1. Distinguish between class A and class B operation.

Class A Class B
The transistor is biased so that the The transistor is biased so that
output current flows for the entire the output current flows for half
input cycle. cycle of the entire input cycle.
The conduction angle is 360 degree. The conduction angle is 180
degree.
Less signal distortion Signal distortion is high as
compared to class A amplifier.

2. Draw the basic construction of N-channel JFET with proper biasing condition for gate
and drain with respect to source.

3. Write any two applications for Photodiode.

Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels, Logic circuits, Photodetectors
4. Mention the purpose of an Optocoupler.
 It transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using light.
 Opto-isolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the signal.
5. What is use of emissive layer in OLED?
 The emissive layer plays a key role in OLEDs.
 Polymers are used in the emissive layer to enhance the efficiency of OLEDs at
the same time self-luminescence materials are used in OLEDs.
6. An amplifier has a gain of 500 without feedback. Determine closed loop gain when
negative feedback is applied with feedback ratio of 0.01.

Af=?
A=500, β=0.01
7. Name the applications of a differential amplifier.
Signal conditioning, Analog-to-digital converter, Synthesizer circuits, Instrumentation
and medical devices
8. An amplifier has current gain of AI without feedback. What will happen to current gain,
if feedback is accounted?

9. State Barkhausen condition for sustained oscillation.

 Barkhausen criteria states that
 Magnitude of loop gain of the circuit must be equal to 1.
 Total phase shift around the circuit must be zero (0o or 360o ).

10. Sketch the characteristics of LED.

11. List any two drawbacks of class C amplifier.

 A larger maximum current means we need a larger device, which leads to a lower matching
bandwidth.
 The Class C stage requires transistors with higher breakdown voltage.
12. Why constant current source biasing is preferred for differential amplifier?
Constant current source used in a differential amplifier which makes it possible to achieve high
voltage gain without requiring large power supply voltage.
13. What do you mean by electroluminescence effect?
Electroluminescence (EL) is an electro-optical conversion phenomenon, in which a material
emits light in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field.
14. List any two advantages of TRIAC over SCR.
 TRIACs differ from SCRs in that they allow current flow in both directions, whereas
an SCR can only conduct current in a single direction.
 Most TRIACs can be triggered by applying either a positive or negative voltage to the
gate (an SCR requires a positive voltage).
15. Define Photovoltaic effect.
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic
cell when it is exposed to sunlight.
16. A MOSFET in saturation has a drain current of 1 mA for VDS = 0.5 V. If the channel
length modulation coefficient is 0.05 V−1. Find the output resistance (in kΩ) of the
MOSFET.
 17. What is the effect on input and output impedance of an amplifier if it employs
voltage series negative feedback?
When an amplifier uses voltage series negative feedback, the input
impedance increases and the output impedance decreases.
18. The distortion in an amplifier is found to be 3%, when the feedback ratio of negative
feedback amplifier is 0.04. When the feedback is removed, the distortion becomes 15%.
Find the open and closed loop gain.

19. Draw the general block diagram of oscillator.

20. State the effect of negative feedback on bandwidth.

 Increases the bandwidth to maintain constant gain-bandwidth product.
 Reduces the distortion and noise in the amplifier.

LONG ANSWERS
1. Explain the operation of N-channel JFET.
N-Channel JFET Operation:

When VGS =0V and VDS>0V

 Gate and Source are at same potential and a depletion region in the lower end of p-region is
similar to that of distribution in unbiased conditions as shown in figure.
 At the instant the voltage VDD (=VDS) is applied, the electrons will be drawn to the drain terminal,
establishing the conventional current ID with the defined direction of Figure.
  As 𝑉𝐷𝑆 is increased from 0 to few volts, 𝐼𝐷 increases. The channel behaves like almost a resistance
in the region from 𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 0to 𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝑃 and hence it is known as Ohmic region.
 Further increasing of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 to a level known as Pinch-off Voltage (𝑉𝑃 ), where the two depletion
regions touch each other results a narrow channel. At the voltage𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝑃 , the drain current
becomes constant and enters Pinch-off (Active) region.

When 𝑉𝐺𝑆 < 0𝑉

 The applied negative bias 𝑉𝐺𝑆 establish depletion regions similar to that of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 0𝑉, but at lower
level of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 .
 The voltage from gate to source, denoted VGS, is the controlling voltage of the JFET.
 This result in reaching the saturation level at lower level of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 and small value of 𝐼𝐷 .
 As VDS is continuously increased, gate-channel junction’s breakdown and device gets destroyed-
Breakdown region. (Normal Operating region of JFET- Pinch off region).

2. Explain the VI characteristics of N-channel JFET with neat diagram.

Drain Characteristics:

Ohmic region: Drain current increases linearly with increase in 𝑉𝐷𝑆 (obeying ohms law).
Pinch-off (Active) region: Drain current remains constant at its maximum value after pinch-off
voltage(VP).
Breakdown region: The drain current increases rapidly as 𝑉𝐷𝑆 is approaching its maximum value.
Cut-off region: The drain current becomes 0 mA for all values of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 when VGS=-VGS(OFF).

Transfer Characteristics

 A plot of drain current 𝐼𝐷 versus gate to source voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 by keeping VDS as constant at
VDS>=VP.
 At VGS=0 v, drain current will be maximum called as drain saturation current, ID=IDSS.
  As VGS is increased towards negative direction, channel width decreases and hence drain
current decreases.
 When 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = −𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑜𝑓𝑓) , drain current becomes 0A.
 The transfer characteristics is expressed by using Shockley equation as
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 [1 − ( )]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑜𝑓𝑓)

3. With a neat diagram, elaborate the construction and operation of

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
SCR consists of four semiconductor layers forming a PNPN Structure as shown in
Fig.SCRs are made of silicon and not germanium.
 It can be thought of as an ordinary rectifier with a control element. The current
flowing into the control element, which is termed the gate, determines the anode
to cathode voltage at which the device begins to conduct.
 It is a most important semiconductor device in the industrial or power electronics
field. This is widely applied as an ac power- control device.
 It is used as a controlled switch to perform a variety of functions such as
rectification, d.c. to a.c. inversion and power control.
 It has three PN Junction namely J1, J2 and J3.
 There are three terminals called Anode (A), Cathode (K) and the Gate (G) taken
out as shown in the fig. In which the end P-layer acts as anode, the end N-layer
acts as cathode and P-layer nearer to cathode acts as gate.
4. With a neat sketch, explain the VI characteristics of a Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR).
 It gives the relationship between the anode current (IA) and the anode to cathode voltage (VAK)
of SCR for different values of gate current(IG).
 It has two types of V-I Characteristics namely forward characteristics and reverse
characteristics.
The forward characteristic gives us the information about following important points

 As the applied anode to cathode voltage (VAK) is increased above zero, a very little anode current
flows through the device, SCR is off and it offers very high resistance (ideally open)

 As the VAK exceeds the forward breakover voltage (VFBO), the SCR turns ON and the anode to
cathode voltage decreases quickly.
The current corresponding to that decreased voltage is called the holding current (IH). It is the
minimum current required to keep the SCR is ON.
Reverse characteristic:

 Reverse characteristic can be obtained by reversing the connections of the d.c. supplies VAA and
VGG. Adjust the gate current to any suitable value, increase the reverse applied voltage in suitable
steps and record the value of reverse anode current.

5. Describe the working principle of Optocoupler with a neat sketch.

 An opto-coupler is also known as optical isolator is a device that uses a short optical
transmission path to transfer signals between the elements of the circuit.
 Optocouplers consists an optical transmitting device and a photosensitive device that
are coupled together optically.
 o The optical path may be air or di-electric.
o The transmitter unit contain either a lamp, an LED or in some cases a laser diode.
o The receiver unit may be photo diode, photo transistor and photoconductor or any
other photo sensistive material.
 Optocouplers are used in applications that require isolation between input and output
signals.
 Optocouplers have also replaced low power relays and pulse transformers in many
applications.
 They can be used for applications like detection of objects, liquid- level detection,
smoke and foge detection, end-of-tape detection and so on.

6. Draw and explain the construction and operation of Phototransistor.

Phototransistor is an optical detection device that provide internal gain and is therefore
attractive to many applications.
 It is a bipolar transistor that is excited by an optical signal, and the latter is
converted into a photocurrent, which is the collector current of the device.
 Phototransistors are usually connected in the common emitter configuration
with base open and the radiation is concentrated on to the region near to the
base-collector junction.
 The reverse biased base-collector junction, at which most of the light is
absorbed, is the junction diode and the current that is generated is amplified by
transistor action.

 The characteristics of photo transistors are similar to those of normal transistors except that
they have base current replaced by light intensity as shown in figure.
 When there is no photons incident on the photo transistor, the collector current flows through
the phototransistor is due to the thermally generated carriers, this current is referred to as the
dark current.
 If light is made to fall on the base region, then it results in the generation electronhole pairs
which give rise to base current. This further result in emitter current through the device,
resulting in the process of amplification.
7. Elaborate the working of Colpitts crystal oscillator with appropriate diagrams.
 In colpitts the phase-shift network consists of two capacitors and an inductor.
 The feedback between the output and input circuit is accomplished by the voltage
developed across the capacitor C1.

The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

8. In a Hartley oscillator, the value of the capacitor in the tuned circuit is 500 pF and the
two sections of the coil have inductances 38 µH and 12 µH. Design the frequency of
oscillations and the feedback factor β.

9. Elaborate the current series feedback connection with neat block diagram and
derive the expressions for Zif and Zof.
10. An amplifier has a voltage gain of 4000. The input impedance is 2 KΩ and the output
impedance is 60 KΩ. Calculate the voltage gain, input impedance and output impedance
of the circuit when 5% of the feedback is fed in the form of series negative voltage
feedback.
1. An amplifier, without feedback, has a voltage gain of 500, lower cut-off frequency f1 =
100 Hz, upper cut-off frequency f2 = 250 KHz and a distortion of 10%. Identify the
amplifier voltage gain, lower cut-off frequency and upper cut-off frequency and
distortion, sensitivity, desensitivity and bandwidth when negative feedback is applied with
feedback ratio of 0.01.

2. List the different classification of feedback topology with the neat diagram.
Voltage Shunt
3. Elaborate the working of Wien bridge oscillator with appropriate diagrams.
It is a two-stage amplifier with RC bridge circuit.
 The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and an amplifier while the other
transistor T2 serves as an inverter. The inverter operation provides a phase shift
of 180°.
 This circuit provides positive feedback through R1C1, C2R2 to the transistor
T1 and negative feedback through the voltage divider to the input of transistor
T2.
 The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R1C1 and
parallel element R2C2 of the bridge.
4. Determine the frequency of oscillations the when a RC phase shift oscillator has
R = 10 kΩ, C = 0.01 µF and Rc =2.2 kΩ. Also, find minimum current gain needed for this
purpose.

5. With neat sketches, elucidate the construction and operation of solar cells.
 It is a semiconductor device that converts photon energy into electrical energy. Since
the most abundantly available natural source of photon energy is the sun, a photovoltaic
cell is also referred to as a solar cell.
  A semiconductor p-n junction was the first device to be used as a solar cell. Silicon is
the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing photovoltaic cell.
Working Principle of Solar Cell:
 When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction,
through very thin N-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies
sufficient energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs.
 The incident light, breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction. The free
electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
 Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction.

V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell

 The cell generates no power in short circuit or open circuit. The cell delivers maximum power
Pmax when operating at a point on the characteristic where the product IV is maximum.

6. With a neat diagram, elaborate the construction and operation of charge coupled devices.
 A Charge-Coupled Device, or CCD, is basically an array of closely-spaced metal-oxide
semiconductor (MOS) diodes that can store and transfer information using packets of electric
charge, or charge packets.
 CCD is more intended to be used as an image sensor because of its light sensitivity. Images can
be captured using an important property of CCD which was well known as photoelectric effect.
Working:
Potential well: In a n-type CCD, when applying a negative voltage at the electrodes, there will
be a depletion region since the majority carries (electrons) are pushed away from the surface
of the n-type substrate.
Pixel:
Under each channel stop, there is usually a heavily doped region to provide further barrier to
the electrons in the charge packets.
Readout: For the simplest way of the readout operation, charge is shifted along each column
to the register at the corner of each pixel array where a single circuit is provided to measure the
charge captured by each pixel.
Serial Register: The shifted charges along a column are then dumped to another pixel series
called serial line at the bottom and is perpendicular to the columns.
Output node and pre amplifier: Finally, the charge is dumped to a capacitor in the corner of
the pixel array, where the caused voltage of the charge is detected and amplified for the last
step through an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC).
Analog-to-Digital-Converter(ADC): The resulting analog signal is converted to digital
information which can be used in one’s computer. An Analog-to-Digital-Converter (ADC)
turns the analog value of each pixel to the digital value which is binary form and is stored in a
memory.
7. Operation of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) :
Stands for "Liquid Crystal Display."
 LCD is a flat panel display technology commonly used in TVs and computer monitors.
It is also used in screens for mobile devices, such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
 When all the sub-pixels are turned on 100%, it appears white.
 By adjusting the individual levels of red, green, and blue light, millions of color
combinations are possible.
Working of LCD:
 The backlight in liquid crystal display provides an even light source behind the screen.
This light is polarized, meaning only half of the light shines through to the liquid
crystal layer.
 The liquid crystals are made up of a part solid, part liquid substance that can be
"twisted" by applying electrical voltage to them.
  They block the polarized light when they are off, but reflect red, green, or blue light
when activated. Each LCD screen contains a matrix of pixels that display the image
on the screen.
 Early LCDs had passive-matrix screens, which controlled individual pixels by sending
a charge to their row and column. Since a limited number of electrical charges could
be sent each second, passive-matrix screens were known for appearing blurry when
images moved quickly on the screen.
 Modern LCDs typically use active-matrix technology, which contain thin film
transistors, or TFTs.
 These transistors include capacitors that enable individual pixels to "actively" retain
their charge.
 Therefore, activematrix LCDs are more efficient and appear more responsive than
passive-matrix displays.
8. With a neat diagram, elaborate the operation of LASER diodes.
LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, which is
used to emit coherent light beam.

Working:

 When a forward bias is applied to a PN junction, the charge carrier injection take place into
the depletion region. As the forward current excites the atoms that strike, first emit photons
(radiant energy) of energy randomly, as electrons are raised to a high energy level and fall
back to a low energy level.
 Consequently, several photons strike the reflective ends of the junction perpendicularly so
that they are reflected back from the other end of the junction.
 So, photons have a to-and-fro motion several times and their number goes on increasing as
they cause other atoms in their path to emit photons by striking them.
 This activity of reflection and generation causes the amplification of initial reflected photons,
and is called as population inversion.

Advantages
 Coherent light emission
 Laser diodes are less expensive compared to other laser types

Disadvantages

 Laser beam is quite harmful to eyes

 Beam is wedge shaped instead of straight and parallel
 9. With neat diagrams, elaborate how JFET can be used as an amplifier.
Consider a n-channel JFET circuit as shown in figure. An input AC vi is connected in series
with gate. On application of alternating weak signal, the fixed reverse bias of gate changes and
a small reverse bias on the gate ( ∆𝑉𝐺𝑆 causes a large change in drain current ( ∆𝐼𝐷 ) owing to
change in width of the channel.

During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the reverse bias on the gate decreases causing increase
in channel width and hence drain current. During the negative half cycle, the reverse bias on gate
increases causing drain current to decrease. The ac input changes 𝐼𝐷 which varies the voltage drop
across 𝑅1 ,resulting in amplified output voltage. Thus JFET behaves as an amplifier.
𝑣𝑜
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑣𝑖

10. Elucidate the structure of N-channel E-MOSFET with neat diagram.

Construction of N-channel E-MOSFET
 For N-channel enhancement type MOSFET, the substrate material is P-type and source and
drain regions are N-type.
 Two blocks of heavily doped n-type material (drain and source) are diffused into the p-type
substrate, and then the surface is coated with a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2).
 A metal plate is deposited on the SiO2surface between drain and source which forms the gate
terminal.
 The gate, drain and source terminals are connected with metal contacts.

 The region between drain and source in the substrate is called the ‘channel’ which is the path
for current conduction.
The substrate (Body), is referred as the body terminal (B).
 The letter, L represents the channel length of MOSFET in µm.
 The voltage between gate and source is given by VGS and the voltage between gate and
source is called VDS.