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Electricity
Flowing water constitute water current in rivers. Similarly, if the electric charge flows through a conductor
(for example, through a metallic wire), we say that there is an electric current in the conductor

Electric Current
Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time. In other
words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges.
However, electrons were not known at the time when the phenomenon of electricity was first observed. So,
electric current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of positive
charges was taken to be the direction of electric current. Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of
electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons, which are negative charges.
If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the current I, through the
cross-section is
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), named after the French scientist, Andre-Marie
Ampere (1775–1836).
One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second,
that is, 1 A = 1 C/1 s.
Small quantities of current are expressed in milliampere (1 mA = 10–3 A) or in
microampere (1 μA = 10–6 A).
An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is
always connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be
measured.
The device used for measuring traces of currents in a circuit is known as Galvanometer.

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

The movement of electrons is caused due to a difference of electric pressure – called the potential difference
– along the conductor. This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more
electric cells. The chemical action within a cell generates the potential difference across the terminals of the
cell, even when no current is drawn from it.
When the cell is connected to a conducting circuit element, the potential difference sets the charges in
motion in the conductor and produces an electric current. In order to maintain the current in a given electric
circuit, the cell has to expend its chemical energy stored in it

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Electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some current as the work done
to move a unit charge from one point to the other –
Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro
Volta (1745–1827), an Italian physicist.
One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying
conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one
point to the other.
1 V = 1 J C–1
The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter. The voltmeter is
always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to be measured.

Circuit Diagram
Electric circuits can be represented
conveniently through a circuit diagram.
A diagram which indicates how different
components in a circuit have to be
connected by using symbols for different
electric components is called a circuit
diagram.
Table given below shows symbols used to
represent some of the most commonly
used electrical components

OHM’s Law
In 1827, a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854) found out the relationship between the current I,
flowing in a metallic wire and the potential difference across its terminals. The potential difference, V, across
the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through
it, provided its temperature remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law.
𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼
𝑉
=𝑅
𝐼
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

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R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its resistance.
It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek letter Ω.
According to Ohm’s law,
R=V/I
If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current through it is 1 A, then
the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω. That is,
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 =
1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Also I=V/R
the current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance. If the resistance is doubled the
current gets halved.
We can increase or decrease the current in an electric circuit. A component used to regulate current without
changing the voltage source is called variable resistance. In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often
used to change the resistance in the circuit
The motion of electrons through a conductor is retarded by its resistance. A component of a given size that
offers a low resistance is a good conductor. A conductor having some appreciable resistance is called a
resistor. A component of identical size that offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor. An insulator of the
same size offers even higher resistance.

Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends

The resistance of the conductor depends (i) on its length, (ii) on its area of cross-section, and (iii) on the
nature of its material. Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is
directly proportional to its length (l) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A).
𝑅∝𝑙
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
Combining both the equations 𝑅∝

Or
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of the material of the
conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic property of the material.
Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. It represents a material's ability to conduct
electric current. It is commonly signified by the Greek letter σ (sigma). It is a characteristic property of the
material.
The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m. They are good
conductors of electricity. Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 to 1017 Ω m.
Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.
The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals. Alloys do not oxidise (burn)
readily at high temperatures. For this reason, they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like
electric iron, toasters etc.
Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs, whereas copper and aluminum are
generally used for electrical transmission lines.

Resistance of a System of Resistors

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Resistors in Series
The Current remains constant in all the Resistors in
series
The Potential Difference gets divided between the
Resistors in series.

Rs = R1 +R2 + R3
When n number of resistances of resistance R are
placed in series the net resistance is expressed by the
formula Rs=n X R

Resistors in Parallel
The Potential Difference remains constant in all the
Resistors in parallel
The Current gets divided between the Resistors in
series.

When n number of resistances of resistance R are

placed in parallel the net resistance is expressed by
the formula Rp=R/n

In a series circuit the net resistance is always greater than the highest individual resistance.
In a parallel circuit the net resistance is always lower than the lowest individual resistance.
A major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the circuit is broken and none of
the components works
A parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets. The total resistance in a parallel circuit is
decreased. This is helpful particularly when each gadget has different resistance and requires different
current to operate properly.

Heating Effect of Electric Current

In an electric circuit the source needs to keep expending energy to keep the current flowing through the
circuit. A part of the source energy in maintaining the current may be consumed into useful work. Rest of the
source energy may be expended in heat to raise the temperature of gadget.
If the electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors only connected to a battery; the
source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known as the heating effect of
electric current. This effect is utilized in devices such as electric heater, electric iron etc.
Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let the potential difference across it be V. Let t
be the time during which a charge Q flows across. The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential
difference V is VQ. Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence the power input to
the circuit by the source is
𝑄
𝑃 = 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑡

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Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P × t, that is, V x I x t. This energy gets
dissipated in the resistor as heat. Thus, for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t is
𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
By ohm’s law
𝑉 𝑡
𝐻 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑡 =
𝑅
This is known as Joule’s law of heating. The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is (i) directly
proportional to the square of current for a given resistance, (ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given
current, and (iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.
The heating effect of electric current has many useful applications. The electric laundry iron, electric toaster,
electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater are some of the familiar devices based on Joule’s heating.
Applications of Joule’s Law of Heating
1. The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the filament must retain
as much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it gets very hot and emits light. It must not melt
at such high temperature. A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point
3380°C) is used for making bulb filaments. The filament should be thermally isolated as much as
possible, using insulating support, etc. The bulbs are usually filled with chemically inactive nitrogen
and argon gases to prolong the life of filament. Most of the power consumed by the filament appears
as heat, but a small part of it is in the form of light radiated
2. Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric circuits. It protects circuits
and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current. The fuse is placed in series
with the device. It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting
point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows
through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks
the circuit. The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with metal
ends. The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc. For an electric
iron which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220) A, that is,
4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be used.

Electric Power
The rate of doing work is power. This is also the rate of consumption of energy. The rate at which electric
energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit. This is also termed as electric power. The power P is
given by
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑅 =
𝑅
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current
when operated at a potential difference of 1 V.
1 W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 V A
The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, in actual practice we use a much larger unit called ‘kilowatt’. It is
equal to 1000 watts. Since electrical energy is the product of power and time, the unit of electric energy is,
therefore, watt hour (W h). One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour.
The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as ‘unit’.
1 kW h = 1000 watt × 3600 second
= 3.6 × 106 watt second
= 3.6 × 106 joule (J)

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