Q. No. 1.

The Greenhouse Effect

 History
Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927) was a Swedish scientist who was the first to claim in 1896 that
fossil fuel combustion may eventually result in enhanced global warming. He proposed a
relation between atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature. He and Thomas
Chamberlin calculated that human activities could warm the earth by adding carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere. This was not actually verified until 1987; in 1988 it was finally acknowledged
that the climate was warmer than any period since 1880. The greenhouse effect theory was
named and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was founded by the United
Nations Environmental Programme and the World Meteorological Organization. This
organization tries to predict the impact of the greenhouse effect according to existing climate
models and literature information.
 The Natural Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because certain
gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone, methane, for
example) trap energy that comes from the sun. These gases are usually called greenhouse
gases since they behave much like the glass panes in a greenhouse. The glass panels of the
greenhouse let in the light but keep heat from escaping and this is similar to the effect these
gasses have on earth.
Sunlight enters the Earth's atmosphere, passing through the greenhouse gases. As it reaches
the Earth's surface, land, water, and biosphere absorb the sunlight's energy. Once absorbed,
this energy is sent back into the atmosphere. Some of the energy passes back into space, but
much of it remains trapped in the atmosphere by the greenhouse gases. This is the completely
natural process and without these gases all the heat would escape back into space and Earth's
average temperature would be about 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit) colder.
The greenhouse effect is very important process, because without the greenhouse effect, the
Earth would not be warm enough for humans to live. But if the greenhouse effect becomes
stronger, it could make the Earth warmer than usual. Even a little extra warming may cause
problems for humans, plants, and animals.

 The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

Some human activities also produce greenhouse gases and these gases keep increasing in the
atmosphere. The change in the balance of the greenhouse gases has significant effects on the
entire planet. Burning fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Cutting down and burning trees also produces a lot of carbon dioxide. A group of
greenhouse gases called the chlorofluorocarbons have been used in aerosols, such as hairspray
cans, fridges and in making foam plastics.

Since there are more and more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, more heat is trapped,
which makes the Earth warmer. This is known as global warming. A lot of scientists agree that
man's activities are making the natural greenhouse effect stronger. If we carry on polluting the
atmosphere with greenhouse gases, it will have very dangerous effects on the Earth. Today, the
increase in the Earth's temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed.
To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider that during the entire
20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly
more than 1 degree Fahrenheit). Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by
the year 2100 the average global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees
Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).

 Greenhouse Gases
Many greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment, such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Others such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are created and emitted solely through
human activities. Human activities also add significantly to the level of naturally occurring
greenhouse gases. The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere because of
human activities are:

 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the burning
of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood products, and
also as a result of other chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon
dioxide is also removed from the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is
absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle.
 Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during various agricultural and industrial
activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
 Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal,
natural gas, and oil. Methane is also emitted when organic waste decomposes,
whether in landfills or in connection with livestock farming.
  Fluorinated Gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride are
synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial
processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting
substances (i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller
quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred
to as High Global Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").
Greenhouse gases vary in their ability to absorb and hold heat in the atmosphere. HFCs and
PFCs are the most heat-absorbent, but there are also wide differences between naturally
occurring gases. For example, nitrous oxide absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than
carbon dioxide, and methane absorbs 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide.
However, carbon dioxide contributes the most, since its level in the atmosphere is the highest.
Estimates of future emissions and removals depend in part on assumptions about changes in
underlying human activities. For example, the demand for fossil fuels such as gasoline and
coal is expected to increase greatly with the predicted growth of the U.S. and global.
Many, but not all, human sources of greenhouse gas emissions are expected to rise in the
future. This growth may be reduced by ongoing efforts to increase the use of newer, cleaner
technologies and other measures.
Additionally, our everyday choices about such things as commuting, housing, electricity use, and
recycling can influence the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted.
 The Effects of Global Warming
With more heat trapped on Earth, the planet will become warmer, which means the weather all
over Earth will change. Since the conditions we are living in are perfect for life, a large rise in
temperature could be disastrous for us and for any other living creatures on Earth. At the
moment, it is difficult for scientists to say how big the changes will be and where the worst
effects will occur. These are some of the assumptions
 The Weather
The effects will vary in different parts of the world: some places will become drier and others
will become wetter. Although most areas will be warmer, some areas will become cooler. There
may be many storms, floods and drought, but we do not know which areas of the world will be
affected. All over the world, these weather changes will affect the kinds of crop that can be
grown. Plants, animals, and even people may find it difficult to survive in different conditions.
 Sea Levels
Higher temperatures will make the water of the seas and oceans expand. Ice melting in the
Antarctic and Greenland will flow into the sea. All over the world, sea levels may rise, perhaps
by as much as 20 to 40 cm, by the beginning of the next century. Higher sea levels will threaten
the low-lying coastal areas of the world, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh. Throughout
the world, millions of people and areas of land will be at danger from flooding. Many people
will have to leave their homes and large areas of farmland will be ruined because of floods.
 Farming
The changes in the weather will affect the types of crops grown in different parts of the world.
Some crops, such as wheat and rice, grow better in higher temperatures, but other plants, such
as maize and sugarcane, do not.
Changes in the amount of rainfall will also affect how many plants grow. The effect of a change in
the weather on plant growth may lead to some countries not having enough food. Brazil, parts of
Africa, south-east Asia, and China
  Plants & Animals
It has taken millions of years for life to become used to the conditions on Earth. As weather and
temperature changes, the homes of plants and animals will be affected all over the world. For
example, polar bears and seals will have to find new land for hunting and living if the ice in the
Arctic melts. Many animals and plants may not be able to cope with these changes and could
die. This could cause the loss of some animal and plant species in certain or all areas of the
world.
 People
The changes in climate will affect everyone, but some populations will be at greater risk. For
example, countries whose coastal regions have a large population, such as Egypt and China,
may see whole populations move inland to avoid flood risk areas. The effect on people will
depend on how well we can adapt to the changes and how much we can do to reduce climate
change in the world.
 Relationship Between Climate Change and Global Public Health
Consensus exists among scientists all over the globe that the world's climate is changing and
that these changes can affect human health. The more direct health effects of climate change
can include injuries and illnesses from severe weather, floods, and heat exposure; increases
in disease caused by allergies, respiratory problems, and illnesses carried by insects or in
water; and threats to the safety and availability of our food and water supplies. Less direct
effects can include worry, depression, and the negative impacts of mass migration and
regional conflicts.
To a large extent, public health depends on safe drinking water, sufficient food, secure shelter,
and good social conditions. A changing climate is likely to affect all of these conditions. Warming
climate as a result of the greenhouse effect is likely to bring some localized benefits, such as
decreased winter deaths in temperate climates, and increases in food production in some
regions.
However, the health effects of a rapidly changing climate are likely to be overwhelmingly
negative, particularly in the poorest communities, which have contributed least to greenhouse
gas emissions. Some of the health effects include increase in frequencies of heatwaves,
shortages in supplies of freshwater, rise in temperatures followed by variable precipitation,
which are likely to decrease the production of staple foods in many of the poorest regions,
rising sea levels, and prolongation of seasons for transmission of important vector-borne
disease, as well as the alteration of their geographical range. All these events may lead to
increased risks of:
 water-borne disease,
 malnutrition,
 coastal flooding,
 huge population displacement, and
 new diseases moving into the regions which lack either population immunity
  Conclusion
So far not many measures have been taken to address climate change. This is largely caused by
the major uncertainties still surrounding the theory. But climate change is also a global problem
that is hard to solve by single countries. Therefore in 1998, the Kyoto Protocol was negotiated
in Kyoto, Japan. It requires participating countries to reduce their anthropogenic greenhouse
gas emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, and SF6) by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the
commitment period 2008 to 2012. The Kyoto Protocol was eventually signed in Bonn in 2001 by
186 countries. Several countries such as the United States and Australia have retreated.

Q. No. 2. Explain the life cycle of building construction and provide a diagram illustrating the different
phases?

1. Planning and Development: This phase includes defining the project's objectives,
budgeting, site selection, and feasibility studies. It's crucial for identifying potential
challenges and creating a roadmap for the entire construction process.
2. Design: In this phase, architects and engineers develop detailed designs and plans for the
building. It involves conceptual design, schematic design, design development, and
creating construction documents. This is also the stage where permits and approvals are
obtained.
3. Pre-Construction: Before actual construction begins, pre-construction activities like site
preparation, hiring contractors, and securing construction equipment take place. It also
involves refining budgets and schedules.
4. Procurement: This involves acquiring the necessary materials and hiring subcontractors or
vendors. It ensures that all resources are ready and available when needed during
construction.
5. Construction: This is the execution phase where the actual building takes shape based on
the design plans. It involves foundation work, structural work, installation of systems, and
finishing work as per the design specifications.
6. Commissioning: After the construction is completed, the building is inspected thoroughly
to ensure that it meets all regulations, standards, and client expectations. This phase
includes testing building systems and addressing any issues that arise.
7. Occupancy and Maintenance: Once the building is deemed ready, it's handed over to the
owner for occupancy. Regular maintenance begins to ensure the building operates
efficiently and remains in good condition.
8. Renovation/Demolition: Over time, a building may undergo renovations to update or
modify its structure and systems. Alternatively, it might be demolished when it no longer
serves its purpose or at the end of its life span.
Each phase is crucial for the successful completion of a building, requiring careful planning,
collaboration, and management.

Diagram
  Conclusion
In conclusion, the building construction life cycle is a complex process that involves eight
distinct phases, from pre-construction to decommissioning. Understanding these phases is crucial
for effective project planning, quality assurance, safety, sustainability, and stakeholder
satisfaction. By recognizing the importance of each phase, stakeholders can navigate complex
projects with confidence, ensuring successful outcomes and long-term value.