2024

HORT: 7124
BEVERAGE CROPS,
SPICES/CONDIMENTS AND ESSENCE
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CACAO --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

COFFEE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

TEA -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

CITRONELLA --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19

VANILLA -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24

BLACK PEPPER ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

GINGER ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES/CONDIMENTS
AND ESSENCE

Beverage crops are the backbone of the world's

beverage industry, encompassing a diverse
range of plants cultivated specifically for their
role in creating our favorite drinks. This
category extends far beyond fruits and
vegetables squeezed for juices. It delves into
the world of grains – barley for beer, sorghum
for traditional African beers, and even rice for
some varieties of sake. Leaves play a starring
role too, with tea leaves like black and green
tea forming the base for global hot beverages,
while fragrant herbs like chamomile and
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peppermint are steeped into soothing

infusions. Beverage crops don't stop there.
Roots like chicory offer an alternative coffee
experience, while seeds like coffee beans and
cocoa beans are the stars of our morning
routines and decadent desserts.
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Cacao, (Theobroma cacao), tropical
evergreen tree (family Malvaceae)
grown for its edible seeds, whose
scientific name means “food of the
gods” in Greek. Native to lowland
rainforests of the Amazon and
Orinoco river basins, cacao is grown
commercially in the New World
tropics as well as western Africa and
tropical Asia. Its seeds, called cocoa
beans, are processed into cocoa
powder, cocoa butter, and
chocolate. This article treats the
cultivation of the cacao plant. For
information on the processing of
cocoa and the history of its use, see
the article cocoa.

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BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Domain: Eukaryota FLOWERS BR 25

Kingdom: Plantae Pod index is 23.1pods/kg of dried beans. Pod
The flowers are produced in clusters length is 17.02 cm and has width of 7.07 cm.
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta
directly on the trunk and older K-1
Division: Magnopliophyta branches; they are small, 1–2 cm Pod index is 19.20 pods/ kg of dried beans. Pod
Class: Magnoliopsida (1/2–1 in) diameter, with pink calyx.- length is about 17.97 cm and has width of
Order: Malvales A very small percentage 2 % - 4% of about 8.67 cm. It has a pod wall thickness of
Family: Sterculiaceae Vent. flower were produced and developed around 1.80 cm. Beans weigh about 182 grams.
Genus: Theobroma L. into fruits. K-2
Species: Theobroma cacao L. Cacao flower arise as groups from It has pod wall thickness of around 1.40 cm
main stem (cauliflory) or branches with 34 beans per pod. Pod index is 25 pods /kg
(ramiflory). of dried beans.
ORIGIN: South America ICS 40
POTENTIAL OF YIELD/tree/yr Low Pod index is 16.2 pods/kg with 44 beans per
BRANCHES 1,111 trees/ha – 2,413 kg. pod. Canopy diameter is 195 cm.
High 3,000 above trees/ha – 3,800 kg UIT 1
Vertical or orthotropic branches grow Pod shape is Cundemor. Pod length is 20.07 cm
Fruit and width of 8.65 cm Pod is yellow when old
upward
from original color of green color when still
Grow almost at right angles from the Pod young with wall thickness of 1.02 cm.
main stems - Composed of 3–5 main The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, UF-18
branches 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm Has big beans (approx. 80 dry beans/100
(3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to grams). Has good yielding ability and High
LEAVES orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) butter content.
when ripe.
USES
Cacao leaves are alternate, entire, Beans Animal feed from cocoa husk.
unlobed, 10–40 cm (4–16 in) long and The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, Production of soft drinks and alcohol.
5–20 cm (2–8 in) broad. usually called “beans”, embedded in a Use as chocolates , cocoa powder and cocoa
Attached to a petiole in 3 inches white pulp. liquor.
The beans are the main ingredient of
chocolate that contain alkaloids

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 SOIL AND CLIMATIC RECOMMENDED VARIETIES
REQUIREMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS
Soil Criollo: Nursery Management:
Type:Deep, well-drained loam to clay Rarest and most expensive, known for its
soils or sandy loam ( ) are ideal. The soil delicate and complex flavor profile with Site Selection:
should allow for good drainage and fruity, nutty, and floral notes. Low yield and Choose a well-drained area with access to
aeration but also retain moisture. disease susceptibility make it difficult to water and sunlight (filtered, not direct).
pen_spark cultivate. Ensure good air circulation to prevent
Loam soil disease.
Organic matter: The topsoil should have Forastero: Ideally, locate near the planned planting
a high content of organic matter, at least Most common and hardiest variety, makes area for easy transfer.
3.5% in the top 15 centimeters. Organic up 80% of global production. Offers strong, Potting Mix:
matter helps retain moisture and bitter chocolate flavor with acidic and earthy Use a sterilized and well-draining mix.
nutrients in the soil. notes. High yield, disease resistant, and Common options include:
pH: Cacao can tolerate a wider range of adaptable to various conditions. Loam soil, compost, and sand
soil pH than some other crops, but a Coir dust, rice hull, and compost
range of 5.0 to 7.5 is preferred. Trinitario: Sowing/Planting:
Climate Hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, offering a Sow germinated seeds or transplant grafted
Temperature: Cacao thrives in warm, balance between flavor and hardiness. Flavor seedlings into individual pots.
humid climates. Ideal daytime varies depending on origin and processing, Ensure proper depth and spacing to avoid
temperatures are around 30°C (86°F), but generally milder and more complex than root entanglement.
with nighttime temperatures around Forastero with some Criollo floral notes. Watering:
24°C (75°F). Good yield, some disease resistance, and Maintain consistent moisture but avoid
Rainfall: Consistent rainfall is essential, wider range of flavor profiles. waterlogging.
with an annual range of 1,500 to 2,000 Water deeply and infrequently rather than
mm (59 to 79 inches) preferred. PROPAGATION AND NURSERY frequent shallow watering.
However, cacao doesn't tolerate MANAGEMENT Fertilization:
prolonged dry seasons. Ideally, there Apply a balanced fertilizer suitable for young
shouldn't be more than 3 months with Seed Propagation: cacao plants.
less than 100 mm (4 inches) of rain. Select mature, healthy pods from high- Follow a program with appropriate frequency
Humidity: High humidity levels (around yielding trees. and dosage.
80%) are beneficial for cacao growth. Extract seeds from ripe pods and remove Pest and Disease Control:
Shade: Cacao trees are shade-loving and pulp. Monitor for pests and diseases regularly.
cannot tolerate direct sunlight for Pre-germinate seeds in a moist, shaded Implement organic controls whenever
extended periods. Shade from taller environment for a few days. possible.
trees helps regulate temperature and Sow germinated seeds in prepared potting Use chemical controls only as a last resort
humidity and protects the leaves from mix in germination trays or individual and according to guidelines.
sunburn. pots
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 LAND PREPARATION,
FIELD LAYOUT, AND PLANTING

Land Preparation: Nutrient Requirements:

Water Management Practices:
Clear land, test soil, amend if needed, create Macronutrients: These are needed in
Monitor soil moisture regularly to determine
drainage ditches, and stake the planting larger quantities by the plant. Cacao
irrigation needs.
area. primarily needs:
Simple tools like tensiometers or visual
Field Layout: Nitrogen (N) for vegetative growth and
inspection can be helpful.
Choose a planting pattern (square, leaf development.
Irrigate deeply and infrequently rather than
rectangle, triangle) considering variety and Phosphorus (P) for root development,
frequent shallow watering.
shade needs. flower and pod formation.
Apply water only when the top layer of soil
Plant shade trees for dappled sunlight and Potassium (K) for overall plant health,
dries slightly.
windbreaks if necessary. disease resistance, and fruit quality.
Consider using rainwater harvesting systems
Planting: Micronutrients: These are required in
to collect and utilize runoff for irrigation.
Dig planting holes based on spacing and smaller amounts but are still essential.
Manage shade trees to optimize light
variety. Common ones for cacao include:
penetration and reduce moisture competition
Select healthy seedlings from the nursery. Magnesium (Mg) for chlorophyll
with cacao trees.
Plant seedlings, mulch around the base, and production and enzyme function.
Mulching around the base of trees helps
stake Calcium (Ca) for cell wall strength and
retain moisture and suppress weeds,
disease resistance.
reducing water needs.
IRRIGATION AND WATER Zinc (Zn) for enzyme function and
flower development.
MANAGEMENT FERTILIZER AND NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION
Water Needs: MANAGEMENT
Cacao trees are sensitive to both water stress Fertilizer Application:
and waterlogging. Soil Testing: The foundation of nutrient Pruning and Canopy Management:
Ideal soil moisture should be consistently management is a proper soil test. Regular pruning promotes good
maintained, avoiding extremes. This helps determine existing nutrient levels growth, light penetration, and disease
Factors affecting water needs include: and identify any deficiencies. control. Intensity depends on variety,
Rainfall patterns Fertilizer Choice: Based on soil test results, age, and desired outcomes.
Soil type (drainage and water retention) choose a fertilizer blend that addresses Pollination Management: Hand
Tree age and size specific nutrient needs. pollination can significantly improve
Climate (temperature and humidity) Common NPK ratios for cacao might be like fruit set, especially in areas with low
16:8:24 or 12:24:12 (depending on stage natural pollinators.
Irrigation Systems: and soil conditions). Disease and Pest Control: Use
If irrigation is necessary, choose a water- Application Methods: Apply fertilizers Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
efficient system that delivers water directly to around the base of the tree, avoiding direct strategies, minimizing chemical
the root zone. contact with the trunk. controls and prioritizing monitoring
6 and biological controls.
 Category : Viral HARVESTING AND
Harvesting and Post-Harvest Handling:
Harvest ripe pods, handle carefully, and Cocoa swollen shoot C POSTPRODUCTION
process quickly to prevent spoilage. Proper Harvesting
pulping, fermentation, and drying are Management The most vital characteristics of cocoa are
crucial for quality beans. Infected trees and those surrounding them dependent on proper processing, which
Fermentation and Drying: Fermentation should be removed and destroyed (up to 5 m begins with harvesting and ends with
develops chocolate flavor, while drying from infected tree if less than 10 trees are storage. Pod development takes about 6
reduces moisture and prevents mold. infected and up to a distance of 15 m if months from seed to maturity. When the
Techniques vary depending on desired greater than 100 trees are infected) to prevent pods are completely ripe, harvesting can
outcome. further spread; a gap should be placed begin. An orange discoloration of the
Shade Management: Balance shade needs between cocoa plantations of at least 10 m shell distinguishes many Trinitario types
of young trees with optimal light (33 ft) and it may be possible to isolate cocoa with their red and dark violet pods. When
penetration for mature trees by pruning or plantations using a non-host crop such as oil other varieties are ripe, they turn yellow.
palm growing between plantations. Depending on the region and weather
thinning shade trees.
conditions, there are usually one or two
Record Keeping: Maintain detailed records
harvesting phases that last several
of all production activities to track months. It is best to harvest all of the
progress, identify improvement areas, and Category : Fungal
Frosty pod (Monilia pod rot, Watery pod ripened pods every 2-3 weeks to ensure
make informed decisions. uniform ripeness of the harvested pods.
rot)
Each week during peak production, pods
PEST AND DISEASE are harvested.
Management To avoid damaging of the bark, use a
MANAGEMENT Planting cocoa varieties that produce pods sharp knife or other suitable instrument
during the dry season allows the pod to avoid to cut off the pods at the base of the
the disease; pods showing symptoms of blossom.
disease should be removed to prevent spread;
DISEASES application of copper containing fungicides POST-HARVEST PROCESSES
will help reduce disease incidence. After harvest, the cocoa fruit is
Category : Oomycete fermented, dried, and stored. Farmers
Management PESTS remain vulnerable to production losses
Protective sprays of copper containing Category : Insects during these processes and the quality
fungicides in combination with systemic Cocoa mealybugs and flavor of the product is defined by the
fungicides are often recommended to environment and the methods used.
control the disease; cocoa plants should be Management
well spaced to allow good air circulation Mealybugs can potentially be controlled by
through the plantation; mummified pods natural enemies such as lady beetles but are
should be removed and destroyed to reduce commonly controlled using chemicals; chemical
spread pesticides may also decrease populations of
natural enemies leading to mealybug outbreaks
7
 REFERENCES
Australian Centre for International Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Agricultural Research (ACIAR): Nations (FAO): Beveridge, F. C., Kalaipandian, S.,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3 Yang, C., & Adkins, S. W. (2022). Fruit Biology of
11933062_Pests_of_Cocoa_and_Their_Ma Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Plants, 11(23), 3293.
nagement https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11233293.

Horticulture :: Plantation Crops :: Coconut-

Castillo, M. B. (2021, January 12). The Nursery management - TNAU Agritech Porta
Philippine Coconut Industry: Status, policies
and Strategic Directions for development.
FFTC Agricultural Policy Platform (FFTC-
AP). https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1382

Climate Smart Cocoa (CSC): Ediname, S.

(2017). Coconut Cultivation. Agrobios
(India) Pvt. Ltd.

Department of Agriculture - Philippines

(DA): https://ati2.da.gov.ph/e-
extension/content/sites/default/files/2023-
03/Insect%2C%20Pest%20and%20Diseases
%20and%20their%20Management.pdf

FAO - Coconut: Post-harvest Operations:

https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c
/7d6a0972-918c-49dc-a42a-d188306ee87a/

Fertilization Guide for Coconuts - Philippine

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Coconut Authority:
https://pca.gov.ph/pdf/cocoTech/fertilizatio
n/fertilizationGuideForCoconuts.pdf

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Coffee trees are pruned short to conserve
their energy and aid in harvesting, but
can grow to more than 30 feet (9 meters)
high. Each tree is covered with green,
waxy leaves growing opposite each other
in pairs. Coffee cherries grow along the
branches. Because it grows in a
continuous cycle, it’s not unusual to see
flowers, green fruit and ripe fruit
simultaneously on a single tree.
It takes nearly a year for a cherry to
mature after first flowering, and about 5
years of growth to reach full fruit
production. While coffee plants can live
up to 100 years, they are generally the
most productive between the ages of 7
and 20. Proper care can maintain and
even increase their output over the years,
depending on the variety. The average
coffee tree produces 10 pounds of coffee
cherry per year, or 2 pounds of green
beans.
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BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION RECOMMENDED VARIETIES
AND CHARACTERISTICS
Domain: Eukaryota LEAVES
Kingdom: Plantae The Elliptical leaves of the coffee tree are Arabica (Coffea arabica):
Subkingdom: Spermatophyta shiny, dark green and waxy. The coffee This variety produces high-quality, aromatic
bean leaf area index is between 7 and 8 for coffee beans. It requires specific growing
Division: Magnopliophyta
a high-yielding coffee. conditions and is susceptible to frost and
Class: Magnoliopsida The leaves of the coffee are 10-15 cm long disease.
Order: Rubiales ellipsoids.
Family: Rubiaceae Robusta (Coffea canephora):
Genus: Coffea FLOWERS A more robust and disease-resistant variety,
Species: Coffea spp. Small and white, with five petals arranged Robusta produces stronger, higher caffeine
ORIGIN: Ethiopia in the shape of a star beans. It tolerates wider climate ranges and
The stigma are yellow and will turn to less fertile soils.
black after pollination occurred.
BRANCHES Each flower is about ¼ inch in diameter. Liberica (Coffea liberica):
Coffee tree has a main trunk with vertical (or They have a sweet, jasmine-like fragrance. A less common variety known for its large
orthotropic) branches, which produce Coffee flowers grow in clusters on coffee beans and fruity flavor. It's resistant to some
horizontal (or plagiotropic) stems, also trees. Each cluster contains between 10 diseases but has lower yields.
known as primary, secondary, and tertiary and 20 flowers.
branches. 4-6 buds will grow at every stem PLANT PROPAGATION AND
and branches. Every 3-4 buds will be
SOIL AND CLIMATIC
REQUIREMENTS NURSERY MANAGEMENT
produces reproduction flowers.
Seeds or Cuttings:
Soil:
ROOT Coffee can be propagated from seeds
Coffee thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic
The root system can extend 20-25 km in (slower) or cuttings (faster). Seeds require
soil (pH 5.5-6.5) rich in organic matter. Loamy
total length. special treatment to break dormancy.
soils with good aeration and drainage are ideal.
There are main vertical roots, tap roots,
Nursery Management:
and lateral roots which grow parallel to Climate:
Seedlings are raised in a protected nursery
the ground. Coffee prefers warm temperatures (18-24°C)
for 6-12 months with proper watering,
with moderate rainfall (1,200-2,000 mm
The tap roots extend no further than 30- fertilization, and pest control.
annually) and well-defined wet and dry
45 cm below the soil surface. seasons. Protection from strong winds is also
Lateral roots can be extend 2 m from the essential.
trunk

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 LAND PREPARATION, FIELD LAY- FERTILIZER AND NUTRIENT PEST AND DISEASE
OUT AND PLANTING MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
Land Preparation: Nutrient Requirements:
Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
Clearing and Debris Removal: Clear the land Coffee needs macro (N, P, K) and
This approach prioritizes preventive
of vegetation and remove debris to prepare micronutrients (Mg, Ca, Zn) for healthy growth
measures, monitoring, and using natural
for planting. and yield.
controls before resorting to chemical
Soil Testing: Conduct a soil test to determine
solutions.
nutrient levels and pH. Amend the soil as Soil Testing:
needed to create optimal growing conditions. Base fertilizer application on soil test results to
Common Threats:
Drainage Ditches: Create drainage ditches to address specific nutrient deficiencies.
Coffee Leaf Rust, Coffee Berry Borer,
prevent waterlogging, which can harm coffee
Coffee Scale, and Coffee Wilt Disease are
trees. Fertilizer Choice and Application:
some major threats.
Choose a fertilizer blend suitable for coffee and
Field Layout and Planting: apply it strategically around the base of the tree,
Targeted Management:
Planting Pattern: Choose a planting pattern avoiding the trunk.
Implement specific controls for each pest
(square, rectangular, triangular) that
SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION or disease, considering cultural practices,
optimizes space and light distribution for the
MANAGEMENT biological controls, and judicious use of
mature trees.
pesticides when necessary.
Shade Trees: Consider incorporating shade Pruning:
trees to provide dappled sunlight for young
coffee plants.
Regular pruning promotes healthy growth, good HARVESTING AND POST
light penetration, and disease control. PRODUCTION
Planting Depth and Spacing: Plant seedlings Techniques and frequency vary depending on
at the appropriate depth and spacing based on variety and age. Harvesting:
the chosen variety and mature tree size. Harvest ripe coffee cherries by hand or
Pollination: machine, depending on scale and cherry
IRRIGATION AND WATER While coffee flowers are self-pollinating, hand color.
MANAGEMENT pollination can significantly improve fruit set,
especially in areas with low pollinator activity. Post-Harvest Processing:
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Water Needs: The cherries undergo pulping to remove

Coffee requires consistent moisture but not Harvesting: fruit flesh, fermentation to develop flavor,
waterlogging. Rainfall patterns will determine Harvest ripe coffee cherries at the optimal and drying to reduce moisture content and
irrigation needs. maturity stage for desired flavor profile. Picking prevent spoilage.
techniques vary but typically involve selective
Irrigation Systems: handpicking. Milling and Hulling:
Drip irrigation is the most efficient method, The dried cherries are hulled to remove the
delivering water directly to the root zone. Post-Harvest Processing: outer husk, revealing the green coffee
Monitoring: Regularly monitor soil moisture to Proper processing steps like pulping, beans.
determine irrigation needs. fermentation, and drying are crucial for high-
quality coffee beans.
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Roasting: The National Coffee Association (NCA):
Roasting transforms green coffee beans into the https://www.viennacoffeecompany.com/blog/20
aromatic brown beans we know, developing the 22/coffee-bean-seed-to-cup
unique flavor profile of the coffee.
World Coffee Research (WCR):
https://worldcoffeeresearch.org/
REFERENCES

Coffee Research Report (CRR):

http://www.coffeeresearch.org/

College of Agriculture and Life Sciences - Cornell

University:
https://www.studioplant.com/en/blog/propagati
on/coffee-plant
pen_spark

Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

(CIAT):
https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/b5862bfa-9799-
4167-b1cf-76f0f4ea1e18 CIAT

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO): https://www.fao.org/markets-
and-trade/commodities/coffee/en/

https://www.google.com/url?
sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturehills.co
m%2Fcoffee-
plant&psig=AOvVaw393biul63eoTXPWcH9AM
Dg&ust=1716328938576000&source=images&c
d=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjRxqFwoTCO
CXntydnYYDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

International Coffee Organization (ICO):

https://icocoffee.org/

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Tea plant, (Camellia sinensis),
evergreen flowering plant valued for its
young leaves and leaf buds, from which
the tea beverage is produced. Two
principal varieties are used
commercially, the small-leaved China
plant (Camellia sinensis, variety
sinensis) and the large-leaved Assam
plant (C. sinensis, variety assamica).
Hybrids of these two varieties are also
grown. For information on the
processing of tea and the history of its
use, see tea. The natural habitat of the
tea plant is considered to be within the
fan-shaped area between Nagaland,
Manipur, and the Assam-Myanmar
frontier in the west through to China,
probably as far as Zhejiang province, in
the east and from this line south
through the hills of Myanmar and
Thailand into Vietnam.
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BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION SOIL AND CLIMATIC
REQUIREMENTS
Domain: Eukaryota ROOTS
Kingdom: Plantae The roots of the tea bush grow towards Soil:
gravity. The bushes that grow on a Tea thrives in well-drained, slightly acidic soil
Division: Magnoliophyta
horizontal surface first penetrate the (pH 4.5-6.5) rich in organic matter. Sandy
Class: Magnoliopsida shallow top layer of soft arable soil and loam or clay loam with good drainage is ideal.
Order: Ericales then gradually reach the deeper layer
Family: Theaceae of hardened subsoil. Climate:
Genus: Camella Topsoil is softer and contains more air, Tea prefers warm, humid temperatures (15-
Species: C. Sinensis which makes it easier for the roots to 25°C) with ample rainfall (1200-2500 mm
penetrate and grow deeper annually) well-distributed throughout the
ORIGIN: : South East Asia and China year. Areas with morning mist and fog are
FRUITS particularly suitable.
Tea plant are brownish-green and
LEAVES contain one to four spherical or
Tea leaves may be serrated, bullate flattened seeds. RECOMMENDED VARIETIES
(having a blistered appearance), or AND CHARACTERISTICS
smooth and may be stiff or flabby. POTENTIAL OF YIELD:
The average is 580 lbs/year. Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (China
The leaf pose ranges from erect to
Only 300 kg of tea leaves can be tea):
pendant and the degree of pubescence harvested from one acre, but under This variety produces most black, green, white,
(leaf hairs) varies widely from plant to this method, a high yield of 1500 kg of and oolong teas. It requires specific growing
plant. tea leaves can be obtained. conditions and prefers cooler temperatures.
Older leaves are deep green in color.
The young, light green leaves have short Tea is classified into five main types: Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Assam
Black tea):
and white hairs on the underside.
Green This variety is known for its bold flavor and is
Oolong used in black teas. It tolerates warmer
FLOWER White temperatures and higher humidity.
The tea plants' white, scented flowers Pu-erh.
occur either on their own or in clusters of Camellia sinensis var. cambodiensis
two to four. USES (Cambodian tea):
Flowers are aromatic. The color of Beauty and Cosmetics A less common variety known for its disease
Food and Drinks resistance and use in green and pu-erh teas.
flowers are yellow – white
The size of flower is 2.5-4 cm in diameter.
Its flowers consist of 7 or 8 petals

16
 PLANT PROPAGATION AND FERTTILIZER AND
NURSERY MANAGEMENT NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

Seeds or Cuttings: Field Layout and Planting: Nutrient Requirements:

Tea is primarily propagated from semi-hardwood Tea needs macro (N, P, K) and micronutrients
cuttings for faster results. Seeds can also be used Planting Pattern: (Fe, Mn, Zn) for healthy growth and yield.
but take longer to mature. Choose a planting pattern (rows, hedges)
that optimizes space and allows for efficient Soil Testing:
Nursery Management: harvesting. Base fertilizer application on soil test results to
Seedlings or cuttings are raised in a protected address specific nutrient deficiencies.
nursery for 6-12 months with proper watering, Shade Management:
fertilization, and pest control. Consider shade structures in hot climates to Fertilizer Choice and Application:
protect young plants from excessive sunlight. Choose a fertilizer blend suitable for tea and
LAND PREPARATION, FIELD apply it strategically around the base of the
LAY-OUT AND PLANTING Planting Depth and Spacing: bush, avoiding the trunk.
Plant seedlings or cuttings at the appropriate
depth and spacing based on the chosen
Land Preparation
variety and mature bush size. SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION
Clearing and Debris Removal: MANAGEMENT
Clear the land of vegetation and debris to prepare IRRIGATION AND WATER
for planting. MANAGEMENT Pruning:
Regular pruning is essential to maintain bush
Soil Testing: Water Needs: size, promote new growth, and optimize leaf
Conduct a soil test to determine nutrient levels Tea requires consistent moisture but not production for quality.
and pH. Amend the soil as needed to create waterlogging. Rainfall patterns will
optimal growing conditions. determine irrigation needs. Plucking:
Tea leaves are hand-plucked at specific stages
Drainage Ditches: Irrigation Systems: of growth to influence flavor and quality.
Create drainage ditches to prevent waterlogging, Drip irrigation or overhead sprinklers can be Different plucking techniques are used
which can harm tea bushes. used, depending on the scale of the depending on the desired tea type.
operation.
Terracing (optional):
Terracing may be necessary on sloping land to Monitoring:
prevent erosion and facilitate management. Regularly monitor soil moisture to
determine irrigation needs.

17
 PEST AND DISEASE REFERENCE
MANAGEMENT
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Camellia sinensis (Tea Plant) | Britannica: Food and
This approach prioritizes preventive Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
measures, monitoring, and using natural (FAO): https://www.fao.org/markets-and-
controls before resorting to chemical trade/commodities/tea/en/
solutions.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Common Threats: Nations (FAO): Food and Agriculture Organization
Caterpillars, mites, fungal diseases, and of the United Nations (FAO):
bacterial infections are some major threats to https://www.fao.org/markets-and-
tea bushes. trade/commodities/tea/en/

Targeted Management: National Institute of Agricultural Extension

Implement specific controls for each pest or Management (NIAEM):
disease, considering cultural practices, https://bsssjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ful
biological controls, and judicious use of l/10.1111/sum.12885
pesticides when necessary. pen_spark

International Tea Committee (ITC):

HARVESTING AND POST https://inttea.com/
PRODUCTION pen_spark

Harvesting: Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka (TRI): Food and

Tea leaves are hand-plucked at the optimal Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
maturity stage for desired tea type (black, (FAO): https://www.fao.org/markets-and-
green, oolong, etc.). Plucking techniques vary trade/commodities/tea/en/
depending on the specific tea.
The Tea Growers Association (TGA): Food and
Post-Harvest Processing: Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
The harvested leaves undergo withering, (FAO): https://www.fao.org/markets-and-
oxidation (for black tea), rolling, drying, and trade/commodities/tea/en/
sorting to produce the final tea product.
Specific processing steps vary depending on
the desired tea type.

18
pn

19
Citronella oil is made from citronella
grass. Sri Lanka citronella oil comes
from Cymbopogon nardus. Java
citronella oil comes from Cymbopogon
winterianus.

Citronella grass is native to tropical

areas. The essential oil is made
through a process called steam
distillation. During this process, steam
is passed through the grass to pull out
the oil.

People most commonly use citronella

oil as a mosquito repellent on the skin.
It's also used for other conditions, but
there is no good scientific evidence to
support these uses.

20
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION SOIL AND CLIMATIC
REQUIREMENTS
Domain: Eukaryota POTENTIAL OF YIELD: 15-25 tons/ha.
fresh leaves, 100-150 kg/ha oil Soil:
Kingdom: Plantae
Lenabatu (Ceylon type) – Type: Sandy loam is the preferred soil
Division: Angiosperms type for citronella. This provides good
Cymbopogon nardus (L) Rendle
Class: Liliopsida adropogon nardus de Jong narrow- drainage while allowing enough
Order: Cyperales leafed, hardier and long lived. moisture retention for the plant's
Family: Poaceae Mahapengari (Java type) – needs.
Genus: Cymbopogon Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt Organic Matter: Abundant organic
(Adropogon nardus Java de Jong) matter in the soil is crucial. It improves
Species: coonfertiflorus L.
broad leafed, requires good soil and drainage, aeration, and nutrient
ORIGIN: : India availability for the plant.
much care in growing and cultivating.
pH: Citronella tolerates a wider pH
LEAVES PRODUCTS AND USES range than some plants, ideally
Leaf sheaths are glabrous, reddish inside; The oil extracted from leaves and other between 5.0 and 7.0 (slightly acidic to
Leaf blades relatively thin, drooping 2/3 aerial parts of the plant is the neutral).
commercial product of importance. Climate:
of their length, 40 80 cm tall, 1.5 to 2.5
Citronella oil is used as a fragrant in Temperature: Tropical and
cm wide, abaxial surface glaucous, subtropical climates are ideal, with a
cosmetic industry, soap and detergent
adaxial surface light green, margins temperature range between 20°C to
manufacturing, polish, paint and in
scabrid, base narrow, apex long insecticide industry. 38°C (68°F to 100°F).
acuminate. Mosquito repellent and also used in Rainfall: Citronella prefers areas with
indigenous medicine and flavoring high and well-distributed rainfall,
ROOTS/ PSEUDOSTEMS food and alcoholic drinks in certain around 2000-3000 mm (78-118
countries. inches) annually. However, it can
Looks like lemongrass but has a wider
adapt to areas with lower rainfall if
leaf blade and the base of the stem is irrigation is provided.
reddish, while lemongrass has a green Humidity: High humidity is essential
one. It has shallow fibrous root system. for citronella growth. Ideally, it should
be above 70% for optimal yield and oil
FLOWER quality.
Sunlight: Citronella requires
The flowering shoots are removed to
abundant sunshine for good growth
maintain high productivity for 3-4 years and development.
in field.
The plant produces clusters of small,
creamy-white flowers on spikes that rise
above the foliage.
21
RECOMMENDED VARIETIES AND LAND PREPARATION, FIELD IRRIGATION AND WATER
CHARACTERISTICS LAY-OUT AND PLANTING MANAGEMENT
Mandakini Season of Planting Java citronella requires sufficient moisture
Clonal selection, gives a little less herb yield (35 Although the plantation of Java citronella can for good growth and yield of the leaves. In
t/ha) and oils (118 kg/ha). the variey is suitable be initiated anytime during the year, onset of the areas where annual rainfall is about 200-
for hills and Tarai tracts of Himalayas (CIMAP, monsoon is the best time. The land should be 250cm, well distributed over the year and the
Lucknow). prepared to fine tilth by discing and tilling. humidity is high, supplemental irrigation is
Manjusha There should be enough moisture in the field not necessary. In drier months, however,
Clonal selection, gives a herbage yield of 43 at the time of planting. irrigation is provided twice a week during the
tons/ha. and 150 kg/ha of oil per annum. The first month of planting and thereafter once in
variety is suitable for indo-gangetic plains Spacing 5 days.
(CIMAP, Lucknow). The slips should be planted at a distance of 60
Manjiri FERTILIZER AND NUTRIENT
cm x 60 cm apart. However, in areas where the
This variety has been released by University of soil is very fertile and the climatic conditions MANAGEMENT
Agriculture Sciences, Bangalore. It is an elite support luxurious growth, a spacing of 90 cm x Java citronella generally requires high dose
mutant clone of Manjusha M3-8. It has been 90 cm may be followed. of nitrogen for good growth. Under the
found to possess 50-90% more oil, high agroclimatic conditions of North-Eastern
cirtonellol and low elemol content. It has profuse Method of Planting India and North India, 80-120 kg N /ha per
tillering and rapid growing ability thus producing The slips should be taken from healthy, year is recommended. For the soils with high
a high herb yields. vigorously growing and young bushes and fertility level, the dose may be reduced. The
CIMAP Bio-13, Java-2, Jorhat-2 should be planted soon after the bushes have recommended annual doses of P and K are
High yielding varieties for the southern and been dug up and the slips have been separated 40 kg/ha each. It is beneficial to apply N in 4
eastern India released by CIMAP. out. If the planting is delayed, the slips may equally split doses, the first about a month
PROPAGATION AND NURSERY partially dry up resulting in poor plant after planting and then after each harvest, at
population. The slips are planted vertically, an interval of about three months. In poor
MANAGEMENT
about 10 cm deep. The planting should be soils, 200 kg N and 80 kg P 0 per ha should
Citronella is a perennial grass, however, it does
done in such a way that the excess water is be applied. Nitrogen is applied in 5-6 split
not produce viable seeds, therefore, the species
drained off quickly. This is because plants are doses.
can be propagated only vegetatively by slips. This
extremely sensitive to temporary waterlogging,
is achieved by splitting well-grown clumps. It has
which adversely affects the growth of the plant. PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
been observed that an year old clump yields on
It is better to plant citronella on ridges to avoid Pre-Planting
an average about 50 slips. The clump is gently
waterlogging. The field should be irrigated Climate and Soil: Citronella thrives in
separated into a number of slips and each slip
immediately after planting if there are no rains tropical and subtropical climates with well-
contains 1-3 tillers. These slips are the unit of
within next 24 hours. drained, sandy loam soil rich in organic
propagation and on planting establish
themselves as plants or bushes. Fibrous roots matter. Aim for a pH of 6.6 to 8.0.
and leaves should be trimmed off the slips before Variety Selection: Choose high-yielding
planting. varieties like Java citronella or Geranium for
optimal oil production.
22
Planting and Cultivation HARVESTING AND POST Post Production:
Propagation: Propagate using stem cuttings PRODUCTION
(slips) from mature plants. Separate the oil from water: The oil
Planting Time: The ideal planting window Harvesting: floats on top, so skim it off or use other
falls between June and July in many regions. methods for complete separation.
Spacing and Layout: Plant slips in rows with Citronella is cultivated for essential oil. Although, Filter the oil: Remove impurities for a
proper spacing (around 60 x 45 cm) on ridges all the plant parts contain oil, leaves contain the cleaner product.
for better drainage and weed control. maximum amount of oil. Therefore, only the Dry the oil: Eliminate leftover moisture
Fertilization: Apply basal dose of farmyard leaves should be harvested. Harvesting is done by using special techniques.
manure (FYM) and NPK fertilizers. Consider sharp sickle at about 20-45cm above the ground. Store in airtight containers: Glass,
split applications of nitrogen throughout the The number of harvests, which can be taken aluminum, or stainless steel are ideal.
growth cycle. during a year, depends upon the growth of the Avoid plastic.
Irrigation: Provide regular irrigation, plants. Under favourable conditions, upto 4 Keep it cool, dark, and dry: Store the oil
especially during the initial establishment harvests can be obtained in a year. The leaves are in a place between 59-68°F (15-20°C) to
stage. Maintain consistent moisture but avoid ready for first harvest, about 6 months after prevent spoilage.
waterlogging. planting. The second and subsequent harvests can
Weeding and Earthing Up: Regular weeding be taken thereafter at 2.5 -3 months interval. REFERENCE
is crucial during the initial stages. Earthing
up after each harvest helps support plant Harvesting too soon and too late affects the quality
https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/in
growth. of oil adversely. The delay also causes the leaves to
dry up resulting in decrease in yield of oil. While gredientmono-627/citronella-oil
PEST AND DISEASE
harvesting, only the leaf blade should be cut and
MANAGEMENT the sheath should be left. This is because the http:/www.eagri.org/eagri50/AGRO301/
Preventative Measures: sheath contains only little and poor quality oil. lec20.html
Promote healthy plants through proper care. Flowering should be discouraged as it causes aging
Choose resistant varieties for your region. in plants and reduces their life span. The same https:/tisserandinstitute.org/who-we-
Regularly monitor for signs of infestation. schedule of harvesting is to be followed during
are/
second and subsequent years. The Java citronella
Common Pests Control Methods plantations remain productive for 5-6 years but
Red Spider Mites Insecticidal soap or neem oil the yield of leaves and oil is highest during second
Aphids Insecticidal soap or neem oil and third years, after which it starts decreasing. It
Stem Borers Encourage natural predators is recommended that the plantation should be
uprooted after 3-4 years and rotated with some
Common Diseases Control Methods small legume species. Horsegram is a very good
Leaf Blight & Rust Improve air circulation, rotational crop in south, cowpea or sunhemp
. use copper fungicides (Crotalaria species) is recommended for north
Root Rot Ensure proper drainage, Indian plains.
. avoid overwatering,
. rotate crops
23
24
Vanilla, (genus Vanilla), any member of
a group of tropical climbing orchids
(family Orchidaceae) and the flavouring
agent extracted from their pods. The
vanilla beans of commerce are the cured
unripe fruit of Mexican or Bourbon
vanilla (Vanilla planifolia), Tahiti vanilla
(V. tahitensis), and occasionally West
Indian vanilla (V. pompona); all three
species are thought to be derived from a
single species native to Mexico, Central
America, and northern South America.
Vanilla had been used to flavour xocoatl,
the chocolate beverage of the Aztecs,
centuries before the Spanish
conquistador Hernán Cortés drank it at
Montezuma’s court, and soon afterward
vanilla became popular in Europe. Today
it is used in a variety of sweet foods and
beverages, particularly chocolate,
confections, ice cream, and bakery
goods, and in perfumery.
25
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION RECOMMENDED VARIETIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS
Domain: Eukaryota Dried seed pods are dark brown/ black in
Kingdom: Plantae color.
Vanilla planifolia (Vanilla bean):
Division: Angiosperms Vanilla seeds are very dark brown/black.
This is the most common commercially
Pods are ready for harvest in 6 to 9 months
Class: Liliopsida cultivated vanilla variety. It produces high-
after flowering.
Order: Asparagales quality vanilla pods with a rich, intense flavor.
Family: Orchidaceae POTENTIAL OF YIELD:
Genus: Vanilla Vanilla tahitensis (Tahitian vanilla):
Average cured bean yield is 300 to 600 kg /
This variety produces shorter, plumper pods
Species: V. planifolia ha / year.
with a floral and licorice-like aroma.
6 kg of green pods produces 1 kg of cured
ORIGIN: : Mexico, Central America beans
Vanilla pompona:
The economic life of vine is 12 – 14 years.
This variety yields smaller pods with a strong,
Leaves buttery flavor. It's less commercially cultivated
Arranged alternately along the cylindrical SOIL AND CLIMATIC but popular for its unique taste.
stem 1 to 2m thick. REQUIREMENTS
The thick fleshy leaves are sessile and PROPAGATION AND NURSERY
Soil:
oblong-elliptical to lanceolate in shape. Vanilla thrives in well-drained, rich, organic
MANAGEMENT
soil with a slightly acidic pH (pH 6.0-7.0).
Flowers Loamy or sandy loam soils with good drainage Propagation:
Yellow – green flower are borne on short, are ideal. Vanilla is typically propagated by stem cuttings.
Vine cuttings are planted in pots with a well-
axillary inflorescence with 1 to 3 cm
Climate: draining potting mix and placed in a warm,
flowers open at one time and bloom from humid environment.
Vanilla prefers warm and humid climates with
the base of inflorescence upwards. temperatures ranging from 18-27°C (64-80°F)
The flowers come from an axillary cluster and ample rainfall well-distributed throughout Nursery Management:
that will have 12–20 buds. the year (around 2000-3000 mm or 80-120 Seedlings or cuttings are raised in a protected
Roots inches). Protection from strong winds is also nursery for 12-18 months with proper watering,
essential. fertilization, and misting to maintain humidity.
Roots are thick and green Measuring 12
to 25 cm long and 5 to 8 cm wide Pods
These seed pods are roughly a third of an
inch (8 mm) by six inches (15 cm), and
brownish red to black when ripe

26
LAND PREPARAION, FIELD LAY- IRRIGATION AND WATER SPECIALIZED
OUT AND PLANTING MANAGEMENT PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Land Preparation Water Needs: Pollination:
Vanilla requires consistent moisture but not Vanilla flowers are naturally self-sterile and
Site Selection: waterlogged soil. Watering frequency will require hand pollination for fruit set. This is
Choose a location with partial shade and depend on rainfall patterns and climate. typically done meticulously using a small tool
protection from strong winds. Vanilla vines are to transfer pollen from the male to the female
typically grown on support structures like trees Irrigation Methods: flower parts.
or trellises. Drip irrigation is an efficient method to
deliver water directly to the root zone while Vine Training:
Soil Amendment: minimizing evaporation. Train the vanilla vines to climb the support
Amend the soil with organic matter like compost structures, gently weaving them around the
or composted manure to improve drainage and Mulching: trellis or tree trunks.
fertility. Apply a layer of organic mulch around the
base of the plant to retain moisture, suppress PEST AND DISEASE
Support Structures: weeds, and regulate soil temperature. MANAGEMENT
Install a trellis system or plant support trees like
Gliricidia sepium (Madre de Cacao) for the Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
FERTILIZER ANF NUTRIENT
vanilla vines to climb. This approach prioritizes preventive
MANAGEMENT measures, monitoring, and using natural
Field Layout and Planting: Nutrient Requirements: controls before resorting to chemical
Vanilla needs macro (N, P, K) and solutions.
Planting Pattern: micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Zn) for healthy
Space vanilla plants 1-2 meters (3-6 feet) apart in growth and pod production. Common Threats:
rows with sufficient distance between rows to Fungal diseases like Fusarium wilt and
allow for proper air circulation and access for Soil Testing: anthracnose, and pests like mealybugs and
vine management. Conduct a soil test to determine nutrient snails can harm vanilla plants.
levels and pH. Amend the soil as needed to
Planting Depth: address specific nutrient deficiencies. Targeted Management:
Plant the vanilla cuttings or seedlings deep Implement specific controls for each pest or
enough to cover the lower nodes but not smother Fertilization: disease, considering cultural practices,
the growing tip. Apply a balanced fertilizer formulated for biological controls, and judicious use of
orchids or aroid plants, following pesticides when necessary.
recommended rates and frequency.

27
 HARVESTING AND POST
PRODUCTION
The Vanilla Company:
Harvesting:
https://pastrychefonline.com/vanilla-taste-test/
Vanilla pods are ready for harvest when they turn
yellow and develop a slight wrinkle on the surface.
Spice Islands International:
They are picked carefully to avoid damaging the
https://www.seasonedpioneers.com/a-history-of-
vine.
the-spice-islands/
pen_spark
Curing:
After harvest, vanilla pods undergo a curing
Vanilla Bean Kings:
process that involves several steps like blanching,
https://www.vanillabeankings.com/blogs/recipes/
sweating, and drying. This process develops the
how-to-make-homemade-vanilla-extract-from-
characteristic vanilla flavor and aroma.
vanilla-beans
Conditioning:
The cured vanilla pods are then conditioned for
several months to further enhance

REFERENCES

Agricultural Research Service (ARS) - United

States Department of Agriculture (USDA):
https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?
symbol=CAFL6

College of Tropical Agriculture and Human

Resources (CTAHR) - University of Hawaii at
Manoa:
https://reeis.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/0214
871-effective-strategies-for-sustainable-vanilla-
production-in-hawaii.html

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations (FAO):
https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bi
tstreams/07a5819e-717e-494a-a1b2-
796e67c9ec3b/content

28
29
Black pepper, (Piper nigrum), perennial
climbing vine of the family Piperaceae
and the hotly pungent spice made from
its fruits. Widely used as a spice around
the world, pepper also has a limited
usage in medicine as a carminative (to
relieve flatulence) and as a stimulant of
gastric secretions. In early historic times
pepper was widely cultivated in the
tropics of Southeast Asia, where it
became highly regarded as a
condiment. Pepper became an
important article of overland trade
between India and Europe and often
served as a medium of exchange;
tributes were levied in pepper in ancient
Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages
the Venetians and the Genoese became
the main distributors in Europe, and
their virtual monopoly of the trade
helped instigate the search for an
eastern sea route.
30
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Domain: Eukaryota LEAVES Varieties of black pepper are classified

Kingdom: Plantae Alternating on the stem, ovate shaped, according to their respective source of
and leathery. origin, most common are Batangas,
Subkingdom: Spermatophyta
They are 8-24 inches long by 12.5 wide Laguna, Quezon, Davao, Zamboanga
Division: Magnopliophyta (depending on variety) or Basilan black pepper.
Class: Magnoliopsida Petiole length of 1.5 centimeters.
Order: Piperales Glossy, dark green top side, pale green USES
Family: Piperaceae on the underside Black pepper is used as a seasoning in
Genus: Pipper food preparation to enhance food
Species: P.nigrum L. FLOWERS acceptability.
Flowers are small, colored whiteish to Essential oils cleoresions extracted
yellow/green with 50-150 clustered on from black pepper are used in the
ORIGIN: Malabar Coast of India a spike (inflorescence), hanging spikes preparation of piperazine elixir, a drug
4 t0 12 cm. formulation for removal of round-
STEM Flower starts to open from the base of worms in intestinal tract of human
Woody stems up to 10 m (33 ft) long and the spike to the tip over a period of 7-8 beings.
6 cm (2.5 in) in diameter. days Scent is hot, pungent, floral,
fresh, and earthy.
Soft, green, herbaceous stems. SOIL AND CLIMATIC
It climbs on a support with the aid of POTENTIAL OF YIELDS: Yields of 6 to REQUIREMENTS
aerial or adventitious roots. 10 t/ha of black peppers may be obtained
for processing. Fresh market yields may Soil:
ROOT range from 500 to 1000 and 12 kg cartons Black pepper thrives in loose, well-
per hectare. drained, fertile soil rich in organic matter.
Large roots up to 4 m (13 ft) long, but
Sandy loam or loam with good drainage is
most remain within 1 m (3.3 ft) of the soil ideal. A slightly acidic pH (pH 5.5-6.5) is
FRUIT
surface. Root system confine to 75-100 The fruits, which are sometimes called preferred. Black pepper roots are sensitive
cm radius and depth. peppercorns, are drupes about 5 mm to waterlogging, so ensuring proper
The root system is developed from (0.2 inch) in diameter. drainage is crucial. Raised beds can be a
adventitious roots formed at the nodes, Fruits appear 9 months after good option in areas with heavy rainfall.
which are buried in the soil at planting flowering.
They become yellowish red at maturity
and bear a single seed.
Fruits are round, colored dark green
when unripe and a rich red when ripe
and arranged on a spike

31
 LAND PREPARATION, FIELD
LAY-OUT AND PLANTING
Climate:
Black pepper requires warm and humid Piper caninum (Dog pepper): Land Preparation:
conditions with temperatures ranging This variety is less common but known for Site Selection: Choose a location with
from 20-30°C (68-86°F). Ample rainfall its ornamental appeal and smaller, partial shade, especially during the hottest
(1500-2500 mm or 60-100 inches) well- reddish-brown peppercorns with a hot, part of the day. Avoid frost-prone areas, as
distributed throughout the year is crucial pungent taste. Dog pepper is not widely black pepper is sensitive to cold
for optimal growth and peppercorn cultivated commercially due to its lower temperatures. Consider factors like
production. Black pepper plants struggle yield, but it can be an interesting addition prevailing winds and sunlight patterns when
in dry conditions. Protection from strong to a home spice garden. selecting a planting site.
winds is also essential, as they can damage Soil Amendment: Deeply till the soil and
the vines. Ideally, choose a microclimate PROPAGATION AND NURSERY incorporate organic matter like compost or
with some protection from harsh winds MANAGEMENT composted manure to improve drainage,
and afternoon sun. fertility, and soil structure. Black pepper
Propagation: benefits from nutrient-rich soil that can
RECOMMENDED VARIETIES AND Black pepper is primarily propagated retain moisture without becoming
CHARACTERISTICS through vegetative cuttings from mature, waterlogged.
high-yielding vines. This ensures that the Support Structures: Install a trellis
resulting plants will inherit the desirable system or individual support poles for the
Piper nigrum (Black pepper): pepper vines to climb. Black pepper vines are
characteristics of the parent plant. Seeds
This is the most common commercially climbers by nature and require support to
can also be used but take longer to mature
cultivated variety, accounting for the grow vertically. Trellising allows for efficient
(up to 4 years) and may not retain the
majority of the black peppercorns traded use of space and easier management of the
parent plant's characteristics.
globally. It produces high-yielding clusters vines.
(spikes) of peppercorns that turn black
Nursery Management:
when dried. Black peppercorns have a Field Layout and Planting:
Seedlings or cuttings are raised in a
strong, pungent flavor and aroma that is Planting Pattern: Space pepper plants 2-3
protected nursery for 6-12 months with
familiar in most cuisines. meters (6-10 feet) apart in rows with
proper watering, fertilization, and pest
control. They require a warm, humid sufficient distance between rows for proper
Piper longum (Long pepper): air circulation and management. This
environment and support structures like
This variety produces elongated, spike-like spacing allows for good air flow which can
poles or stakes to climb. Regular misting
fruits with a strong, slightly woody flavor. help reduce the risk of fungal diseases.
can help maintain humidity levels.
Long pepper is less common than black Planting Depth: Plant the pepper cuttings
pepper but has been prized throughout or seedlings deep enough to cover the lower
history for its unique flavor profile. It is nodes but not smother the growing tip.
sometimes referred to as Indian long Secure them to the support structures.
pepper and has notes of cloves and Planting depth should be carefully managed
cinnamon alongside the peppery heat. to ensure the nodes closest to the soil
32 establish a strong root system.
 IRRIGATION AND WATER SPECIALIZED HARVESTING AND POST
MANAGEMENT PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT PRODUCTION
Water Needs: Pruning:
Black pepper requires consistent moisture but Regular pruning helps maintain the size and Harvesting:
not waterlogging. Adjust watering frequency shape of the pepper vine, encouraging new Black peppercorns are ready for harvest
based on rainfall patterns and climate. growth and peppercorn production. Prune when they turn from green to red and
strategically to remove unproductive or diseased develop a slight wrinkle. Pick them
Irrigation Methods: branches. carefully to avoid damaging the vine.
Drip irrigation is an efficient method to deliver
water directly to the root zone while Pollination: Post-Production:
minimizing evaporation. Black pepper is wind-pollinated, so ensuring The harvested peppercorns undergo
proper air circulation within the planting area is processing to develop their characteristic
Mulching: crucial. black color and flavor. This typically
Applying a layer of organic mulch around the involves sun-drying or mechanical drying.
base of the plant helps retain moisture, PEST AND DISEASE After drying, the peppercorns are hulled
suppress weeds, and regulate soil temperature. MANAGEMENT (outer shell removed) and sorted for size
and quality.
FERTILIZER AND NUTRIENT Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
MANAGEMENT This approach prioritizes preventive measures, REFERENCE
monitoring, and using natural controls before
Nutrient Requirements: resorting to chemical solutions. Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.)
Black pepper needs macro (N, P, K) and https://ati2.da.gov.ph/ati-
micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Zn) for healthy growth Common Threats:
4b/content/sites/default/files/2022-
and peppercorn production. Fungal diseases like foot rot and leaf spot, and
pests like mealybugs and nematodes, can harm 12/black_pepper.pdf
Soil Testing: black pepper plants.
Conduct a soil test to determine nutrient levels Britannica | Plant, Cultivation, &
and pH. Amend the soil as needed based on Targeted Management: Description:
test results. Implement specific controls for each pest or https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edi
disease, considering cultural practices, ble/herbs/peppercorn/how-to-grow-
Fertilization: biological controls, and judicious use of
peppercorns.htm
Apply a balanced fertilizer formulated for pesticides when necessary.
pepper plants or fruiting vines, following
recommended rates and frequency. Aim for Black Pepper Processing:
sustained release or organic fertilizers to https://www.slideshare.net/MairajKhan10
minimize environmental impact. /post-harvest-handling
pen_spark.

33
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO):
https://nhb.gov.in/bulletin_files/aromatic
/lemongrass/lem002.pdf

National Institute of Agricultural

Extension Management (NIAEM):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ar
ticle/abs/pii/S0378377408001157

Spice Crops :: Pepper - Horticulture:

https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protectio
n/crop_pdf/BlackPepper.pdf

Spice and Medicinal Plants Board -

Government of India:
https://www.indianspices.com/spice-
catalog/pepper-1.html

The International Union for the

Conservation of Nature (IUCN):
https://www.iucnredlist.org/
pen_spark

The Old Farmer's Almanac:

https://www.farmersalmanac.com/how-
to-grow-bell-peppers

University of Florida IFAS Extension:

https://plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu/u-
scout/pepper/index.html
pen_spark

34
35
Ginger, Zingiber officinale, is an erect,
herbaceous perennial plant in the
family Zingiberaceae grown for its
edible rhizome (underground stem)
which is widely used as a spice. The
rhizome is brown, with a corky outer
layer and pale-yellow scented center.
The above ground shoot is erect and
reed-like with linear leaves that are
arranged alternately on the stem. The
shoots originate from a multiple bases
and wrap around one another. The
leaves can reach 7 cm (2.75 in) in length
and 1.9 cm (0.7 in) broad. Flowering
heads are borne on shorter stems and
the plant produces cone shaped, pale
yellow flowers . The ginger plant can
reach 0.6–1.2 m in height (2–4 ft) and is
grown as an annual plant. Ginger may
also be referred to as true ginger, stem
ginger, garden ginger or root ginger
and it is believed to have originated in
the Southeast Asia
36
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Domain: Eukaryota FLOWERS

It produces white and pink clusters of Hawaiian
Kingdom: Plantae
flower buds that bloom into yellow Large, plump, yellowish brown, less pungent
Subkingdom: Spermatophyta Jamaica
flowers
Division: Magnopliophyta The flowers are in dense cone-like Medium-sized, pale-colored, gives off
Class: Liliopsida spikes about 1-inch thick and 2–3 pleasant, agreeable aroma in dehydrated
Order: Zingiberales inches long that are composed of form Canton Yellowish, succulent, less
Family: Zingiberacea overlapping green bracts, which may fibrous, less pungent
Genus: Zingiber be edged with yellow.
Each bract encloses a single, small, USES
Species: officinale Ginger adds flavor to some common
yellow-green and purple flower.
Filipino dishes like tinola, goto, arroz
ORIGIN: South East Asia RHIZOME caldo, paksiw, batchoy, and pinakbet.
The whole rhizome is about 5 to15 Aromatic and medicinal oil extracted
STEM long, 1.5 to 6 cm wide, 2 cm thick and from the ginger, helps in preparation of
depending on the variety. ginger beer, ginger wine.
The leafy stems of ginger grow about 1
Externally it is brownish in color and Ginger powder used in the spices
meter (about 3 feet) high products. • Foreign countries, ginger
internally yellowish.
It grows pseudostems from the rhizome used for making Biscuits, Cakes, soup
The rhizome is palmately branched
which bear narrow leaves and bears leafy shoots. The leafy and pickle.
It has nodes and internodes since it is a shoots are a pseudostem formed from It is also used as an ingredient in the
modified form of stem the leafy sheaths and bears 8 12 manufacture of perfumes, softdrinks,
distichous leaves. candies, and pickles.
LEAVES
POTENTIAL OF YIELD: 15 to 20
The leaves are 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12
tons/ha of ginger rhizomes
inches) long, elongate, alternate in two
vertical rows, and arise from sheaths Native
enwrapping the stem. Small, fibrous, very pungent, best for
The leaves are somewhat tough, pliable, making salabat
and fibrous, creating a crisp, chewy, and Red Native
succulent consistency Small, red, fibrous, very pungent
Imugan
Medium-sized, slightly fibrous, pungent

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 SOIL AND CLIMATIC PROPAGATION AND NURSERY
REQUIREMENTS MANAGEMENT
Soil: Field Layout and Planting:
Propagation:
Ginger thrives in well-drained, loose, and fertile Planting Pattern: Space ginger plants
Ginger is typically propagated by dividing
soil rich in organic matter. Loamy or sandy loam 20-25 cm (8-10 inches) apart within
mature rhizomes. Select healthy, disease-free
soils with a slightly acidic pH (around 6.0-7.0) rows, with 30-45 cm (12-18 inches)
rhizomes with "eyes" (buds) and cut them into
are ideal. Avoid waterlogged or heavy clay soils. between rows. This allows for proper air
pieces with at least 2-3 eyes each. Allow the cut
circulation and plant growth.
pieces to dry and "callous over" for a few days
Climate: Planting Depth: Plant the ginger
before planting.
Ginger prefers warm and humid conditions. The pieces with the eyes facing upwards,
optimal temperature range is 20-27°C (68-80°F) covering them with a thin layer of soil
Nursery Management:
with moderate rainfall well-distributed (around 5 cm or 2 inches deep).
Ginger pieces are planted in pots with a well-
throughout the growing season (around 1500-
draining potting mix and placed in a warm,
2000 mm or 60-80 inches). Protection from
humid environment. Maintain consistent IRRIGATION AND WATER
strong winds is also essential.
moisture and mist regularly. Seedlings can be MANAGEMENT
transplanted to the field after 4-6 weeks when
RECOMMENDED VARIETIES they have established a good root system.
Water Needs:
AND CHARACTERISTICS Ginger requires consistent moisture but not
LAND PREPARATION, waterlogged soil. Adjust watering frequency
Zingiber officinale (Ginger): FIELD LAY-OUT AND PLANTING based on rainfall patterns and climate.
This is the most common commercially
cultivated variety. It produces high-quality Land Preparation: Irrigation Methods:
ginger rhizomes (underground stems) with a Site Selection: Choose a location with Drip irrigation is an efficient method to
strong, pungent flavor. partial shade and protection from strong deliver water directly to the root zone while
winds. Ensure proper drainage to avoid minimizing evaporation.
Zingiber mioga (Mioga ginger): root rot.
This variety has edible flower buds with a Soil Amendment: Amend the soil with Mulching:
milder, citrusy flavor. It's less commercially plenty of organic matter like compost or Apply a layer of organic mulch around the
cultivated but popular in some regions. composted manure to improve drainage, base of the plant to retain moisture,
fertility, and water retention. suppress weeds, and regulate soil
Zingiber montanum (Wild ginger): Raised Beds: Consider using raised beds temperature.
This ornamental variety has beautiful flowers if drainage is a concern. Raised beds also
and smaller, less pungent rhizomes. It's not allow for better control over soil
typically used for culinary purposes. temperature and moisture.

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 FERTILIZER AND NUTRIENT PEST AND DISEASE Post harvest
MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT Ginger - and sell it off as soon as ginger, washed,
dried in shade and then stored for 2 days. If we
Nutrient Requirements: keep the ginger in 55 cm heat and 65% of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
Ginger needs macro (N, P, K) and humidity, stored upto 6 months.
This approach prioritizes preventive
micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Zn) for healthy Dry ginger - used after drying.
measures, monitoring, and using natural
growth and rhizome development. Black Sin - the rhizomes are put in boiling water
controls before resorting to chemical
for 10-15 minutes, remove the skin and dried. It
solutions.
Soil Testing: is available in black color is killing tubers.
Conduct a soil test before planting to Common Threats:
determine nutrient levels and pH. Amend the Fungal diseases like rhizome rot and REFERENCES
soil as needed based on test results. bacterial wilt, and pests like nematodes and College of Tropical Agriculture and Human
shoot borers, can harm ginger plants. Resources (CTAHR) - University of Hawaii at
Fertilization:
Apply a balanced fertilizer formulated for root Manoa: https://byjus.com/biology/propagation-
Targeted Management: of-ginger-is-generally-done-using/
crops or flowering plants during the growing Implement specific controls for each pest or
season. Follow recommended rates and disease, considering cultural practices,
frequency for application. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
biological controls, and judicious use of (DAFF) - Queensland Government:
pesticides when necessary. https://greenharvest.com.au/Plants/Information
SPECIALIZED /Ginger.html
PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT HARVESTING AND POST
PRODUCTION Ginger Production Guide - Apni Kheti:
Earthing Up: Harvesting; https://www.apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/h
As the ginger plants grow, gradually hilling Ginger plant preparing for harvesting within orticulture/spice-and-condiments/ginger-adrakh
soil around the base of the stems. This eight months from the date of planting.
encourages new rhizome development and Brown leaves are ready to be harvested at Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
helps retain moisture. arrival points to the bottom-up dries. This Nations (FAO):
condition should be harvested in order to https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?
Weed Control: extract the ginger oil. The leaves are details=CA5775EN/
Maintain good weed control around the ginger harvested in the dry state by seed tuber used.
plants to prevent competition for nutrients Harvested ginger, removed from the dried National Center for Biotechnology Information
and moisture. leaves, roots, and tubers, unearthed by the (NCBI):
adhering soil is removed, washed with water https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36688554/
and dried in shade. The ginger used as
vegetable and cooking, it should be harvested ResearchGate - Scientific Cultivation of Ginger
from the fifth month after sowing. This (Zingiber officinale):
immature harvested ginger has less alkalinity https://www.researchgate.net/publication/32728
and fiber. 2383_Scientific_Cultivation_of_Ginger_Zingi
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