ENIAC

ENIAC (/ˈɛniæk/; Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)[1][2] was the first programmable,
electronic, general-purpose digital computer, completed in 1945.[3][4] Other computers had some of
these features, but ENIAC was the first to have them all. It was Turing-complete and able to solve "a
large class of numerical problems" through reprogramming.[5][6]

Glenn A. Beck (background) and Betty

Snyder (foreground) program ENIAC
in BRL building 328. (U.S. Army photo,
c. 1947–1955)

ENIAC was designed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert to calculate artillery firing tables for the
United States Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory (which later became a part of the Army Research
Laboratory).[7][8] However, its first program was a study of the feasibility of the thermonuclear
weapon.[9][10]

ENIAC was completed in 1945 and first put to work for practical purposes on December 10, 1945.[11]

ENIAC was formally dedicated at the University of Pennsylvania on February 15, 1946, having cost
$487,000 (equivalent to $6,900,000 in 2023), and called a "Giant Brain" by the press.[12] It had a
speed on the order of one thousand times faster than that of electro-mechanical machines.[13]

ENIAC was formally accepted by the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps in July 1946. It was transferred to
Aberdeen Proving Ground in Aberdeen, Maryland in 1947, where it was in continuous operation until
1955.

The 1948 Manchester Baby was the first machine to contain all the elements essential to a modern
electronic digital computer, as it could be reprogrammed electronically to hold stored programs
instead of requiring setting of switches to program as ENIAC did.
Development and design ENIAC
Pennsylvania Historical Marker
ENIAC's design and construction was financed by
the United States Army, Ordnance Corps,
Research and Development Command, led by
Major General Gladeon M. Barnes. The total cost
was about $487,000, equivalent to $6,900,000 in
2023.[14] The conception of ENIAC began in 1941,
when Friden calculators and differential analyzers
Four ENIAC panels and one of its three
were used by the United States Army Ordnance
function tables at the School of Engineering
Department to compute firing tables for artillery,
and Applied Science at the University of
which was done by graduate students under John Pennsylvania
Mauchly's supervision. Mauchly began to wonder
Location University of
if electronics could be applied to mathematics for
Pennsylvania
faster calculations. He partnered up with research
Department of
associate J. Presper Eckert, as Mauchly wasn't an
Computer and
electronics expert, to draft an electronic computer Information Science,
that could work at an excellent pace. In 1942, 3330 Walnut Street,
Mauchly proposed an all-electronic calculating Philadelphia,
machine that could help the U.S. Army calculate Pennsylvania, U.S.
complex ballistics tables.[15] The U.S. Army
Coordinates 39.9523°N
Ordnance accepted their plan, giving the
75.1906°W (https://g
University of Pennsylvania a six-months research eohack.toolforge.or
[16]
contract for $61,700. The construction g/geohack.php?page
contract was signed on June 5, 1943; work on the name=ENIAC&param
computer began in secret at the University of s=39.9523_N_75.190
Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical 6_W_region:US-PA_ty

Engineering[17] the following month, under the pe:landmark)

code name "Project PX", with John Grist Brainerd Built/founded 1945
as principal investigator. Herman H. Goldstine
PHMC dedicated Thursday, June 15,
persuaded the Army to fund the project, which put
2000
him in charge to oversee it for them.[18] Assembly
for the computer began in June 1944.[16]

ENIAC was designed by Ursinus College physics professor John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of
the University of Pennsylvania, U.S.[19] The team of design engineers assisting the development
included Robert F. Shaw (function tables), Jeffrey Chuan Chu (divider/square-rooter), Thomas Kite
Sharpless (master programmer), Frank Mural (master programmer), Arthur Burks (multiplier), Harry
Huskey (reader/printer) and Jack Davis (accumulators).[20] Significant development work was
undertaken by the female mathematicians who handled the bulk of the ENIAC programming: Jean
Jennings, Marlyn Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman, Betty Snyder, Frances Bilas, and Kay McNulty.[21] In
1946, the researchers resigned from the University of Pennsylvania and formed the Eckert–Mauchly
Computer Corporation.

ENIAC was a large, modular computer, composed of individual panels to perform different
functions. Twenty of these modules were accumulators that could not only add and subtract, but
hold a ten-digit decimal number in memory. Numbers were passed between these units across
several general-purpose buses (or trays, as they were called). In order to achieve its high speed, the
panels had to send and receive numbers, compute, save the answer and trigger the next operation,
all without any moving parts. Key to its versatility was the ability to branch; it could trigger different
operations, depending on the sign of a computed result.

Components

By the end of its operation in 1956, ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal diodes,
1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, and approximately 5,000,000 hand-soldered joints.
It weighed more than 30 short tons (27 t), was roughly 8 ft (2 m) tall, 3 ft (1 m) deep, and 100 ft
(30 m) long, occupied 300 sq ft (28 m2) and consumed 150 kW of electricity.[22][23] Input was
possible from an IBM card reader and an IBM card punch was used for output. These cards could be
used to produce printed output offline using an IBM accounting machine, such as the IBM 405.
While ENIAC had no system to store memory in its inception, these punch cards could be used for
external memory storage.[24] In 1953, a 100-word magnetic-core memory built by the Burroughs
Corporation was added to ENIAC.[25]

ENIAC used ten-position ring counters to store digits; each digit required 36 vacuum tubes, 10 of
which were the dual triodes making up the flip-flops of the ring counter. Arithmetic was performed
by "counting" pulses with the ring counters and generating carry pulses if the counter "wrapped
around", the idea being to electronically emulate the operation of the digit wheels of a mechanical
adding machine.[26]

ENIAC had 20 ten-digit signed accumulators, which used ten's complement representation and
could perform 5,000 simple addition or subtraction operations between any of them and a source
(e.g., another accumulator or a constant transmitter) per second. It was possible to connect several
accumulators to run simultaneously, so the peak speed of operation was potentially much higher,
due to parallel operation.[27][28]

Cpl. Irwin Goldstein (foreground) sets the

switches on one of ENIAC's function tables
at the Moore School of Electrical
Engineering. (U.S. Army photo)[29]

It was possible to wire the carry of one accumulator into another accumulator to perform arithmetic
with double the precision, but the accumulator carry circuit timing prevented the wiring of three or
more for even higher precision. ENIAC used four of the accumulators (controlled by a special
multiplier unit) to perform up to 385 multiplication operations per second; five of the accumulators
were controlled by a special divider/square-rooter unit to perform up to 40 division operations per
second or three square root operations per second.

The other nine units in ENIAC were the initiating unit (started and stopped the machine), the cycling
unit (used for synchronizing the other units), the master programmer (controlled loop sequencing),
the reader (controlled an IBM punch-card reader), the printer (controlled an IBM card punch), the
constant transmitter, and three function tables.[30][31]

Operation times

The references by Rojas and Hashagen (or Wilkes)[19] give more details about the times for
operations, which differ somewhat from those stated above.

The basic machine cycle was 200 microseconds (20 cycles of the 100 kHz clock in the cycling unit),
or 5,000 cycles per second for operations on the 10-digit numbers. In one of these cycles, ENIAC
could write a number to a register, read a number from a register, or add/subtract two numbers.

A multiplication of a 10-digit number by a d-digit number (for d up to 10) took d+4 cycles, so the
multiplication of a 10-digit number by 10-digit number took 14 cycles, or 2,800 microseconds—a rate
of 357 per second. If one of the numbers had fewer than 10 digits, the operation was faster.
Division and square roots took 13(d+1) cycles, where d is the number of digits in the result (quotient
or square root). So a division or square root took up to 143 cycles, or 28,600 microseconds—a rate
of 35 per second. (Wilkes 1956:20[19] states that a division with a 10-digit quotient required 6
milliseconds.) If the result had fewer than ten digits, it was obtained faster.

ENIAC was able to process about 500 FLOPS,[32] compared to modern supercomputers' petascale
and exascale computing power.

Reliability

ENIAC used common octal-base radio tubes of the day; the decimal accumulators were made of
6SN7 flip-flops, while 6L7s, 6SJ7s, 6SA7s and 6AC7s were used in logic functions.[33] Numerous
6L6s and 6V6s served as line drivers to drive pulses through cables between rack assemblies.

Several tubes burned out almost every day, leaving ENIAC nonfunctional about half the time. Special
high-reliability tubes were not available until 1948. Most of these failures, however, occurred during
the warm-up and cool-down periods, when the tube heaters and cathodes were under the most
thermal stress. Engineers reduced ENIAC's tube failures to the more acceptable rate of one tube
every two days. According to an interview in 1989 with Eckert, "We had a tube fail about every two
days and we could locate the problem within 15 minutes."[34] In 1954, the longest continuous period
of operation without a failure was 116 hours—close to five days.

Programming

ENIAC could be programmed to perform complex sequences of operations, including loops,

branches, and subroutines. However, instead of the stored-program computers that exist today,
ENIAC was just a large collection of arithmetic machines, which originally had programs set up into
the machine[35] by a combination of plugboard wiring and three portable function tables (containing
1,200 ten-way switches each).[36] The task of taking a problem and mapping it onto the machine
was complex, and usually took weeks. Due to the complexity of mapping programs onto the
machine, programs were only changed after huge numbers of tests of the current program.[37] After
the program was figured out on paper, the process of getting the program into ENIAC by
manipulating its switches and cables could take days. This was followed by a period of verification
and debugging, aided by the ability to execute the program step by step. A programming tutorial for
the modulo function using an ENIAC simulator gives an impression of what a program on the ENIAC
looked like.[38][39][40]
ENIAC's six primary programmers, Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran
Bilas and Ruth Lichterman, not only determined how to input ENIAC programs, but also developed
an understanding of ENIAC's inner workings.[41][42] The programmers were often able to narrow bugs
down to an individual failed tube which could be pointed to for replacement by a technician.[43]

Programmers

Programmers Betty Jean Jennings (left)

and Fran Bilas (right) operating ENIAC's
main control panel at the Moore School of
Electrical Engineering, c. 1945 (U.S. Army
photo from the archives of the ARL
Technical Library)

During World War II, while the U.S. Army needed to The ENIAC Programmers (As Told
compute ballistics trajectories, many women were By U.S. Chief Technology Officer
Megan Smith)
interviewed for this task. At least 200 women were
1:24
hired by the Moore School of Engineering to work as
"computers"[21] and six of them were chosen to be
Problems playing this file? See media help.
the programmers of ENIAC. Betty Holberton, Kay
McNulty, Marlyn Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman, Betty Jean Jennings, and Fran Bilas, programmed the
ENIAC to perform calculations for ballistics trajectories electronically for the Army's Ballistic
Research Laboratory.[44] While men having the same education and experience were designated as
"professionals", these women were unreasonably designated as "subprofessionals", though they had
professional degrees in mathematics, and were highly trained mathematicians.[44]

These women were not "refrigerator ladies", i.e., models posing in front of the machine for press
photography, as then computer scientist undergrad Kathryn Kleiman discovered in her own research
as opposed to what she was told by a historian in computing.[45] However, some of the women did
not receive recognition for their work on the ENIAC in their entire lifetimes.[21] After the war ended,
the women continued to work on the ENIAC. Their expertise made their positions difficult to replace
with returning soldiers.[46] Later In the 1990s Kleiman learned that most of the ENIAC programmers
were not invited to the ENIAC’s 50th anniversary event. So she made it her mission to track them
down and record their oral histories. The documentary, intended to inspire young women and men to
get involved in programming. "They were shocked to be discovered," Kleiman says. "They were
thrilled to be recognized, but had mixed impressions about how they felt about being ignored for so
long."[45] Kleiman released a book on the six female ENIAC programmers in 2022.[47]

These early programmers were drawn from a group of about two hundred women employed as
computers at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. The job
of computers was to produce the numeric result of mathematical formulas needed for a scientific
study, or an engineering project. They usually did so with a mechanical calculator. The women
studied the machine's logic, physical structure, operation, and circuitry in order to not only
understand the mathematics of computing, but also the machine itself.[21] This was one of the few
technical job categories available to women at that time.[48] Betty Holberton (née Snyder) continued
on to help write the first generative programming system (SORT/MERGE) and help design the first
commercial electronic computers, the UNIVAC and the BINAC, alongside Jean Jennings.[49] McNulty
developed the use of subroutines in order to help increase ENIAC's computational capability.[50]

Herman Goldstine selected the programmers, whom he called operators, from the computers who
had been calculating ballistics tables with mechanical desk calculators, and a differential analyzer
prior to and during the development of ENIAC.[21] Under Herman and Adele Goldstine's direction, the
computers studied ENIAC's blueprints and physical structure to determine how to manipulate its
switches and cables, as programming languages did not yet exist. Though contemporaries
considered programming a clerical task and did not publicly recognize the programmers' effect on
the successful operation and announcement of ENIAC,[21] McNulty, Jennings, Snyder, Wescoff, Bilas,
and Lichterman have since been recognized for their contributions to computing.[51][52][53] Three of
the current (2020) Army supercomputers Jean, Kay, and Betty are named after Jean Bartik (Betty
Jennings), Kay McNulty, and Betty Snyder respectively.[54]

The "programmer" and "operator" job titles were not originally considered professions suitable for
women. The labor shortage created by World War II helped enable the entry of women into the
field.[21] However, the field was not viewed as prestigious, and bringing in women was viewed as a
way to free men up for more skilled labor. Essentially, women were seen as meeting a need in a
temporary crisis.[21] For example, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics said in 1942, "It
is felt that enough greater return is obtained by freeing the engineers from calculating detail to
overcome any increased expenses in the computers' salaries. The engineers admit themselves that
the girl computers do the work more rapidly and accurately than they would. This is due in large
measure to the feeling among the engineers that their college and industrial experience is being
wasted and thwarted by mere repetitive calculation."[21]
Following the initial six programmers, an expanded team of a hundred scientists was recruited to
continue work on the ENIAC. Among these were several women, including Gloria Ruth Gordon.[55]
Adele Goldstine wrote the original technical description of the ENIAC.[56]

Programming languages

Several language systems were developed to describe programs for the ENIAC, including:

Year Name Chief developers

1943– John von Neumann, John Mauchly, J. Presper Eckert,
ENIAC coding system
46 Herman Goldstine after Alan Turing.
Richard Clippinger, John von Neumann after Alan
1946 ENIAC Short Code
Turing
Von Neumann and Goldstine
1946 John von Neumann and Herman Goldstine
graphing system (Notation)
1947 ARC Assembly Kathleen Booth[57][58]
1948 Curry notation system Haskell Curry

Role in the hydrogen bomb

Although the Ballistic Research Laboratory was the sponsor of ENIAC, one year into this three-year
project John von Neumann, a mathematician working on the hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos
National Laboratory, became aware of the ENIAC.[59] In December 1945, the ENIAC was used to
calculate thermonuclear reactions using equations. The data was used to support research on
building a hydrogen bomb.[60][61]

Role in development of the Monte Carlo methods

Related to ENIAC's role in the hydrogen bomb was its role in the Monte Carlo method becoming
popular. Scientists involved in the original nuclear bomb development used massive groups of
people doing huge numbers of calculations ("computers" in the terminology of the time) to
investigate the distance that neutrons would likely travel through various materials. John von
Neumann and Stanislaw Ulam realized the speed of ENIAC would allow these calculations to be
done much more quickly.[62] The success of this project showed the value of Monte Carlo methods
in science.[63]
Later developments

A press conference was held on February 1, 1946,[21] and the completed machine was announced to
the public the evening of February 14, 1946,[64] featuring demonstrations of its capabilities.
Elizabeth Snyder and Betty Jean Jennings were responsible for developing the demonstration
trajectory program, although Herman and Adele Goldstine took credit for it.[21] The machine was
formally dedicated the next day[65] at the University of Pennsylvania. None of the women involved in
programming the machine or creating the demonstration were invited to the formal dedication nor
to the celebratory dinner held afterwards.[66]

The original contract amount was $61,700; the final cost was almost $500,000 (approximately
equivalent to $9,000,000 in 2023). It was formally accepted by the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps in July
1946. ENIAC was shut down on November 9, 1946, for a refurbishment and a memory upgrade, and
was transferred to Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland in 1947. There, on July 29, 1947, it was
turned on and was in continuous operation until 11:45 p.m. on October 2, 1955, when it was retired
in favor of the more efficient EDVAC and ORDVAC computers.[2]

Role in the development of the EDVAC

A few months after ENIAC's unveiling in the summer of 1946, as part of "an extraordinary effort to
jump-start research in the field",[67] the Pentagon invited "the top people in electronics and
mathematics from the United States and Great Britain"[67] to a series of forty-eight lectures given in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; all together called The Theory and Techniques for Design of Digital
Computers—more often named the Moore School Lectures.[67] Half of these lectures were given by
the inventors of ENIAC.[68]

ENIAC was a one-of-a-kind design and was never repeated. The freeze on design in 1943 meant that
it lacked some innovations that soon became well-developed, notably the ability to store a program.
Eckert and Mauchly started work on a new design, to be later called the EDVAC, which would be
both simpler and more powerful. In particular, in 1944 Eckert wrote his description of a memory unit
(the mercury delay line) which would hold both the data and the program. John von Neumann, who
was consulting for the Moore School on the EDVAC, sat in on the Moore School meetings at which
the stored program concept was elaborated. Von Neumann wrote up an incomplete set of notes
(First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC) which were intended to be used as an internal memorandum—
describing, elaborating, and couching in formal logical language the ideas developed in the
meetings. ENIAC administrator and security officer Herman Goldstine distributed copies of this First
Draft to a number of government and educational institutions, spurring widespread interest in the
construction of a new generation of electronic computing machines, including Electronic Delay
Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) at Cambridge University, England and SEAC at the U.S.
Bureau of Standards.[69]

Improvements

A number of improvements were made to ENIAC after 1947, including a primitive read-only stored
programming mechanism using the function tables as program ROM,[69][70][71][72][73][74] after which
programming was done by setting the switches.[75] The idea has been worked out in several variants
by Richard Clippinger and his group, on the one hand, and the Goldstines, on the other,[76] and it was
included in the ENIAC patent.[77] Clippinger consulted with von Neumann on what instruction set to
implement.[69][78][79] Clippinger had thought of a three-address architecture while von Neumann
proposed a one-address architecture because it was simpler to implement. Three digits of one
accumulator (#6) were used as the program counter, another accumulator (#15) was used as the
main accumulator, a third accumulator (#8) was used as the address pointer for reading data from
the function tables, and most of the other accumulators (1–5, 7, 9–14, 17–19) were used for data
memory.

In March 1948 the converter unit was installed,[80] which made possible programming through the
reader from standard IBM cards.[81][82] The "first production run" of the new coding techniques on
the Monte Carlo problem followed in April.[80][83] After ENIAC's move to Aberdeen, a register panel
for memory was also constructed, but it did not work. A small master control unit to turn the
machine on and off was also added.[84]

The programming of the stored program for ENIAC was done by Betty Jennings, Clippinger, Adele
Goldstine and others.[85][86][70][69] It was first demonstrated as a stored-program computer in April
1948,[87] running a program by Adele Goldstine for John von Neumann. This modification reduced
the speed of ENIAC by a factor of 6 and eliminated the ability of parallel computation, but as it also
reduced the reprogramming time[79][69] to hours instead of days, it was considered well worth the
loss of performance. Also analysis had shown that due to differences between the electronic speed
of computation and the electromechanical speed of input/output, almost any real-world problem
was completely I/O bound, even without making use of the original machine's parallelism. Most
computations would still be I/O bound, even after the speed reduction imposed by this modification.

Early in 1952, a high-speed shifter was added, which improved the speed for shifting by a factor of
five. In July 1953, a 100-word expansion core memory was added to the system, using binary-coded
decimal, excess-3 number representation. To support this expansion memory, ENIAC was equipped
with a new Function Table selector, a memory address selector, pulse-shaping circuits, and three
new orders were added to the programming mechanism.[69]

Comparison with other early computers

Pennsylvania state historical

marker on the University of
Pennsylvania's campus in
Philadelphia

Mechanical computing machines have been around since Archimedes' time (see: Antikythera
mechanism), but the 1930s and 1940s are considered the beginning of the modern computer era.

ENIAC was, like the IBM Harvard Mark I and the German Z3, able to run an arbitrary sequence of
mathematical operations, but did not read them from a tape. Like the British Colossus, it was
programmed by plugboard and switches. ENIAC combined full, Turing-complete programmability
with electronic speed. The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC), ENIAC, and Colossus all used
thermionic valves (vacuum tubes). ENIAC's registers performed decimal arithmetic, rather than
binary arithmetic like the Z3, the ABC and Colossus.

Like the Colossus, ENIAC required rewiring to reprogram until April 1948.[88] In June 1948, the
Manchester Baby ran its first program and earned the distinction of first electronic stored-program
computer.[89][90][91] Though the idea of a stored-program computer with combined memory for
program and data was conceived during the development of ENIAC, it was not initially implemented
in ENIAC because World War II priorities required the machine to be completed quickly, and ENIAC's
20 storage locations would be too small to hold data and programs.
Public knowledge

The Z3 and Colossus were developed independently of each other, and of the ABC and ENIAC during
World War II. Work on the ABC at Iowa State University was stopped in 1942 after John Atanasoff
was called to Washington, D.C., to do physics research for the U.S. Navy, and it was subsequently
dismantled.[92] The Z3 was destroyed by the Allied bombing raids of Berlin in 1943. As the ten
Colossus machines were part of the UK's war effort their existence remained secret until the late
1970s, although knowledge of their capabilities remained among their UK staff and invited
Americans. ENIAC, by contrast, was put through its paces for the press in 1946, "and captured the
world's imagination". Older histories of computing may therefore not be comprehensive in their
coverage and analysis of this period. All but two of the Colossus machines were dismantled in 1945;
the remaining two were used to decrypt Soviet messages by GCHQ until the 1960s.[93][94] The public
demonstration for ENIAC was developed by Snyder and Jennings who created a demo that would
calculate the trajectory of a missile in 15 seconds, a task that would have taken several weeks for a
human computer.[50]

Patent

For a variety of reasons – including Mauchly's June 1941 examination of the Atanasoff–Berry
computer (ABC), prototyped in 1939 by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry – U.S. patent 3,120,606 (h
ttps://patents.google.com/patent/US3120606) for ENIAC, applied for in 1947 and granted in 1964,
was voided by the 1973[95] decision of the landmark federal court case Honeywell, Inc. v. Sperry Rand
Corp.. The decision included: that the ENIAC inventors had derived the subject matter of the
electronic digital computer from Atanasoff; gave legal recognition to Atanasoff as the inventor of
the first electronic digital computer; and put the invention of the electronic digital computer in the
public domain.

Main parts

The bottoms of three accumulators at

Fort Sill, Oklahoma, US
 A function table from ENIAC on
display at Aberdeen Proving Ground
museum

The main parts were 40 panels and three portable function tables (named A, B, and C). The layout of
the panels was (clockwise, starting with the left wall):

Left wall

Initiating Unit

Cycling Unit

Master Programmer – panel 1 and 2

Function Table 1 – panel 1 and 2

Accumulator 1

Accumulator 2

Divider and Square Rooter

Accumulator 3

Accumulator 4

Accumulator 5

Accumulator 6

Accumulator 7

Accumulator 8
 Accumulator 9
Back wall

Accumulator 10

High-speed Multiplier – panel 1, 2, and 3

Accumulator 11

Accumulator 12

Accumulator 13

Accumulator 14
Right wall

Accumulator 15

Accumulator 16

Accumulator 17

Accumulator 18

Function Table 2 – panel 1 and 2

Function Table 3 – panel 1 and 2

Accumulator 19

Accumulator 20

Constant Transmitter – panel 1, 2, and 3

Printer – panel 1, 2, and 3

An IBM card reader was attached to Constant Transmitter panel 3 and an IBM card punch was
attached to Printer Panel 2. The Portable Function Tables could be connected to Function Table 1, 2,
and 3.[96]
Parts on display

Detail of the back of a section of ENIAC,

showing vacuum tubes

Pieces of ENIAC are held by the following institutions:

The School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Pennsylvania has four of the
original forty panels (Accumulator #18, Constant Transmitter Panel 2, Master Programmer Panel
2, and the Cycling Unit) and one of the three function tables (Function Table B) of ENIAC (on loan
from the Smithsonian).[96]

The Smithsonian has five panels (Accumulators 2, 19, and 20; Constant Transmitter panels 1 and
3; Divider and Square Rooter; Function Table 2 panel 1; Function Table 3 panel 2; High-speed
Multiplier panels 1 and 2; Printer panel 1; Initiating Unit)[96] in the National Museum of American
History in Washington, D.C.[21] (but apparently not currently on display).

The Science Museum in London has a receiver unit on display.

The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California has three panels (Accumulator #12,
Function Table 2 panel 2, and Printer Panel 3) and portable function table C on display (on loan
from the Smithsonian Institution).[96]

The University of Michigan in Ann Arbor has four panels (two accumulators, High-speed Multiplier
panel 3, and Master Programmer panel 2),[96] salvaged by Arthur Burks.[97]
The United States Army Ordnance Museum at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, where ENIAC
was used, has Portable Function Table A.

The U.S. Army Field Artillery Museum in Fort Sill, as of October 2014, obtained seven panels of
ENIAC that were previously housed by The Perot Group in Plano, Texas.[98] There are
accumulators #7, #8, #11, and #17;[99] panel #1 and #2 that connected to function table #1,[96]
and the back of a panel showing its tubes. A module of tubes is also on display.
 The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, has one of the data entry terminals
from the ENIAC.

The Heinz Nixdorf Museum in Paderborn, Germany, has three panels (Printer panel 2 and High-
speed Function Table)[96] (on loan from the Smithsonian Institution). In 2014 the museum decided
to rebuild one of the accumulator panels – reconstructed part has the look and feel of a simplified
counterpart from the original machine.[100][101]

Recognition

ENIAC was named an IEEE Milestone in 1987.[102]

ENIAC on a Chip, University of

Pennsylvania (1995) - Computer
History Museum

In 1996, in honor of the ENIAC's 50th anniversary, The University of Pennsylvania sponsored a
project named "ENIAC-on-a-Chip", where a very small silicon computer chip measuring 7.44 mm by
5.29 mm was built with the same functionality as ENIAC. Although this 20 MHz chip was many
times faster than ENIAC, it had but a fraction of the speed of its contemporary microprocessors in
the late 1990s.[103][104][105]

In 1997, the six women who did most of the programming of ENIAC were inducted into the
Technology International Hall of Fame.[51][106] The role of the ENIAC programmers is treated in a
2010 documentary film titled Top Secret Rosies: The Female "Computers" of WWII by LeAnn
Erickson.[52] A 2014 documentary short, The Computers by Kate McMahon, tells of the story of the
six programmers; this was the result of 20 years' research by Kathryn Kleiman and her team as part
of the ENIAC Programmers Project.[53][107] In 2022 Grand Central Publishing released Proving Ground
by Kathy Kleiman, a hardcover biography about the six ENIAC programmers and their efforts to
translate block diagrams and electronic schematics of the ENIAC, then under construction, into
programs that would be loaded into and run on ENIAC once it was available for use.[108]

In 2011, in honor of the 65th anniversary of the ENIAC's unveiling, the city of Philadelphia declared
February 15 as ENIAC Day.[109][110][111]

The ENIAC celebrated its 70th anniversary on February 15, 2016.[112]

See also

History of computing

History of computing hardware

Women in computing

List of vacuum-tube computers

List of military electronics of the United States

Military computers

Unisys

Arthur Burks

Betty Holberton

Frances Bilas Spence

John Mauchly

J. Presper Eckert

Jean Jennings Bartik

Kathleen Antonelli (Kay McNulty)

Marlyn Meltzer

Ruth Lichterman Teitelbaum

Notes

1. Eckert Jr., John Presper and Mauchly, John W.; Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer,
 United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,120,606, filed 1947-06-26, issued 1964-02-04;
invalidated 1973-10-19 after court ruling in Honeywell v. Sperry Rand.

2. Weik, Martin H. "The ENIAC Story" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110814181522/http://ftp.ar

l.mil/~mike/comphist/eniac-story.html) . Ordnance (January–February 1961). Washington,
DC: American Ordnance Association. Archived from the original (http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comp
hist/eniac-story.html) on August 14, 2011. Retrieved March 29, 2015.

3. "3.2 First Generation Electronic Computers (1937-1953)" (https://web.archive.org/web/201203

08160220/https://www.phy.ornl.gov/csep/ov/node10.html) . www.phy.ornl.gov. Archived
from the original (https://www.phy.ornl.gov/csep/ov/node10.html) on March 8, 2012.

4. "ENIAC on Trial – 1. Public Use" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190209080918/http://www.u

shistory.org:80/more/eniac/public.htm) . www.ushistory.org. Search for 1945. Archived from
the original (http://www.ushistory.org/more/eniac/public.htm) on February 9, 2019. Retrieved
May 16, 2018. "The ENIAC machine [...] was reduced to practice no later than the date of
commencement of the use of the machine for the Los Alamos calculations, December 10,
1945."

5. Goldstine & Goldstine 1946, p. 97

6. Shurkin, Joel (1996). Engines of the mind: the evolution of the computer from mainframes to
microprocessors. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-31471-7.

7. Moye, William T. (January 1996). "ENIAC: The Army-Sponsored Revolution" (https://web.archiv

e.org/web/20170521072638/http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphist/96summary/index.html) . US
Army Research Laboratory. Archived from the original (http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphist/96su
mmary/index.html) on May 21, 2017. Retrieved March 29, 2015.

8. Goldstine 1993, p. 214.

9. Rhodes 1995, p. 251, chapter 13: The first problem assigned to the first working electronic
digital computer in the world was the hydrogen bomb. […] The ENIAC ran a first rough version
of the thermonuclear calculations for six weeks in December 1945 and January 1946.

10. McCartney 1999, p. 103: "ENIAC correctly showed that Teller's scheme would not work, but the
results led Teller and Ulam to come up with another design together."

11. *"ENIAC on Trial – 1. Public Use" (http://www.ushistory.org/more/eniac/public.htm) .

www.ushistory.org. Search for 1945. Retrieved May 16, 2018. "The ENIAC machine […] was
reduced to practice no later than the date of commencement of the use of the machine for the
Los Alamos calculations, December 10, 1945."
12. " 'ENIAC': Creating a Giant Brain, and Not Getting Credit" (https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nyti
mes.com/library/books/061499mccartney-book-review.html) . The New York Times.

13. "ENIAC USA 1946" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210104011455/http://www.thocp.net/hard

ware/eniac.htm) . The History of Computing Project. History of Computing Foundation. March
13, 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.thocp.net/hardware/eniac.htm) on January
4, 2021.

14. Dalakov, Georgi. "ENIAC" (http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Electronic/ENIAC.ht

ml) . History of Computers. Georgi Dalakov. Retrieved May 23, 2016.

15. "ENIAC - CHM Revolution" (https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/birth-of-the-computer/

4/78) . Computer History Museum. Retrieved November 9, 2024.

16. Computer History Museum (August 15, 2008). UNIVAC - Information Age: Then and Now (http
s://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h4wQJfdhOlU) . YouTube. Retrieved November 6, 2024.

17. Goldstine & Goldstine 1946

18. Gayle Ronan Sims (June 22, 2004). "Herman Heine Goldstine" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
151130170611/http://www.princeton.edu/mudd/finding_aids/mathoral/pmcxgoldstine.ht
m) . The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original (http://www.princeton.edu/mudd/fin
ding_aids/mathoral/pmcxgoldstine.htm) on November 30, 2015. Retrieved April 15, 2017 –
via www.princeton.edu.

19. Wilkes, M. V. (1956). Automatic Digital Computers. New York: John Wiley & Sons. QA76.W5
1956.

20. "ENIAC on Trial" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190812225517/https://www.ushistory.org/m

ore/eniac/inventors.htm) . USHistory.org. Independence Hall Association. Archived from the
original (https://www.ushistory.org/more/eniac/inventors.htm) on August 12, 2019.
Retrieved November 9, 2020.

21. Light 1999.

22. "ENIAC" (http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/ENIAC) . The Free Dictionary. Retrieved

March 29, 2015.

23. Weik, Martin H. (December 1955). Ballistic Research Laboratories Report No. 971: A Survey of
Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems (http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL-e-h.html#E
NIAC) . Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: United States Department of Commerce Office of
Technical Services. p. 41. Retrieved March 29, 2015.
24. "ENIAC in Action: What it Was and How it Worked" (http://www.seas.upenn.edu/about-seas/eni
ac/operation.php) . ENIAC: Celebrating Penn Engineering History. University of Pennsylvania.
Retrieved May 17, 2016.

25. Martin, Jason (December 17, 1998). "Past and Future Developments in Memory Design" (http
s://www.cs.umd.edu/class/fall2001/cmsc411/projects/ramguide/pastandfuture/pastandfutur
e.html) . Past and Future Developments in Memory Design. University of Maryland. Retrieved
May 17, 2016.

26. Peddie, Jon (June 13, 2013). The History of Visual Magic in Computers: How Beautiful Images
are Made in CAD, 3D, VR and AR (https://books.google.com/books?id=6a8_AAAAQBAJ&q=ENIA
C+used+ten-position+ring+counters+to+store+digits;+each+digit+required+36+vacuum+tubes,
&pg=PA147) . Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4471-4932-3.

27. Goldstine & Goldstine 1946.

28. Igarashi, Yoshihide; Altman, Tom; Funada, Mariko; Kamiyama, Barbara (May 27, 2014).
Computing: A Historical and Technical Perspective (https://books.google.com/books?id=58ySA
wAAQBAJ&q=ENIAC+had+20+ten-digit+signed+accumulators,+which+used+ten's+complemen
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29. The original photo can be seen in the article: Rose, Allen (April 1946). "Lightning Strikes
Mathematics" (https://books.google.com/books?id=niEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA83) . Popular
Science: 83–86. Retrieved March 29, 2015.

30. Clippinger 1948, Section I: General Description of the ENIAC – The Function Tables.

31. Goldstine 1946.

32. "The incredible evolution of supercomputers' powers, from 1946 to today" (https://www.popsci.
com/supercomputers-then-and-now/) . Popular Science. March 18, 2019. Retrieved
February 8, 2022.

33. Burks 1947, pp. 756–767

34. Randall, Alexander 5th (February 14, 2006). "A lost interview with ENIAC co-inventor J. Presper
Eckert" (http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/108568/Q_A_A_lost_interview_with_ENIAC_
co_inventor_J._Presper_Eckert) . Computer World. Retrieved March 29, 2015.

35. Grier, David (July–September 2004). "From the Editor's Desk". IEEE Annals of the History of
Computing. 26 (3): 2–3. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2004.9 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMAHC.2004.
9) . S2CID 7822223 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7822223) .
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73. Clippinger 1948, Section IV: Summary of Orders

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ps://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADB205179) )

Copeland, B. Jack, ed. (2006). Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192840554.

De Mol, Liesbeth; Bullynck, Maarten (2008). "A Week-End Off: The First Extensive Number-
Theoretical Computation on ENIAC" (https://books.google.com/books?id=vIHRnE-Ie2kC&pg=PA1
67PG) . In Beckmann, Arnold; Dimitracopoulos, Costas; Löwe, Benedikt (eds.). Logic and Theory
of Algorithms: 4th Conference on Computability in Europe, CiE 2008 Athens, Greece, June 15-20,
2008, Proceedings. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 158–167. ISBN 9783540694052.
Eckert, J. Presper, The ENIAC (in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota, (editors), A
History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, New York, 1980, pp. 525–540)

Eckert, J. Presper and John Mauchly, 1946, Outline of plans for development of electronic
computers, 6 pages. (The founding document in the electronic computer industry.)

Fritz, W. Barkley, The Women of ENIAC (in IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 18, 1996,
pp. 13–28)

Goldstine, Adele (1946). "A Report on the ENIAC" (http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphist/46eniac-repo

rt/chap1.html) . FTP.arl.mil. 1 (1). Chapter 1 -- Introduction: 1.1.2. The Units of the ENIAC. original
source (https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA622372)

Goldstine, Herman H.; Goldstine, Adele K. (1946). "The electronic numerical integrator and
computer (ENIAC)" (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0025-5718-1946-0018977-0) . Mathematics of
Computation. 2 (15): 97–110. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1946-0018977-0 (https://doi.org/10.109
0%2FS0025-5718-1946-0018977-0) . ISSN 0025-5718 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-57
18) . (also reprinted in The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, New
York, 1982, pp. 359–373)

Goldstine, Adele K. (July 10, 1947). Central Control for ENIAC (http://eniacinaction.com/the-article
s/2-engineering-the-miracle-of-the-eniac-implementing-the-modern-code-paradigm/) . p. 1.
"Unlike the later 60- and 100-order codes this one [51 order code] required no additions to ENIAC's
original hardware. It would have worked more slowly and offered a more restricted range of
instructions but the basic structure of accumulators and instructions changed only slightly."

Goldstine, Herman H. (1993) [1972]. The Computer: from Pascal to von Neumann (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=3FvELn2KiUYC) . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 9780691023670.

Haigh, Thomas; Priestley, Mark; Rope, Crispin (April–June 2014b). "Engineering 'The Miracle of the
ENIAC': Implementing the Modern Code Paradigm" (http://eniacinaction.com/the-articles/2-engin
eering-the-miracle-of-the-eniac-implementing-the-modern-code-paradigm/) . IEEE Annals of the
History of Computing. 36 (2): 41–59. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2014.15 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMA
HC.2014.15) . S2CID 24359462 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24359462) .
Retrieved November 13, 2018.

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Modern Computer (https://books.google.com/books?id=_oqBCwAAQBAJ) . MIT Press.
ISBN 978-0-262-53517-5.
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Mauchly, John, The ENIAC (in Metropolis, Nicholas, Howlett, Jack; Rota, Gian-Carlo. 1980, A
History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, New York, ISBN 0-12-491650-3,
pp. 541–550, "Original versions of these papers were presented at the International Research
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June 1976.")

McCartney, Scott (1999). ENIAC: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer (http
s://archive.org/details/eniac00scot) . Walker & Co. ISBN 978-0-8027-1348-3.

Rhodes, Richard (1995). Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 978-0-684-80400-2.

Rojas, Raúl; Hashagen, Ulf, editors. The First Computers: History and Architectures, 2000, MIT
Press, ISBN 0-262-18197-5

Stuart, Brian L. (2018). "Simulating the ENIAC [Scanning Our Past]". Proceedings of the IEEE. 106
(4): 761–772. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2018.2813678 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2018.28136
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Stuart, Brian L. (2018). "Programming the ENIAC [Scanning Our Past]" (https://doi.org/10.1109%2
FJPROC.2018.2843998) . Proceedings of the IEEE. 106 (9): 1760–1770.
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Further reading

Berkeley, Edmund. GIANT BRAINS or machines that think. John Wiley & Sons, inc., 1949. Chapter 7
Speed – 5000 Additions a Second: Moore School's ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer)
 Dyson, George (2012). Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe (https://archive.org/de
tails/turingscathedral0000dyso) . New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42277-5.

Gumbrecht, Jamie (February 8, 2011). "Rediscovering WWII's 'computers' " (http://www.cnn.com/2

011/TECH/innovation/02/08/women.rosies.math/index.html?hpt=C2) . CNN.com. Retrieved
February 9, 2011.

Hally, Mike. Electronic Brains: Stories from the Dawn of the Computer Age, Joseph Henry Press,
2005. ISBN 0-309-09630-8

Lukoff, Herman (1979). From Dits to Bits: A personal history of the electronic computer. Portland,
OR: Robotics Press. ISBN 978-0-89661-002-6. LCCN 79-90567 (https://lccn.loc.gov/79-90567) .

Tompkins, C. B.; Wakelin, J. H.; High-Speed Computing Devices, McGraw-Hill, 1950.

Stern, Nancy (1981). From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert–Mauchly Computers.
Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-932376-14-5.

"ENIAC Operating Manual" (http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/univOfPennsylvania/eniac/ENIAC_Oper

ating_Manual_Jun46.pdf) (PDF). www.bitsavers.org.

External links

ENIAC simulation (http://zuse-z1.zib.de/simulations/eniac/)

Another ENIAC simulation (http://www.historicsimulations.com/eniac.html)

Pulse-level ENIAC simulator (http://cs.drexel.edu/~bls96/eniac/eniac.html)

3D printable model of the ENIAC (https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:4164825)

Q&A: A lost interview with ENIAC co-inventor J. Presper Eckert (http://www.computerworld.com/a

rticle/2561813/computer-hardware/q-a--a-lost-interview-with-eniac-co-inventor-j--presper-eckert.h
tml)

Interview with Eckert (http://americanhistory.si.edu/comphist/eckert.htm) Transcript of a video

interview with Eckert by David Allison for the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian
Institution on February 2, 1988. An in-depth, technical discussion on ENIAC, including the thought
process behind the design.

Oral history interview with J. Presper Eckert (http://purl.umn.edu/107275) , Charles Babbage

Institute, University of Minnesota. Eckert, a co-inventor of ENIAC, discusses its development at
the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering; describes difficulties in
securing patent rights for ENIAC and the problems posed by the circulation of John von
Neumann's 1945 First Draft of the Report on EDVAC, which placed the ENIAC inventions in the
public domain. Interview by Nancy Stern, 28 October 1977.

Oral history interview with Carl Chambers (http://purl.umn.edu/107216) , Charles Babbage

Institute, University of Minnesota. Chambers discusses the initiation and progress of the ENIAC
project at the University of Pennsylvania Moore School of Electrical Engineering (1941–46). Oral
history interview by Nancy B. Stern, 30 November 1977.

Oral history interview with Irven A. Travis (http://purl.umn.edu/107688) , Charles Babbage

Institute, University of Minnesota. Travis describes the ENIAC project at the University of
Pennsylvania (1941–46), the technical and leadership abilities of chief engineer Eckert, the
working relations between John Mauchly and Eckert, the disputes over patent rights, and their
resignation from the university. Oral history interview by Nancy B. Stern, 21 October 1977.

Oral history interview with S. Reid Warren (http://purl.umn.edu/107704) , Charles Babbage

Institute, University of Minnesota. Warren served as supervisor of the EDVAC project; central to
his discussion are J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly and their disagreements with
administrators over patent rights; discusses John von Neumann's 1945 draft report on the EDVAC,
and its lack of proper acknowledgment of all the EDVAC contributors.

ENIAC Programmers Project (https://web.archive.org/web/20090123114642/http://www.eniacpr

ogrammers.org/index.shtml)

The women of ENIAC (https://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,3711,00.html)

Programming ENIAC (http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/eniac.html)

How ENIAC took a Square Root (https://web.archive.org/web/20041014180109/http://www4.witt

enberg.edu/academics/mathcomp/bjsdir/ENIACSquareRoot.htm)

Mike Muuss: Collected ENIAC documents (https://web.archive.org/web/20060909174756/http://

ftp.arl.army.mil/~mike/comphist/48eniac-coding/..)

ENIAC (https://web.archive.org/web/20040803150905/http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphist/61ordn
ance/chap2.html) chapter in Karl Kempf, Electronic Computers Within The Ordnance Corps,
November 1961

The ENIAC Story (https://web.archive.org/web/20110814181522/http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphi

st/eniac-story.html) , Martin H. Weik, Ordnance Ballistic Research Laboratories, 1961

ENIAC museum (http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~museum/index.html) at the University of

Pennsylvania
ENIAC specifications (http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL-e-h.html#ENIAC) from Ballistic
Research Laboratories Report No. 971 December 1955, (A Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital
Computing Systems)

A Computer Is Born (http://news.cnet.com/2009-1006_3-6037980.html) , Michael Kanellos, 60th

anniversary news story, CNet, February 13, 2006

1946 film restored, Computer History Archives Project (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bGk9

W65vXNA)