet machining is cutting
machine
generally limited by the pressure of the waterjet, and by the dispersion of the jet as it gets
further from the nozzle. Some waterjet cutters have a 5-axis cutting head, allowing for much
more complex shapes to be cut, and to compensate for the angle of the kerf to leave the
angled wall on the stock instead of on the finished part.
 Used to rapidly punch holes and cut thin materials. Such as sheet metal, plywood, thin bar
stock, and tubing. Punch presses are generally used when a CNC mill would be inefficient or
Punch
unfeasible. CNC punch presses can come in the C frame, where the sheet material is
press
clamped onto a machining table and a hydraulic ram pushes down on the material, or they
Punch
can come in a portal frame variant where bar stock/tubing is fed into the machine.
machine at
work

Other CNC tools

Many other tools have CNC variants, including:

3D printing

CNC router

Canned cycle

Cylindrical grinders

Drills

Embroidery machines

Glass cutting

Hot-wire foam cutters

Induction hardening machines

Laser cutting

Lathes

Leather cutter

Milling machine

Oxy-fuel

Plasma cutters

Sheet metal works (Turret punch)

Submerged arc welding

Surface grinder
 Tube, pipe and wire bending machines

Vinyl cutter

Water jet cutters

Wood routers

Tool/machine crashing

In CNC, a "crash" occurs when the machine moves in such a way that is harmful to the machine,
tools, or parts being machined, sometimes resulting in bending or breakage of cutting tools,
accessory clamps, vises, and fixtures, or causing damage to the machine itself by bending guide
rails, breaking drive screws, or causing structural components to crack or deform under strain. A
mild crash may not damage the machine or tools but may damage the part being machined so that
it must be scrapped. Many CNC tools have no inherent sense of the absolute position of the table or
tools when turned on. They must be manually "homed" or "zeroed" to have any reference to work
from, and these limits are just for figuring out the location of the part to work with it and are no hard
motion limit on the mechanism. It is often possible to drive the machine outside the physical
bounds of its drive mechanism, resulting in a collision with itself or damage to the drive mechanism.
Many machines implement control parameters limiting axis motion past a certain limit in addition to
physical limit switches. However, these parameters can often be changed by the operator.

Many CNC tools also do not know anything about their working environment. Machines may have
load sensing systems on spindle and axis drives, but some do not. They blindly follow the
machining code provided and it is up to an operator to detect if a crash is either occurring or about
to occur, and for the operator to manually abort the active process. Machines equipped with load
sensors can stop axis or spindle movement in response to an overload condition, but this does not
prevent a crash from occurring. It may only limit the damage resulting from the crash. Some
crashes may not ever overload any axis or spindle drives.

If the drive system is weaker than the machine's structural integrity, then the drive system simply
pushes against the obstruction, and the drive motors "slip in place". The machine tool may not
detect the collision or the slipping, so for example the tool should now be at 210mm on the X-axis,
but is, in fact, at 32mm where it hit the obstruction and kept slipping. All of the next tool motions will
be off by −178mm on the X-axis, and all future motions are now invalid, which may result in further
collisions with clamps, vises, or the machine itself. This is common in open-loop stepper systems
but is not possible in closed-loop systems unless mechanical slippage between the motor and drive
mechanism has occurred. Instead, in a closed-loop system, the machine will continue to attempt to
move against the load until either the drive motor goes into an overload condition or a servo motor
fails to get to the desired position.

Collision detection and avoidance are possible, through the use of absolute position sensors
(optical encoder strips or disks) to verify that motion occurred, or torque sensors or power-draw
sensors on the drive system to detect abnormal strain when the machine should just be moving and
not cutting, but these are not a common component of most hobby CNC tools. Instead, most hobby
CNC tools simply rely on the assumed accuracy of stepper motors that rotate a specific number of
degrees in response to magnetic field changes. It is often assumed the stepper is perfectly accurate
and never missteps, so tool position monitoring simply involves counting the number of pulses sent
to the stepper over time. An alternate means of stepper position monitoring is usually not available,
so crash or slip detection is not possible.

Commercial CNC metalworking machines use closed-loop feedback controls for axis movement. In
a closed-loop system, the controller monitors the actual position of each axis with an absolute or
incremental encoder. Proper control programming will reduce the possibility of a crash, but it is still
up to the operator and programmer to ensure that the machine is operated safely. However, during
the 2000s and 2010s, the software for machining simulation has been maturing rapidly, and it is no
longer uncommon for the entire machine tool envelope (including all axes, spindles, chucks, turrets,
tool holders, tailstocks, fixtures, clamps, and stock) to be modeled accurately with 3D solid models,
which allows the simulation software to predict fairly accurately whether a cycle will involve a crash.
Although such simulation is not new, its accuracy and market penetration are changing considerably
because of computing advancements.[11]

Numerical precision and equipment backlash

Within the numerical systems of CNC programming, the code generator can assume that the
controlled mechanism is always perfectly accurate, or that precision tolerances are identical for all
cutting or movement directions. While the common use of ball screws on most modern NC
machines eliminates the vast majority of backlash, it still must be taken into account. CNC tools
with a large amount of mechanical backlash can still be highly precise if the drive or cutting
mechanism is only driven to apply cutting force from one direction, and all driving systems are
pressed tightly together in that one cutting direction. However, a CNC device with high backlash and
a dull cutting tool can lead to cutter chatter and possible workpiece gouging. The backlash also
affects the precision of some operations involving axis movement reversals during cutting, such as
the milling of a circle, where axis motion is sinusoidal. However, this can be compensated for if the
amount of backlash is precisely known by linear encoders or manual measurement.
The high backlash mechanism itself is not necessarily relied on to be repeatedly precise for the
cutting process, but some other reference object or precision surface may be used to zero the
mechanism, by tightly applying pressure against the reference and setting that as the zero
references for all following CNC-encoded motions. This is similar to the manual machine tool
method of clamping a micrometer onto a reference beam and adjusting the Vernier dial to zero
using that object as the reference.

Positioning control system

In numerical control systems, the position of the tool is defined by a set of instructions called the
part program. Positioning control is handled using either an open-loop or a closed-loop system. In
an open-loop system, communication takes place in one direction only: from the controller to the
motor. In a closed-loop system, feedback is provided to the controller so that it can correct for
errors in position, velocity, and acceleration, which can arise due to variations in load or
temperature. Open-loop systems are generally cheaper but less accurate. Stepper motors can be
used in both types of systems, while servo motors can only be used in closed systems.

Cartesian coordinates

The G & M code positions are all based on a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. This
system is a typical plane often seen in mathematics when graphing. This system is required to map
out the machine tool paths and any other kind of actions that need to happen in a specific
coordinate. Absolute coordinates are what are generally used more commonly for machines and
represent the (0,0,0) point on the plane. This point is set on the stock material to give a starting
point or "home position" before starting the actual machining.

Coding

G-codes

G-codes are used to command specific movements of the machine, such as machine moves or
drilling functions. The majority of G-code programs start with a percent (%) symbol on the first line,
then followed by an "O" with a numerical name for the program (i.e. "O0001") on the second line,
then another percent (%) symbol on the last line of the program. The format for a G-code is the letter
G followed by two to three digits; for example G01. G-codes differ slightly between a mill and lathe
application, for example:
 [G00 Rapid Motion Positioning]
[G01 Linear Interpolation Motion]
[G02 Circular Interpolation Motion-Clockwise]
[G03 Circular Interpolation Motion-Counter Clockwise]
[G04 Dwell (Group 00) Mill]
[G10 Set offsets (Group 00) Mill]
[G12 Circular Pocketing-Clockwise]
[G13 Circular Pocketing-Counter Clockwise]

M-codes

[Code Miscellaneous Functions (M-Code)]. M-codes are miscellaneous machine commands that do
not command axis motion. The format for an M-code is the letter M followed by two to three digits;
for example:

[M01 Operational stop]

[M02 End of Program]
[M03 Start Spindle - Clockwise]
[M04 Start Spindle - Counter Clockwise]
[M05 Stop Spindle]
[M06 Tool Change]
[M07 Coolant on mist coolant]
[M08 Flood coolant on]
[M09 Coolant off]
[M10 Chuck open]
[M11 Chuck close]
[M12 Spindle up]
[M13 BOTH M03&M08 Spindle clockwise rotation & flood coolant]
[M14 BOTH M04&M08 Spindle counter clockwise rotation & flood coolant]
[M15 BOTH M05&M09 Spindle stop and Flood coolant off]
[M16 Special tool call]
[M19 Spindle orientate]
[M29 DNC mode]
[M30 Program reset & rewind]
[M38 Door open]
[M39 Door close]
[M40 Spindle gear at middle]
[M41 Low gear select]
 [M42 High gear select]
[M53 Retract Spindle] (raises tool spindle above current position to allow operator to do whatever
they would need to do)
[M68 Hydraulic chuck close]
[M69 Hydraulic chuck open]
[M78 Tailstock advancing]
[M79 Tailstock reversing]

Example

%
O0001
G20 G40 G80 G90 G94 G54(Inch, Cutter Comp. Cancel, Deactivate all
canned cycles, moves axes to machine coordinate, feed per min.,
origin coordinate system)
M06 T01 (Tool change to tool 1)
G43 H01 (Tool length comp. in a positive direction, length
compensation for the tool)
M03 S1200 (Spindle turns CW at 1200RPM)
G00 X0. Y0. (Rapid Traverse to X=0. Y=0.)
G00 Z.5 (Rapid Traverse to z=.5)
G00 X1. Y-.75 (Rapid traverse to X1. Y-.75)
G01 Z-.1 F10 (Plunge into part at Z-.25 at 10in per min.)
G03 X.875 Y-.5 I.1875 J-.75 (CCW arc cut to X.875 Y-.5 with radius
origin at I.625 J-.75)
G03 X.5 Y-.75 I0.0 J0.0 (CCW arc cut to X.5 Y-.75 with radius origin
at I0.0 J0.0)
G03 X.75 Y-.9375 I0.0 J0.0(CCW arc cut to X.75 Y-.9375 with radius
origin at I0.0 J0.0)
G02 X1. Y-1.25 I.75 J-1.25 (CW arc cut to X1. Y-1.25 with radius
origin at I.75 J-1.25)
G02 X.75 Y-1.5625 I0.0 J0.0 (CW arc cut to X.75 Y-1.5625 with same
radius origin as the previous arc)
G02 X.5 Y-1.25 I0.0 J0.0 (CW arc cut to X.5 Y-1.25 with same radius
origin as the previous arc)
G00 Z.5 (Rapid traverse to z.5)
M05 (spindle stops)
G00 X0.0 Y0.0 (Mill returns to origin)
M30 (Program End)
%

Having the correct speeds and feeds in the program provides for a more efficient and smoother
product run. Incorrect speeds and feeds will cause damage to the tool, machine spindle, and even
the product. The quickest and simplest way to find these numbers would be to use a calculator that
can be found online. A formula can also be used to calculate the proper speeds and feeds for a
material. These values can be found online or in Machinery's Handbook.

See also

Automatic tool changer

Binary cutter location

CNC plunge milling

Computer-aided technologies
Computer-aided engineering (CAE)

Coordinate-measuring machine (CMM)

Design for manufacturability

Direct numerical control (DNC)

EIA RS-274

EIA RS-494

Gerber format

Home automation

Maslow CNC

Multiaxis machining

Optical tracer

Part program

Robotics

Touch probe

List of computer-aided manufacturing software

References

1. "What Is A CNC Machine?" (https://cncmachines.com/what-is-a-cnc-machine) . CNC

Machines. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
 2. "Automation - Numerical Control, Robotics, Manufacturing | Britannica" (https://www.britannic
a.com/technology/automation/Numerical-control#ref390752) . www.britannica.com. 2024-
10-28. Retrieved 2024-10-31.

3. 3ERP (2022-06-24). "What is CNC Milling and How Does it Work: Everything You Need to Know
- 3ERP" (https://www.3erp.com/blog/cnc-milling-everything-you-need-to-know/) . Rapid
Prototyping & Low Volume Production. Retrieved 2022-06-30.

4. Mike Lynch, "Key CNC Concept #1—The Fundamentals Of CNC", Modern Machine Shop, 4
January 1997 (http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/key-cnc-concept-1the-fundamentals-of-cn
c) . Accessed 11 February 2015

5. CapableMaching. "CNC Machining Industry: new & important trend" (https://capablemachining.

com/cnc-machining-industry/) .

6. Chang Y C, Pinilla J M, Kao J H, et al. Automated layer decomposition for additive/subtractive

solid freeform fabrication[C]. 1999 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, 1999.

7. W. Grzesik/ (2018). "HYBRID ADDITIVE AND SUBTRACTIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES..."

(https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/99525.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Machine Engineering. 18 (4):
5–24. doi:10.5604/01.3001.0012.7629 (https://doi.org/10.5604%2F01.3001.0012.7629) .

8. L.C. Moreira, W. Li, X. Lu, M.E. Fitzpatrick Supervision controller for real-time surface quality
assurance in CNC machining using artificial intelligence Comput. Ind. Eng., 127 (2019), pp.
158-168

9. Klocke, F.; Schwade, M.; Klink, A.; Veselovac, D. (2013-01-01). "Analysis of Material Removal
Rate and Electrode Wear in Sinking EDM Roughing Strategies using Different Graphite Grades"
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procir.2013.03.079) . Procedia CIRP. Proceedings of the
Seventeenth CIRP Conference on Electro Physical and Chemical Machining (ISEM). 6: 163–
167. doi:10.1016/j.procir.2013.03.079 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procir.2013.03.079) .
ISSN 2212-8271 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2212-8271) .

10. "Multi Spindle Machines - An In-Depth Overview" (https://www.davenportmachine.com/multi-s

pindle-machines/) . Davenport Machine. Retrieved 2017-08-25.

11. Zelinski, Peter (2014-03-14), "New users are adopting simulation software" (http://www.mmson
line.com/blog/post/new-users-are-adopting-simulation-software) , Modern Machine Shop.

Further reading

Brittain, James (1992), Alexanderson: Pioneer in American Electrical Engineering, Johns Hopkins
University Press, ISBN 0-8018-4228-X.
 Holland, Max (1989), When the Machine Stopped: A Cautionary Tale from Industrial America,
Boston: Harvard Business School Press, ISBN 978-0-87584-208-0, OCLC 246343673 (https://sear
ch.worldcat.org/oclc/246343673) .

Noble, David F. (1984), Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation, New York,
New York, US: Knopf, ISBN 978-0-394-51262-4, LCCN 83048867 (https://lccn.loc.gov/8304886
7) .

Reintjes, J. Francis (1991), Numerical Control: Making a New Technology, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0-19-506772-9.

Weisberg, David, The Engineering Design Revolution (https://web.archive.org/web/201007070747

50/http://www.cadhistory.net/chapters/03_MIT_CAD_Roots_1945_1965.pdf) (PDF), archived
from the original (http://www.cadhistory.net/chapters/03_MIT_CAD_Roots_1945_1965.pdf)
(PDF) on 7 July 2010.

Wildes, Karl L.; Lindgren, Nilo A. (1985), A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
at MIT (https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild) , MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-23119-0.

Herrin, Golden E. "Industry Honors The Inventor Of NC" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009042708

5904/http://www.mmsonline.com/columns/industry-honors-the-inventor-of-nc.aspx) , Modern
Machine Shop, 12 January 1998.

Siegel, Arnold. "Automatic Programming of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools", Control

Engineering, Volume 3 Issue 10 (October 1956), pp. 65–70.

Smid, Peter (2008), CNC Programming Handbook (3rd ed.), New York: Industrial Press,
ISBN 9780831133474, LCCN 2007045901 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2007045901) .

Christopher jun Pagarigan (Vini) Edmonton Alberta Canada. CNC Infomatic, Automotive Design &
Production.

Fitzpatrick, Michael (2019), "Machining and CNC Technology".

External links

Media related to Computer numerical control at Wikimedia Commons