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REAL ANALYSIS
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N.P. Bali
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REAL ANALYSIS
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CONTENTS
Chapters
Pages
1. Sets and Functions
1
2.
Countability of Sets and the Real Number System 34
3. Topology of Real Numbers 69
4. Sequences 110
5. Infinite Series
193
6. Limit and Continuity of Functions 336
7. The Derivative and Mean Value Theorems 409
8. Arbitrary Series and Infinite Products 475
9. Riemann Integration 551
10. Sequences and Series of Functions 610
11. Improper Integrals 669
12. Beta and Gamma Functions
738
13.
Differentiation Under the Integral Sign 776
14. Indeterminate Forms
806
15. Maxima and Minima
827
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Symbol Meaning
€ ‘belongs to’ or ‘is an element of’

2 does not belong to
C Is a sub-set of
<r Is not a sub-set of
3 Is a super-set of
KJ Union of sets
O Intersection of sets
AxB Cartesian (or cross) product of sets A and 6
U(orX) Universal set
A" Complement of A
A-B Difference of two sets A and B (or complement of B w.r.t. A)
Null(empty or void)set
:or I or s.t. such that
iff if and only if
V for all
3 there exists
implies
<=> implies and is implied by(or if!)
AAB Symmetric difference of A and B
N the set of all natural numbers(or positive integers)
Z the set of all integers
Q the set of all rational numbers
R the set of all real numbers
< is less than or equal to
is greater than or equal to
Sup.S(or l.u.b. S) supermum (or least upper bound)ofS
Inf. S(or g.l.b. s) infimum (or greatest lower bound)ofS
\x\ absolute value ofx
(a, b) open interval a <x <b
[a, b] closed interval a^x^b
nbd neighbourhood
A** interior of A
A' derived set of A
A closure of A
f:X^Y /“is a function from X to Y
nS ^ “n (or Su^) infinite series Uj + Uj + “3 +
n-1
s (-1) Un, >0
n=l alternating series - Ug + “3-“4 +
n Un (or n M„) infinite product u, Ug “3

rt =1
1
Sets and Functions
SECTION I—SETS
1.1. SETS
A set is a well defined collection ofdistinct objects.
By a‘well-defined’collection ofobjects we mean that there is a rule(or rules)by means
of which it is possible to say, without ambiguity, whether a particular object belongs to the
collection or not. The objects in a set are ‘distinct’ means we do not repeat an object over and
over again in a set.
Each object belonging to a set is called an element(or a member)of the set. Sets are
usually denoted by capital letters A,B,N,Q,R, S etc. and the elements by lower case letters o,
6, c, X etCi
The symbol e is used to indicate ‘belongs to’ or ‘is an element of’. Thus jc e A => jc is an
element ofthe set A.
The s5rmbol g is used to indicate ‘does not belong to’ or ‘is not an element of’. Thusjc € A
=>x is not an element ofthe set A.
Given a set S and an object p, exactly one of the following statements should
be true:
(i) p e S Hi) p S
Illustrations,(i)Let V be the set ofvowels in English alphabet,then the elements of V
are a,c, i, o, u.
0 6 V, U 6 V, V, t^ Y,
Hi) Let E be the set ofeven natural numbers, then
6e E, 5126 E, 3 {E E, 127 € E.
(Hi) Let P be the set of prime numbers,then
26 P, 7 6 P, 6«s P, 15 « P.
1.2. METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET

There are two methods of describing a set.
(1) Roster Method (or Listing Method or Tabulation Method).In this method, a
set is described by listing all its elements, separating them by commas and enclosing them
within braces(curly brackets).
For example.H)ifA is the set ofodd natural numbers less than 10,then in roster form,
A ={1,3,5,7,9)
1
2 GOLDEN REAL ANALYSIS
(ii) if B is the set ofletters of the word FOLLOW,then in roster form,

B = {F,0,L, W) (dropping the repetitions)
When a set is described in roster form,the order ofits elements is immaterial i.e., the
elements may be written down in any order.
Thus B = {F, O,L, W)= {F, L, W,0} = {W, O,F, L).
(2) Set Builder Method (or Property Method or Rule Method). Listing the ele
ments of a set is sometimes difficult and sometimes impossible. We do not have a roster form
of the set Q of rational numbers or the set R of real numbers. In set builder method, a set is
described by means of some property which is shared by all the elements of the set.
We first write within braces a variable (jc, y etc.)followed by a statement of property,in
terms of the stated variable, that must be satisfied by each element of the set.
Thus if a set A is characterised by a property P, we write
A = {ac: P(:r)} and read ‘A is the set of all x such that x has the property P’. The symbol:
stands for ‘such that’.
For example,(f)ifP is the set of all prime numbers,then
P = U : ac is a prime number}
Hi)if A is the set of all natural numbers between 10 and 100,then
A = {jc: jc e N and 10 < jc < 100}.
1.3. FINITE AND INFINITE SETS

(i) Finite Set. A set is said to be finite if the number of its elements is finite i.e., if its
elements can be counted, one by one, with the counting coming to an end.
For example,(a)the set ofletters in the English alphabet is finite since it has 26 {i.e.,
finite number of)elements.
(6)the set of all multiples of5 less than 1000 is a finite set.
(,ii) Infinite Set.A set is said to be infinite ifthe number ofits elements is infinite i.e., if
we count its elements, one by one, the counting never comes to an end.
For example,(i)the set of all points in a plane a is an infinite set.
(ii) the sets N,Z, Q,R are all infinite sets.
1.4. NULL SET

A set having no element is known as a null set or a void set or an empty set and is
denoted by (|) or {}.
For example,(i) {j:: is an integer and = 2} = <j) because there is no integer whose
square is 2.
(ii){x:xe R and + 1 = 0} = (j) becausex^>0for alljc e R
=> x^+l>l => x^+1^0.
(iii)[x :x¥^x)
1.5. SINGLETON SET,

A set having only one element is called a singleton set.
For example,(i){a} is a singleton set.
(ii) {o} or {(j)} are not null sets but singleton set.
(iii) {:« : + 1 = 0 eind xe R} = {- 1} is a singleton set.
SETS AND FUNCTIONS 3
1.6. SUBSET AND SUPER-SET

If A and B are two sets such that every element of A is also an element of B,then A is
called a subset of B and we write A c B.
Thus AcBifaceA => jceB.
Also if A c B,then B is called a super-set of A and we also write B 3A.
For example,(i) if V is the set of vowels in English alphabet and S is the set of all
letters in English alphabet,then V cz S and S 3V.
Hi)if A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5), then AcB and B 3A
(Hi)if A = {x :X is a multiple of2), B = {a::a;is a multiple of5}, C = {:« : is a multiple of 10},
then AcC.BcC.
1.7. EQUALITY OF SETS

Two sets A and B are said to be equal iffthey conteun exactly the same elements and we
write A = B.
Thus, A = B if every element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an
element of A.
In symbols, A = Biffac€A => jceB and xe B jc e A.
Or A s B iff A c B and B c A.
For example,(i)if A = {4, 5,6, 7} and B = (jc: 4 ^ 7,jc s N),then A = B.
(«)if A = {ac: = 1} and B s= (1,- 1), then A = B.
(Hi)if A = {2} and B = {p :p is an even prime number), then A = B.
1.8. PROPER SUBSET
If A and B are two sets such that AcB and A B,then A is called a proper subset of B.
Thus A is a proper subset ofB => every element of A is an element ofB but there
is at least one element in B which is not in A.
For example,(i)A = {2,3,4,5,6, } is a proper subset ofN,because A c N and A?i N,
(●.* 1 e N but 1 £ A).
(ii) N is a proper subset of Z because every natural number is an integer (i.e., N c Z) but
every integer need not be a natural number (i.e., N ^ Z).
Theorem I. Every set is a subset of itself.
Let A be any set. Since e A => xe A A c A.
Theorem II. Empty set is a subset of every set.
If possible, suppose <|) <r A for some set A.
(|) C A => there is at least one element in ^ which is not in A.
But this contradicts the definition of <|).
Our supposition is wrong. Hence ([) c A for any set A.
Theorem III. The empty set is unique.
If possible, let (j)i and ^2 be two empty sets.
Since empty set is a subset of every set.
(j)i c ^2 and <|)2 c (|>|
= <1>2- That proves the uniqueness of (j).
Theorem IV.If a set has n elements, then the number of its subsets is 2". Let a set A
have n elements. The number ofsubsets of A having r elements is the same as the number of
groups(or combinations, because the order ofthe elements is immaterial in a set)ofr elements
which can be formed out ofthe n elements of A and this can be done in ways. Thus,there
are "C,. subsets of A having r elements.
.*. No. of subsets of A having no element ="Cq
No. of subsets of A having one element ="Cj
No. of subsets of A having two elements ="Cg
No. of subsets of A having n elements = «C,

.'. Total number of subsets ="Cq +"Cj+"Cg + +"C„ =(1 + 1)" = 2".
1.9. COMPARABLE SETS

If two sets A and B are such that either A c B or B c A,then A and B are said to be
comparable sets.
If neither A c B nor B c A,then A and B are said to be non-comparable sets.
For example,(i)if A = {1,3,5} and B = {1,2,3,4,51,then A and B are comparable sets
because AcB.
(ii)if A = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {4,8},then A and B are comparable sets because B c A.
iUi)if A = B,then A and B are comparable sets because AcB and B c A.
iiv)if A = {1,3,5} and B = {2,4,6},then A and B are non-comparable sets because A oc B
and B c A.
1.10. FAMILY OF SETS(OR SET OF SETS)

A set whose elements are also sets is called a family of sets(or a set ofsets).
For example,(i) {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5,6)} is a family ofsets.
(«){{1},{2,3),4}is not a family ofsets because one ofits elements,namely 4,is not a set.
1.11. POWER SET OF A SET

The set of all the subsets of a set A is called the power set of A and is denoted by P(A).
Thus . P(A)= {S:ScA}.
For example,(i)if A = {a}, then P(A)= {(1), A}
(ii) if B = {2, 5), then P(B)= {(!>, {2}, {51, B)
(Hi)if S = {a, 6, c), then P(S)= {<!), [a],[b], {c}, {a, 61, {b, c}, {c, a), S).
1.12. OPERATIONS ON SETS

I. Union of Sets. The union oftwo sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong
either to A or to B (or to both).
The union of A and B is denoted by A u B and read as‘A union B’.
Symbolically, AuB = {jc:rceA or aceB)
For example,(i)If A = {1, 3,6} and B = {2, 4}, then A u B = {1, 2, 3,4,6)
(ii) If A = U :3c is an odd natural number) and B = {jc: jc is an even natural number)
then A u B = {a::X is an odd or even natural number)
= {x :X is a natural number)= N
(*.* every natural number is either odd or even)
On the same lines, we can define the union of more than two sets. If Aj, Ag, ,A„be
n given sets, then their union is denoted by Aj u Ag u Ag u vj A„ or u A; and defined as
t=i ‘
the set of all elements of these sets. Thus u A- = {a::x e A.for at least one
»=i
Properties of Union of Sets
(a)For any two sets A and B,(i) A c A u B (it) B c A u B.
Proof,ii) Let x be any element of A. Then
xeA => xeAuB I V A u B is the set of all elements of A and B
AcA uB
(ii) Please try yourself.
(6)For any set A,A u (j) = A
Proof. Au(j)= {x:jce Aorxe (j)}
= {a;: a: e A} ['.* <j> has no element]
=A
(c) Union of sets is idempotent Le,, for any set A,A 0A es A.
Proof. A u A = {x ; a: e A or jc e A} = {at:* € A)= A
(d)Union of sets is commutative i.e., for any two sets A and B,AuB = BuA
Proof. A u B = {x :a: e A or jc e B)
= {jc: 3C e B or X 6 A)
= BuA
(e) Union of sets is associative te,, for any three sets A,B and C,
Au(BuO)=(AuB)uC
Proof. A u(B u C)= {x :a: e A or a: e B u C} = {jc: a: € A or (rc e B or e C))
= {x :(jc e A or jc e B)or jc e C} s= {jc: jc € A u B or a: e C}
=(AuB)uC.
if) AcB => AuB = B
is) e AuB =» jc e A or ic e B,
ic g Au B => X (£ A and x ^ B.
II. Intersection of sets. The intersection oftwo sets A and B is the set of all elements
which belong to both A and B.
The intersection of A and B is denoted by A n B and read as‘A intersection B’.
Symbolically, AnB = {3c:a:G A and x e B)
For example,ii) if A = {1, 2, 3, 4) and B = {2, 4,6,8}, then A n B =(2,4}
(Common elements)
(ii)ifP is the set of all prime numbers and E,the set of all even natural numbers,then
P n E = {2} because 2 is the only even prime number.
(Hi)if A = {ac: jc is an odd natural number}
and B = {a:: is an eyen natural number}
then A n B = <|) because no natural number is both odd and even.
On the same lines, we can define the intersection of more than two sets. If Aj, Ag, ,
be n given sets, then their intersection is denoted by
Aj r. Ag ni Ag n n A„ or A- and defined as the set of all elements which belong to
each A.. Thus A- = {a:: a: e A- for every
Properties of Intersection of Sets

(o)For any two sets A and B,
(i) A n B c A iii) A n B c B.
Proof,(i) Let x be any element of A n B. Then
XG AnB => XG A and a: € B => a: e A(in particular)
AnBcA
(&)For any set A, A n (j) = <j)
Proof. Since A n B c B A n <1) c (j) (replacing B by (j)) Ui)
Also <j) is a subset of every set /. (j)c: An(j) ...Hi)
Combining(i) and(») An(|)= (l)
[Here we have used the definition of equality oftwo sets,i.e., A = B iff A c B and B c A]
(c)Intersection of sets is idempotent i.e.j for any set A,A n A = A
Proof. AnA = (ac:a;e A and ac e A} = (a:: ac e A)= A
id)Intersection of sets is commutative i.e., for any two sets A and B,
A n B =B n A
Proof. AnB = {ac:ace A and ac e B)= (ac : ac e B and ac e A} = B n A
ifi) Intersection of sets is associative i.e., for any three sets A,B and C,
An(BnC)=(AnB)nC
Proof. A n(B n C)= [a;: ac 6 A and a:eBnC} = {ac:aceA and (aa e B and x g C)}
= (ac: (ac e A and a: e B)and ace C} = {ac:aceAnB and ac e C}
=(AnB)nC.
(/) AcB =» A n B = A.
ig) xeAnB=> xeA and x e B
xgAnB.=» xÂorxisB.
\
1.13. DISJOINT SETS
Two sets are said to be disjoint ifthey have no element in common.Thus two sets A and
B are disjoint if A n B = (|).
For example,(i)if A =[a,c,c,/) and B =(6,d,g},then A and B are disjoint sets because
A n B = 0.
{ii)If V is the set ofvowels and C,the set ofconsonants in English alphabet,then V and
C are disjoint sets because no vowel is a consonant and vice-versa.
1.14. UNIVERSAL SET

In any mathematical discussion, we consider all the sets to be subsets of a given fixed
set known as a universal set. It is generally denoted by U (or X).
For example,(f)if A is the set of B.Sc. Final year students of your college, B is the set
of all boys in your college, C is the set of all cricket players in your college, G is the set of all
girls in your college, then the set of all students of jôur college is a universal set.
(ii)In any study ofhuman population, all the people in the world constitute a universal
set.
1.15. DIFFERENCE OF SETS

The difference oftwo sets A and B is the set of all elements which are in A but not in B.
The difference of sets A emd B is denoted by A - B.
S3nnbolically, A-B = {jc::re A and x e B).
For example,(i)if A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {2,4,6,8},then A-B = {1,3,5},B-A = {6,8)
Clearly, A-B^B-A.
Thus‘the difference of sets’ is not commutative.
Hi)if A = {a,6, c}, B = {c, d,e] and C =(6 ,d}
then B - C = {c, e), A -(B - C)= {a, 6), A - B = {o, 6),(A - B)- C = (a)
Clearly, A-(B -X3)?t(A-B)-C
Thus the ^difference of sets’ is not associative.
Also A-A = <|),A-(I)= A,A-BcA.
1.16. COMPLEMENT OF A SET
Let U be the universal set and A c U. Then the complement of A is the set of those
elements of U which are not in A. The complement of A is denoted by
Symbolically, A® = U- A={x:a;e U and a: 2 A} = {x : «£ A}.
For example,(i) if U is the set of all natural numbers and A,the set of even natural
numbers,then
A‘= = U-A
= the set of those natural numbers which are not even
= the set of odd natural numbers.
Hi)If U is the set of all letters of English alphabet and A is the set of consonants, then
A'^zrU-A
= the set ofletters of English alphabet which are not consonants
= the set of vowels in English alphabet
Clearly,(i) A u =U
Thus X e A => x€ and x g A'^ => x e A.
Hi) AnA^ = (|).
(Hi) Complement of complement of a set is the set itself i.e., (A‘=)‘" = A.
Proof. (A‘=)‘= = {x:a:g A^}
= {x:xe A)= A
Hu) A-B = AnB‘=
A-B = {x:x€ A and x(^ B} = {x:xe A and xg B‘=) = A n B^
1.17. PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
Statement. All the laws of algebra of sets remain true if we interchange union and
intersection as also the imiversal set and the null set.
For example,(i)ifthe law is(Au B)*^ = n B% then its dual is obtained by interchang¬
ing union and intersection i.e., dual will be(A n B)*^ = A® u B'".
(«)if the law is A n A*" = (j), then its dual is obtained on replacing n by u and 0 by U.i.e.,
dual will be A u A® = U.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1.IfA,B, C are any three sets, then prove that

(a)A u(B n C)=(A uB)n(A u C). {Union distributes over intersection)
(b)An(BuC):=:(AnB)u(AnC). {Intersection distributes over union).
Sol.(a)Let x be any element of A u(B n C). Then
ac e A vj(B n C) a;€Aora:eBnC
jc e A or (a: e B and jc e C) (a:e Aorace B)and (ace Aorare C)
xe A u B and jc € A u C a:6 (A JB)n(AuC)
A u(B n C)c(A u B)n(A u C) ...(0
Again,let x be any element of(A u B)n(A u C). Then
jc € (A u B)n(A u C) => a; e A u B and a: e A u C
(ac e A orx e B)and (jc e A ora;6 C) => a; e A or (jc e B anda; e C)
a;e Aora:e BnC => a: e A u(B n C)
(A u B)n(A u C)c A u(B n C) ...{ii)
Combining {i) and {ii), A u(B n C)=(A u B)n(A u C).
(6)Let X be any element of A n(B u C). Then
a: € A n(B vj C) => a: e A and a:e B u C
a; e A and (a; e B or a; 6 C) => (a: e A and a: 6 B)or (a: e A and a; e C)
a:e AnBora:e AnC =» X € (A n B)u(A n C)
An(BuC)c(AnB)u(AnC) ...{i)
Again, let x be any element of(A n B)u(A n C). TTên
xe (A n B)u(A n C) xe AnBorxe AnC
(a: e A anda: e B)or (a; e A and a: e C) X e A and (x e B or x e C)
a: e A and a; e B u G X e A n(B u C)
(A n B)u(A n C)c A n(B u C) ...{ii)
Combining(i) and (ii), A n(B u C)=(A n B)u(A n C).
Example 2.State and prove De Morgan's laws. Or
For any two sets A and B,prove that
{a){AuBf=A^r\B^ {b){AnBf=Aû B^.
Sol.(a)Let x be any element of(A u B)*^. Then
X 6 (A u By= =» Xf£ AuB
X e A and x g B => X 6 A‘= and x e B®
X e A‘= n B*^
(AuB)‘^cA‘^nB‘^ ...(i)
Again,let x be any element of A*^ n B*^. Then
X 6 A^' n B‘= X e A*= and x e B'"
X £ A and x (£ B => X (£ Au B => X G (A u
SET^ AND FUNCTIONS 9
A^nB’^ciAuBy ..XU)
Combining (j) and (ii),(A vj B)*^ = A^ n
In words. Complement of the union is the intersection ofthe complements.
(6)Let X be any element of(A n B)*^. Then
3c 6 (A n B)*' =» X g A n B
jc e A or jc g B X e A'^ or X e B*^ => X e A*^ u B'^
(A n B)*^ c A'^ u B'^ ...ii)
Again, let x be any element of A'^ u B*^. Then
X € A*^ u B'' xe A orx ^ B'^
X e A or X g B => X 6 An B => X e (A n B)^
A*^ u B‘^ c(A n By ...iXi)
Combining (i) and Hi), (A n B)*^ = Aû B*^.
In words. Complement of the intersection is the union of the complements.
Example 3.IfA cB and B<~.C, then A c C.
Sol. Let X be any element of A. Then
X 6 A => X e B [V AcB]
XG C [V BcC]
A c C.
Example 4.IfA czB,B<zC and CcA,then A = C.
Sol. AcB and BcC AcC (See Ex. 3)
Also CcA (given)
A = C.
Example 5.IfA and B are any two sets, then prove that B czA <;=> A^ ciB^.
Sol. Let B c A.Let x be any element of A^^. Then
X G A*^ Xg A => X g B [v BcA]
XG B'^ A‘=cB‘^
BcA A^^cB^^ ...ii)
Let A*^ c Let x be any element of B. Then
XG B X g B® =» X g A*^ [v A^^cB^^]
XG A BcA
A‘=cB‘= BcA ...(«)
Combining(i) and (a), BcA o A'^ c B*^.
Example 6.For any three sets A,B and C,prove that
(a)A-(BKjC)=(A-B)n(A-C)
ib)A-(BnC)=(A-B)u(A-C).
Sol.(a)Let x be any element of A -(B u C). Then
XG A-(BuC)=»xg a and x g B u C
X G A and (x g B and x g C)
(x G A and x g B)and (x g A and x g C)
X G A - B and xgA-C =» xG(A-B)n(A-C)
A -(B u C)c(A - B)n(A - C) ...d)
Again, let x be any element of(A -B)n(A - C). Then

xe(A-B)n(A-C) => a:eA-B and xe A-C
(xG A and jc« B)and (ac e A and jc e C)
ac e A and (a: «s B and ac e C)
ac 6 A and ac g B u C XG A -(B u C)
(A-B)n(A-C)cA-(BuC) ...iii)
Combining(i) and (ii), A -(B u C)=(A - B)n(A - C).
Second Method
A-(BuC)= An(BuC)‘= [V A-B = AnB0
= An(B‘^nC‘^) [De Morgan’s law]
=(An B'^) n(An CO =(A-B)n(A- C).
(6)Let X be any element of A -(B n C). Then
a:eA-(BnC) =» xg A and a: g B n C
X G A and (ac g B or a: j£ C) => (a: 6 A and a: g B)or (a: g A and ac « C)
XG A-Borace A-C => a: G (A - B)u(A - C)
A-(BnC)c(A-B)u(A-C) ...(i)
Again, let x be any element of(A - B)u(A - C). Then
X G (A - B)u(A - C) => a:GA-BoracGA-C
(a: G A and a: g B)or (a: g A and a: « C) =» ac G A and (a: <£ B or ac e C)
a: G A and ac g B n C => a: G A -(B n C) .Mi)
(A- B)u(A - C)c A -(B n C)
Combining (i) and (ii), A -(B n C)=(A- B)u(A - C).
Second Method
A-(BnC)= An(BnC)‘= [v A-B = AnB0
= A n (B'^ u CO [De Morgan’s Law]
=(AnB0u(AnC0 [Distributive Law]
=(A-B)u(A-C).
Example 7.Prove thatA-B =A-(Ar\B).
Sol. Let X be any element of A - B. Then
jc G A-B aa G A and x^B
=> a: G A and ac g A n B XG A -(A n B)
A-BcA-(AnB) ...(i)
Again, let x be any element of A -(A n B). Then
ac G A -(A n B) ^ a: G A and a: « A n B
ac G A and a: £ B => a;G A-B
A-(AnB)cA-B
Combining(i)and («), A-B = A-(AnB) .Mi)
Second Method
A-(AnB)= An(AnB)" [v A-B = AnB0
= A n(A® u BO [De Morgan’s Law]
=(A n A®) u(A n B*") [Distributive Law]
= <j) u(A - B) [v AnA® = (|)]
= A-B.
SETS AND FUNCTIONS
11
Example 8.Prove that A n(B-C)=(AnB)-C.

Sol. Let X be any element of A n(B - C). Then
^ jc 6 A n(B - C) =» X e A and x e (B - C)
xe A and (a: € B and jc g C)
=» (x € A and x e B)and x « C
a: 6 A n B and jc e C => X e (A n B)- C
A n(B - C)c(A n B)- C
Again, let a: be any element of(A n B)- C. Then
a: € (A n B)- C => X € A n B and x g C
(a: e A and a: e B)and a: € C =» X 6 A and (x € B and x «? C)
a: e A and a: e B - C => X e A n(B - C)
(A n B)- C c A n(B - C) ..XU)
Combining (j) and (w), A n(B - C)=(A n B)- C.
Second Method
A n(B - C)= A n(B n C*")
=(AnB)nC‘= [Intersection is associative]
=(AnB)-C, [v AnB‘= = A-B]
Example 9.Prove that A-(A-B)=AnB.
Sol. Let X be any element of A -(A - B). Then
X6 A-(A-B) => X € A and x g A - B
X e A and (x e A and x e B) [Note]
(x e A and x € A)and x e B
X G A and x g B => X G An B
A-(A-B)cAnB
Again, let x be any element of A n B. Then
X G AnB => X G A and x g B
X G A and (x g A and x g B)
X G A and x G A - B => xgA-(A-B)
AnBcA-(A-B) ...Hi)
Combining (i) and (w), A -(A- B)= A n B.
Second Method
A-(A-B)= A-(AnB‘=)= An(AnB‘^)‘>
= A n (A'^ u B) [v = B]
=(AnA‘=)u(AnB) [Distributive Law]
= <]) u(A n B)= A n B.
Example 10.Prove that A =(A nB)u(A -B).
Sol. Let X be any element of A. Then
XG A X G An U [v AnU = A]
X G A n(B u B*^) [v U = BuB1
=> X G Aand(xG B orx G B^') => (x G A and X G B)or(x g A and x e B)
xgAoBofxgA-B => X G (A n B)u(A - B)
A c(A n B)w(A - B)
Again, let x be any element of (A n B)o(A - B). Then

a: G (A n B)u(A - B) XG AnBoracGA-B .
(jc 6 A and jc g B)or (a: g A and a; e B) X G A and (x g B or jc g B)
G A and U g B or x g B*") XG A and x^ B u B*^
xGAandxGU JC G AnU => acG A
(A n B)u(A - B)c A ...(«)
Combining (i) and (ii), A =(A n B)u(A - B).

Second Method
(AnB)u(A-B)=(AnB)u(AoB‘^). .
= An(BuB‘^) [Distributive Law]
= AnU [v BuB"= U]
= A.
Example 11.Prove that A -(B - C)=(A - B)u {A c\ C).
Sol. Let X be any element of A -(B - C). Then
jcgA-(B-C) => x & A and jc (£ (B - C)
:c G A and {xi B or jc g C) I Note
=> (;c G A and x « B)or(x g A and a: g C)
XG A-Bor»G AnC =» :rG (A-B)u(AnC)
A-(B-C)c(A-B)u(AnC)
Again, let x be any element of(A- B)u(A n C). Then
:tg (A-B)u(AnC) => xe A-BorjcG AnC
(jc G A and x « B)or (a: g A and j: g C) rc G A and {x€ B or g C)
jc G A and x€ (B - C) JCG A-(B-C)
(A - B)u(A n C)c A -(B - C) ..Hi)
Combining (i) and (ii), A -(B - C)=(A - B)u(A n C).
Second Method
A -(B - C)= A -(B n C'^)= A n(B n G^Y
= An{BPyjG) [V (A n B)^ = A^' u B*^ and = A]
=(AnB")u(AnC) [Distributive Law]
=(A-B)u(AnC).
Example 12.Prove that A r\{B — C)={A c\ B)-{A c\ C).
Sol. Let X be any element of A n(B - C). Then
XG An(B-C) => X G A and x g B - C
JC € A and (jc g B and jc s C) => (x G A and x g B)and (x g A and x g C)
X G A n B and x e A n C => X G (A n B)-(A n C)
An(B-C)c(AnB)-(AnC)
Again, let x be any element of(A n B)-(A n C). Then
X G (A n B)-(A n C)=> X G A n B and x e A n C'
(x 6 A and x g B)and (x g A and x g C) => X G A and (x g B and x g C)

=> X G A and x g B - C => X G A n(B - C)
(A n B)-(A n C)c A n(B - C) ...Hi)
Combining (i) and (ii), A n(B - C)=(A n B)-(A o C).
Example 13.Prove that for any two sets A and B.

(A-5)u(B-A)=(AuB)-(AnS).
Sol. Let X be any element of(A - B)'u(B - A). Then
:x:€ (A-B)u(B-A) ={* xeA-BoraceB-A
(jc e A and xi B)or(x e B and x g A) => (% e A or a: e B)and (jc « A or :x: e B)
jc e A u B and :x: « A n B => JC e (A u B)-(A n B)
(A-B)u(B-A)c(AuB)-(AnB) .M)
Again, let x be any element of(A u B)-(An B). Then
jce (AuB)-(AnB) => X G A u B and x g A n B
(jc e A or JC e B)and(x g A or x « B) =» (x G A and x g B)or(x g B and x ^ A)
xeA-BorxeB-A => XG (A-B)u(B-A)
(AuB)-(AnB)c(A-B)u(B-A) ..Xii)
Combining (i) and (ii), (A - B)u(B - A)=(A u B)-(A n B),
Example 14.Prove that
{i)A(zBiffA\jB=B (ii)AdB iffA nB -A.
Scl.(i) Let A c B. To prove that A u B = B,let x be any element of A u B. Then
XG AuB X G A or X G B
X G B or X G B (v AcB)
XG B
AuBcB
Also, we know that B c AuB ...(ii)
Combining(i) and (ii), A u B = B
AcB => AuB = B ...d)
Now,let A u B = B. To prove that AcB,let x be any element of A. Then
XG A => X G Au B [v AcAuB]
XG B [v AuB = B]
AcB
i.e., AuB = B => AcB ...(ID
Combining(I) and (II), we have AcBiffAuB = B.
(ii) Let A c B. To prove that A n B = A, we know that
An B c A ...(i)
Now,let X be any element of A. Then
X G A => X G A and x g A
X G A and x g B [v AcB]
X G AnB
Ac AnB ...(ii)
Combining(i) and (ii), A n B = A,
AcBÂnB=A ...d)
Now let A n B = A. To prove that AcB,let x be any element of A. Then
XG A => X G An B [v .A = AnB]
X G A and x g B => x g B
AcB
i.e. An B = A => AcB ...(ID
Combining(I) and (II), we have A c B iff A n B = A.
Example 16.Prove that AuB=AnB<=>A=S.
Sol. Let A u B = A n B. To prove that A = B,let x be any element of A. Then
a: e A =>., a: e A u B [v AcAuB]
a: e An B [v AuB = AnB]
a; € A and a; € B => a; e B
AcB ...(D
Again, let x be any element of B. Then
XG B => XG AuB Iv BcAuB]
X G An B A u B = A n B]
X G A and x g B XG A
BcA ..Xii)
Combining (i) and (ii), A = B.
AuB = AnB=>A = B ...(I)
Now let A = B. To prove that A u B = A n B.
AuB = AnA [V B = A]
<=> =A=AnA
<=> = AnB
A=B =» AuB = AnB ...(ID
From (I) and (II), AuB = AnB <=> A = B.
Example 16.Prove that{A-B)-C =\A -C)-{B - C).
Sol. Let X be any element of(A - B)- C. Then
xg(A-B)-C => X G A - B and x g C
(x G A and X ^ B)and x g C
=> (x G A and x g C)and(x g B and x g C)
X G A - C and x g B - C => XG (A-C)-(B-C)
(A-B)-Cc(A-O-(B-C) ...(D
Again,let x be any element of(A - C)-(B - C). Then
XG (A-C)-(B-C) ^ X G A - C and x g B - C
(x G A and x g C)and (x g B and x g C) => (x G A and x g B)and x g C
X G A - B and x g C => xg(A-B)-C
(A-C)-(B-C)c(A-B)-C ...(«)
Combining(i) and (w), we get(A - B)- C =(A - C)-(B - C).
Example 17.Prove thatA-B -AnB^ = B^-A^.
Sol. Let X be any element of A - B. Then
xgA-B <=> X G A and x g B
X G A and x g B'^ <=> X G A n B*'
A-B = AnB‘^ ...(D
Again** X G A- B <=> X G A and x g B
<=> i. X g A'^ and x g B® <=> X G B'^ and x g A'^ <=> X G B'^ - A*"
A-B = B‘=-A‘^ .Mi)
Combining (i) and («), we get A - B = A n B^' = B'"-
Example 18.Prove that B =5 n A.

Sol.Please try yourself.
Example 19.Prove that
(i)AcB => AuCcBuC. (ii)AdB => AnC cz^r^C.
Example 20.Prove that{A^C)n{B-OîAnB)^ C.
Sol,Please try yourself
Example 21.Iffor two sets A and B,AkjB=A and A n S = A,then A-B.
Sol. AuBssA ^ BcA
An B=A AcB
A = B.
Example 22. For any three sets A, B and O;prove that ifAuBÂuC and A n B
= An C,then
B = C.
Sol. Let X be any element of B.
jce B acG A uB [v Be AuB]
jc e Au C [v A u B = A u C]
jc G A or ac G C ...(0
Ifa: G B => a: G A,then a: g A n B
ac G An C [V A n B = A n C]
acG C (in particular)
From (i) Jc e B acG C
BcC
Similarly C cB
Hence B = C.
1.18. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE

If A and B are any two sets, then the set(A - B) u (B - A)is called the symmetric
difference of A and B.
The symmetric difference of A and B is denoted by A A B and read as ‘A symmetric
difference B’.
For example.If A =(o,6,c,<i, e)and B =(c,d,e,f,g), then A - B = {a,6), B-A = (/,^)
, A4B =(A-B)u(B-A)= to,6)u{/;^l =(o,6,/,g).
Example 1.Prove the following :
(i)AAA = (l) (it)A A(|)=A
(iii) A AB = B AA iiv)An(BAC)=^(AnB)A(AnC).
Sol.(i) A A A =(A- A)u(A- A)= (|> u (|> =: <1). ‘
(ii) AA<|)=(A-(j))u(<j)-A)= Au<l)= A
(Hi) AAB =(A-B)u(B-A)=(B-A)u(A-B)
I ●/ union of sets is commutative]
= BAA.
A n(B A C)= A n [(B - C)u(C - B)]

=[An(B-C)]u[An(C-B)l (Distributive Law)
=(A n B - A n C)u(A n C- A n B)=(A n B)A(A n C).
Example 2.Prove that A A B =(A u B)-(A n B)=(A O B)n (A‘= u BO.
Sol. Let X be any element of A A B. Then
e AAB f e (A-B)u(B-A)
a:eA — BorjceB — A (jcgA and x g B)or (ac e B and x € A)
(:c e Aorxe B)and(jc (£ Aorx g B) => x e Au B andx g An B
xe (A u B)-(A n B)
AABc(AuB)-(AnB) ...(1)
Again, let x be any element of(A u B)-(A n B). Then
X e (A u B)-(A n B) a: G A u B and a:« A n B
=> (jc e A or jc G B)and (jc G A ora: g B) (a: G A and xi B)or (a: g B and xi A)
X & A-BoracG B-A a:G (A-B)u(B-A)
a: G A A B
(A u B)-(A n B)c A A B ...(2)
From(Uand (2), A A B =(Au B)-(A n B) ...(3)
Since A -B = A n
(A u B)-(A n B)=(A u B)n(A n B)^^
=(AuB)n(A‘ûBO (By De Morgan’s Law)
From (3), A A B =(A u B)-(A n B)=(A u B)n (A‘= u BO.
Example 3.Prove that AAJB=<|)<=>A = B.
Sol.To prove AAB = <t> => A = B
AAB = ({) => (A-B)u(B-A)= ({)
A - B = <|) and B - A = <j> => A c B and B c A => A = B
To prove A = B => AAB = (1)
AAB = AAA =(A-A)u(A -A)= <()U(|)= (1)
Hence AAB = (j) <=> A = B.
1.19. INDEXED FAMILY OF SETS
Let A be a non-empty set. Iffor each A, g A, we are given a set A-^, then we say{A;^^}J^^^ is
a family of sets indexed by the set A.
1.20. UNION AND INTERSECTION OF AN ARBITRARY FAMILY OF SETS
(i) Union. LetjA^jj^^g^ be an arbitrary family of sets. Then the union of this arbitrary
family of sets is denoted by u A,(read as ‘union of sets Aj^ for X g A’) and defined as
L/ A, = {a:: a: G Aj for at least one X g A).
(«)Intersection. Let{Ax}^^^ be an arbitrary family of sets. Then the.intersection of

this arbitrary family ofsets is denoted by^^*^^ A.^(read as‘intersection ofsets Ay^ for X g A’)and
defined as
= {x :a; E for every A, e A)
Generalised De Morgan’s Laws
indexed family of sets, then
« AJ Hi) (n A^)‘'= u
Xe\ >.eA
A?.
^
Proof,(i) Let x be any element of (u A^Y

Xe A
X e (u A^r acE u A,
Xe A XeA ^
jc E Aj^^ for any X, e A Jc € A?A for every

''
A,eA=>a:en
XeA
A?A
...d)
XeA AeA A
Again, let x be any element of XeA

n A{
a: G n A? a: G A^ for every X, g A
A.e A ^
=> xi. for any X, g A => a:E u A, a:F {Â^y

Xga a \e A
Ale ...(2)
From (1)and (2), At.

(«)Please try yourself.
SECTION II—FUNCTIONS
1.21. ORDERED PAIR

An ordered pair is a pair of elements written according to a specified order. Thus if a
and h are two elements, then the ordered pair in which a occupies the first place and 6, the
second place is written as(a, 6), whereas the ordered pair in which h occupies the first place
and a,the second place is written as(6,a).
The order in which the elements occur in an ordered pair is important
(a, b)=(6,a)iff a = 6
(a,6)=(c, d)iff a = c and h = d.
1.22.(a) CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS

Let A and B be two sets. The set ofall ordered pairs(a,6)where a e A and 6 e B is called
f the Cartesian product of A and B. It is denoted by A x B and read as‘A cross B’.
Thus '
.V ns A X B = {(a, 6): a G A,6 G B}.
18 GOLDEN REAL ANALYSIS ^
For example.If A = {1,2,3} and B = {0,-1),then

A X B = {(1, 0),(1,- 1),(2,0),(2,- 1),(3,0),(3,-1)}
and B X A = {(a, 6):a e B,6 € A}
= {(0,1),(0, 2),(0, 3),(- 1,1),(-1,2),(- 1,3)}
Clearly AXB B X A.
Note 1. If A has m elements and B has n elements, then A x B has m x n elements.
Note 2. Let R be the set of all real numbers. Then R x R = {(x, y):jc e R,y e R)
/.e., R X R is the set of all points in the Cartesian plane. It is also denoted by R^.
1.22.(b)CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF THREE SETS

Let A,B and C be three sets. The set of-all ordered triples(a,6,c)where a e A,6 e B and
c € C is called the Cartesian product of A,B and C. It is denoted by A x B x C.
Thus A X B X C = {(a, 6,c): a g A,6 e B,c g C}.
Note 1. R X R X R = {(x, y, z): x g R, y g R, z g R) where R is the set of all real numbers.
i.e., R X R X R is the set of all points in the Euclidean space. It is also denoted by R®.
Note 2. In general, if Aj, Ag, A3, ,A„ be n sets, then
Da or
« =1
Aj X Ag X Ag X X A^ = {(oi, Og,03, ., a„): a,, g A,., 1 < i ^ n]
(Oj, Og, ,, a^)is called an ordered n-tuple.
Example 1.IfA =[1, 2], B = {2, 3}, C =[3, 4]find

(A X B)u(A X C)and (A x B)n(A x C).
Sol. A X B = Kl, 2),(1, 3),(2, 2)(2, 3))
A X C = {(1, 3),(1, 4),(2, 3),(2,4)}
(A X B)u(A X C)= {(1, 2),(1, 3),(2, 2)(2, 3),(1, 4),(2, 4)1
(A X B)n(A X C)= {(1, 3),(2,3)}.
Example 2. Write down the Cartesian product ofthe three sets A,B, C where
A = U,2},B = {7C,e},C = a,e).
Sol. AxB = {(l,7c),(l,e),(2,n\(2,e)}
A X B X C = {(1,71,1),(1,7t, e),(1,e, 1),(1,e,e),(2,71,1),(2,7t, e),
'(2,c, 1).(2,e,e)l.
Example 3.Let A = {a, 6), B = {i, 2, 3, 4, 5), C = {3, 5, 7, 9]find {Ay.B)niAy. C).
Sol.Please try yourself
Example 4.Show that(0AcB=>AxCcBxC
(ii) A cB and C ciD=>A x C czB x D.
Sol. ii) Let(x, y)be any element of A x C. Then
U,y)GAxC => JC G A and y g C
=> jc G B and yg C [v AcB]
=> (jc,y) G B X C
A X C c B X C.
Example 5.Prove that A x (B u C)=(A x B)u(A x C).

Sol. Let y)be any element of A x(B u C). Then
(x,y)e A X(B u C) ^ xeAandy eBuC
=> xe Aand(y e Bory e C) => (x 6 A andy e B)or(x e A andy e C).
=> (x,y)e A X B or(x, y)e A x C ix, y)e (A X B)u(A X C)
● A X(B u C)c(A X B)u(A X C)
Again,let(x, y)be any element of(A x B)u(A x C). Then
(x, y)e (A X B)u(A X C) => (x, y) € A X B or(x, y) E A X C
(x e A andy e B)or(x e A andy e C) => x e A and (y e B ory e C)
X E A andy e B u C => (x, y)E A X(B u C)
(A X B)u(A X C)c A X(B u C) ...iii)
Combining(i) and (ii), we get A x(B u C)=(A x B)u(A x C).
Example 6.Prove that A r\C) r\{Ay. C).
Example 7.Prove that iAy^B) xD)^{AnC)x{B nD).
Sol. Let(x, y)be any element of(A x B)n(C x D). Then
(x, y)E (A X B)n(C X D) =» (x, y)E A X B and (x,y)e C x D
=> (x E A andy e B)and (x e C andy e D)
=» (x E A and x e C)and (y e B and y e D)
X E An C andy E B n D => ix,j)c (' O)x(BnD)
(A X B)n(C X D)c(A n C)X(B n D) ...(0
Again,let(x, y)be any element of(A n C)x (B n D). Ther
(x, y)E (A n C)X(B n D) => X E A n C and y e B n D
=> (x E A and x e C)and (y e B and y e D)
=> (x E A andy e B)and (x e C andy e D)
=> (x,y) E A X B and (x, y)e C x D =» (.X, y)E (A X B)n(C X D)
(A n C)X(B n D)c(A X B)n(C X D) ...Ui)
Combining(i) and {ii), we get (A x B)n(C x D) =(A n C)x(B n D).
Example 8.Prove that(A x C)-(B x C)=(A -B) x C.
Sol. Let(x, y)be any element of(A x C)-(B x C). Then
(x,y)E (AxC)-(BxC) => (x, y)E A X C and (x,y) « B x C
=» (x E A andy e C)and (x E B andy e C) =» (x E Aandx E B)andy E C
=> X E A - B and y e C ==> (x, y)E (A - B)X C
(AxC)-(BxC)c(A-B)xC Ui)
Again,let(x,y)be any element of(A - B)x C. Then
(x,y) E (A-B)X C => X E A - B and y e C
=> (x E A and x fe B)and y e C => (ê A andy E C)and(xE Bandy E C)
=> (x,y) E A X C and (x, y)e B x C => (x, y)e (A X C)-(B X C)
(A - B)X C c(A X C)-(B X C) ...(ii)
Combining(i) and (ii), we get(A x C) (B x C)=(A- B)x C.
Example 9.IfA and B be non-empty sets, then show that
A X B B xA iffA = B.
GOLDEN REAL ANALYSIS
20
z
Sol.I. Let A X = B X A.To prove that A = B.
Let X be any element of A. Then
a: 6 A => (ac, 6)e A X B for 6 e B
(jc, 6) € B X A 1V AxB=BxA
Xe B
A cB
Again,lety s B,then
ye B => (a,y)e A X B for o G A
(a,y)e B X A I ●●● A X B=B X A
ye A
BcA
Combining(i) and (ii), A = B.
II. Let A = B.To Prove that A x B = B x A
A X B=A X A I V B=A
B X A=A X A I V B=A
A X B=B X A
Hence AxB = Bx AiffA=B.
1.23. RELATIONS
ii)Def.IfA and B are two sets,then arelation R from A to B is a subset ofthe Cartesian
product A X B.
[A binary relation is a relation between two objects. In this book, we are only con
cerned with binary relations, therefore, onwards by a ‘relation’ we shall mean a ‘binary rela
tion’.]
If a is related to h under the relation R,then we write cR6.
Thus R = {(x, y): jc G A,y G B and jcRy)
The set of first entries of the ordered pairs in a relation is called the domain of the
relation.The set ofsecond entries ofthe ordered pairs in a relation is called the range ofthe
relation.
For example.If A = {2, 3, 4, 5,6), B = {2, 4,6,8} and
xRy => X divides y,then the relation R from A to B is given by:
R = {(2, 2),(2, 4),(2,6),(2, 8),(3,6),(4, 4),(4, 8),(6,6)}
Domain of R = {2, 3,4,6} I Dropping the repetitions
Range of R = {2, 4,6,8} I Dropping the repetitions
(ii)Relation on a set. A relation R from a set A to the set A itselfis called a relation on
the set A,i.e., R c A x A.
Thus R = {(x, y): JcRy and x,y e A)is a relation on A. ●
For example.If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R is the relation ‘less than’, then'
R = {(1, 2),(1, 3).(1, 4),(2, 3),(2,4),(3, 4)}.
(iii)Identity Relation (or Diagonal Relation). An identity relation on a set A is the
set of all ordered pairs(x,y)of A x A such that jc = y. Identity relation on A is uâlly denoted
'
byl^.
Thus Ia = A and3c=y}.
For example.If A = {a, b, c}, then

I^ = {(a, o),(6, 6),(c,c)}.
(iu) Inverse Relation. A relation obtained from a given relation R by reversing the
order ofthe components in the ordered pairs is called the inverse relation of R and is denoted,
by R"^, read as‘R inverse.’
Thus R-^ = {(y,:x:):(^,y)6R}.
For example.If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R is the relation ‘less than’, then
R = {(1, 2),(1, 3),(1, 4),(2, 3),(2, 4),(3, 4)}
and R-i = {(2,1),(3, 1),(4,1),(3, 2),(4, 2),(4, 3)}
Clearly R“^ is the relation ‘greater than.’
(v)Reflexive Relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if
aRa Va e A i.e., if(a,a)e R V a e A.
For example,(i)a = a V a € R,the set of all real numbers
=> The relation ‘is equal to’ in R is reflexive
(,ii) a divides a V a e N
=> The relation ‘is a divisor of’in N is reflexive.
{vi) Symmetric Relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric if
aR6 => 6Ra, o,6 e A i.e., if(o,6) € R (6 ,a) € R
OR A relation R is symmetric if R = R"^
For example,(i) V a,6 g R,a = 6 => b =a
:. The relation ‘is equal to’ in R is symmetric.
Hi)If and are any two lines in a plane such that | | ^2 ^2 I I î*
.-. The relation ‘is parallel to’in the set of all straight lines in a plane is symmetric,
(uw)Transitive Relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive if
aR6 and 6Rc => oRc i.e., if(a, b) g R,(6, c) g R => (a,c)g R.
For example,(i)Ifa, b,c are three real numbers such that
a>b and b>c then a >c
=> The relation ‘is greater than’in R is transitive.
(ii) Ifo, 6,c G N such that a divides 6 and b divides c then a divides c.
=> The relation ‘is a divisor of’in N is transitive.
(viii) Equivalence Relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation
ifit is
(i) reflexive (ii) symmetric (Hi)transitive.
For example,(a)If A is the set of all triangles in the Cartesian plane and R,the rela
tion ‘is similar to’(or similarity of As), then
(i) Every A is similar to itself i.e., AR A R is reflexive.
(ii) If Aj is similar to Ag, then A g is similar to Aj, i.e., AjR Ag => AgR Aj
.*. R is symmetric.
(Hi)IfAj is similar to Ag, Ag is similar to A 3, then Ajis similar to A3 i.e., AjR Ag, AgRAg
^ A^RAg
.●. R is transitive.
Hence the relation R is an equivalence relation.
22 QOf[^ REAL ANALYSIS
(6) If A is the set of all straight lines in the Cartesian plane and R, the relation ‘is
parallel to’(or parallelism oflines), then R is an equivalence relation.(Prove it).
Example 1. Give an example ofa relation which is
(i) reflexive but not symmetric or transitive.
Hi)symmetric hut not reflexive or transitive.
{Hi) transitive but not reflexive or symmetric,
iiv) reflexive and symmetric hut not transitive.
(u) reflexive and transitive hut not symmetric
{vi)symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
Sol. Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 4). A relation R on A is a subset of A x A.
(i) The relation R = {(1,1)(1, 2)(2, 2)(2,3)(3, 3,),(4, 4)} is reflexive but not symmetric
or transitive.
V a e A,{a, a)€ R => R is reflexive
(1, 2)€ Rbut(2, l)g R => R is not S5nnmetric
(1, 2) € R,(2,3)e R but(1, 3)sE R =» R is not transitive.
Hi) The relation R = {(1, 2),(2,1)} is symmetric but not reflexive or transitive.
HU)The relation R = {(1, 2),(2, 3)(1, 3)) is transitive but not reflexive or symmetric.
Hv)The relation R = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(1,2),(2,1)} is reflexive and S5nnmetric but
not transitive.
(u)The relation R = {(1,1),(2, 2),(3,3),(4, 4),(1,2),(2, 3),(1, 3))is reflexive and transi
tive but not symmetric.
H)i) The relation R = {(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,2),(1,1),(1,3),(2,2),(3,1),(3,3)} is symmet
ric and transitive but not reflexive,
(4,4)gR.
Example 2.Let S = {i, 2, 3, 4, 5} and R, the relation
R = {(L 3),(2, 4),(3, 5),(1, 1),(2, 2),(4, 2),(3, 1)}.
Is R an equivalence relation on S ? Give reasons in support ofyour answer.
Sol. For R to be an equivalence relation on S, R must be
(i) reflexive I.C., (a,a)e R V a e S
Hi) symmetric i.e., (a,6)6 R => (6, o) E R
HU)transitive i.e.,
(a, h)e R,(6,c)e R => (a, c) E R.
Now 3 E S but(3, 3)e R => R is not reflexive.
.■. The relation R on S is not an equivalence relation.
Example 3. A relation R is defined on the setN xN as follows :
(a, h) R (c, d) iff a + c? = 6 + c.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation onN xN.
Sol. N X N = [{a, b): a, h & N}, N being the set of natural numbers.
H) R will be reflexive if V (a, 6) e N x N, (a, 6) R (a , b)
I.e., if a + b = b + a which is true.
(ti) R will be symmetric if(a,6)R(c,d)=> (c,d)R(a, b)

1.6. if a+d = 6 + c =» c + 6 = rf + a
i.e. if a -\r d = b ●¥ c => 6 + c= a + d which is true.
(i«) R will be transitive if
(a,6)R(c, d\ (c,d)R(e,/^) => (a,b)R(e,/)
i.e., if a-\-d = b+c,c+f=d-¥e a + f= b + e
Le., if (on addition) a + c + d+ Z^b-ic + d + e a + f= b + e
i.e., if a+f-b+e => a +f=b +e which is true.
Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive
R is an equivalence relation on N x N.
Example 4. A relation R is defined on the set NxN as follows :
(a, b) R(c, d) iff ad = be.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation onNxN.
Sol. Please try yourself
1.24. FUNCTIONS (or MAPPINGS)

Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. If there exists a rule Y’ which associates to every
element x e X, a unique element y e Y, then such a rule 7” is called a fiinction or mappine
from the set X to the set Y.
We write /*: X Y or X —^ Y and read f is a function from X to Y.

This unique element y e Y associated by /to an element xeXis denoted by f{x) and is
called the f-image of x or value of the function fat x. Here x is called the pre-image of y
under f.
The set X is called the domain of/and the set Y is called the co-domain off The set of
all /-images is called the range off Thus,
Range of/= /(X) = {/(x) :xeX]
Clearly,/(X)cY.
V^ ^ definition of a function, we find that/: X ^ Y is a particular relation from
A to Y under which each element of X is related to a unique element of Y. Thus, we may also define
a function as follows :
f
Y
f(x)
y = %)
Domain of Range of
f=x f = f(x)cY
Co-Domain
off
A function f from a set X to a set Y is a subset of X x Y in which each x e X

appears in one and only one ordered pair belonging to f.
The set of first entries of the ordered pairs belonging to / is the domain of / and set of
second entries of the ordered pairs is the range of f Also, (x,y) g f=>y = fx).
i.e., the second entry of any ordered pair belonging to f gives the value off at the first
entry of the same ordered pair.
1.25. KINDS OF FUNCTIONS

(a)Equal Functions.Two functionsfand g are said to be equal iff
(i) the domain off- the domain oig
Hi)f{x)= g{x)for all x in their common domain.
Also,then we write f=g.
(6)Into Function. Let/: A -> B such that there is at least one element6 e B which has
no pre-image under /, then/is said to be a function from A into B.
Clearly,/fA B is an into function if/(A)^ B.
(c) Onto Function(or Suijection).Let/: A B such that each element6 e B has at
least one pre-image under /, then /is said to be a function from A onto B.
Clearly,/: A -> B is an onto function if/(A)= B.
(d)One-one Function(or Injection). Let/: A B such that different elements of A
have different /-images in B then/is said to he a one-one function.
Thus/: A -> B is a one-one function if x^,arg € A and
=> =
or equivalently Xi^X2
(e) Many-one Function. Let /: A -> B such that two or more different elements in A
have the same /-image in B,then /is said to be a mai^-bne function.
Thus,/: A -> B is a many-one function if3 Xj,x\& k such that
X-^ ^ X2 — /(î)“
(/) Many-one into Function. A function /: A -> B is said to be many-one into if

(i)3 x^, X2& k such that x^^^x^ => fix^)=fix2)
(ii)/(A)^B.
(g) Many-one onto Function. A function /: A ^ B is said to be many-one onto if
(i)3 x^, X2& k such that x^^X2 => fix^)= /(xg).
(ii)AA)= B.
(h)Identity Function. A function /: A A is said to be an identity function iffix)= x
V jc G A
Identity function on A is denoted by and is always one-one onto,
(i) Bijection. A one-one onto function is called a bijection.
Example 1. Consider the sets X-{1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = [a, b, c).

Let /j = [(1, a), (2, a),(3, b), (4, c)] \ 4 = [(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (3, b), (4, b)}
fs = [(l,b),(2,b),(3,b),(4, c')] \ f^ = [(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)].
Answer the following:
(i) Which ofthese /● 's are functions from X to Y? What are their ranges ?
iii) Which of these ffs are onto functions ?
(Hi) Which of these /■ 's are one-one onto functions ?
(iv) If some /● is not a function, explain why it is not so ?
Sol.(i) Each element of X has an image in Y under fy Also all the ordered pairs in
have different first entry,
fj is a function from X to Y.
Range of = set ofsecond entries of ordered pairs
= {o,6,c} = Y.
Each element of Y has a pre-image underfy
fj is onto.
/i(l)= a,/i(2)= a
1,2 e X and 1 2 but fj{l)= f^(2). is not one-one.
fj is not one-one onto.
Hi)Each element ofX has an image in Y under/g- But the ordered pairs(1,a)and (1, b)
have the same first entry.
i.e., /g not associate a unique element ofY to 1 6 X.
fg is not a function from X to Y.
(Hi)Each element ofX has an image in Y under f^. Also all the ordered pairs in have
different first entry,
fg is a function from X to Y.
Range off^ = {b,c).
a e Y has no pre-image under/g. fg is not onto.
(iu)4 e X has no image in Y under fy
f^ is not a function.
Example 2.Prove that the functionf:R—¥R defined by f(x)= cos x is neither one-one nor
onto.
n n n
Sol. ± — 6 R and
3 ’"a ■
n 1
But
H-iJ = cos(^-3j = cos- = 2
JA n 1
i.e., Different elements ofthe domain have the same /"-image.

.-. f is not one-one.
Now 2 e R,the co-domain off. Let x be its pre-image under f. Then
f(x)= 2 ^ cos rc = 2 which is absurd i.e.,, 3 no such jc e R.
Thus 3 an element in the co-domain which has no pre-image xmder f.
f is not onto.
Example 3.Show that the mapping f:Z* defined by f(x) =x^,xe where Z* is
the set ofpositive integers, is one-one into.
Sol. Let Tij and Wg be any two distinct +ve integers.
^1 ?£ Tig => ^ => f(nf)^f(n^.
:. fis one-one. f ■'.i/
Now lety e Z+, the co-domain off. Let x be its pre-image under/". Then
f(x)=y => x^=y => x=^-^-4y
which may not be a +ve integer e.g., ify = 2,x = V2 <s Z+

fis an into mapping ..XU)

Combining (i) and (ii),/“is a one-one into mapping.
Example 4, Give an example ofeach of the following :
(i) A function which is one-one but not onto,
(ii) A function which is onto but not one-one.
{Hi)A function which is both one-one and onto,
{iv)A function which is neither one-one nor onto.
Sol.(i) Let/*: N -> N defined by f{n)-2n\f n e N.
Let nj,/ig € N s.t. f{nf)-f{n^ => 2^^ = 2n^ =>
f is one-one.
Now 3 G N. Let n be its pre-image under f. Then
A«)= 3 => 2n = 3 n =-| s N.
f is not onto.
{ii) Let /■: R ^ R+ defined by f{x) = V jc e R.
For every y g R+, g R s.t./(*\/y ) = (V?=y

=> every element of R"^ has pre-image under f.
f is onto.
Now±2 G Rand-2^2.
But /(- 2) = 4 = f{2) .’. f is not one-one.
{Hi) Let/*: R -> R defined by f{x) = x + lV xe R.
Let jCj, jCg G R s.t. /(jCj) = /(Xg) jCj + l=jC2+l => ^1=^2*
f is one-one.
Now let y be any element of R. Let x be its pre-image under f. Then
f{x)=y => x + l=y x=y-leR
i.e., for everyy g R, 3 3C g R s.t. f{x) =y.
f is onto.
{iv) Let/*: R —> R defined hyf{x) = Vxg R
/(-2) = 4 = /(2)
-2i^2 => ^-2) = ^2).
f is not one-one.
Now - 4 G R. Let x be the pre-image of - 4 under f. Then
f{x) = -4 => x2 = -4 => x = ±2igR.
f is not onto.
Example 5. Prove that the mapping f:N-^Ndefined by f(n) = n^ + n + 1 is one-one but
not onto.
Sol. Let Mj, ^2 ^ ^ Aî) =
=> + Tij + 1 = + ^2 + 1 => + nj-ng = 0
=> (Wj - n.g)(7ij + Mg + 1) = 0
=> Tlj -Wg = 0 I ●●● Wg G N .*. /Ij + Tig + 1 0
Tij = n.g
/“is one-one.
Now 1 e N. Let n be its pre-image under f. Then

f{n)=l =i> n^ + n + l = l
=> n{n + 1)= 0 n = 0,- 1
Neithei* 0, nor- 1 belongs to N.
3 no n e N s.t.f{n)= 1
f is not onto.
Example 6.Letfbe a function with domain X and range in Y and let A,B be subsets of
X. Then prove that
ii)A<^B^f(A)(zf(B) (ii)/(AuB)=/(A)u/(B).
Sol,(t) Lety be any element of/(A). Then
y e /(A) => y =fix)for some x & A
y -f{x)for some g B I V AcB
=> y = f{x) Sind fix) g /(B) => ye/(B) AA)c/‘(B).
Note. The converse is not true.
Consider A=[0,7u],B= - 2’2

— H and fix)- sin x
Then AA)r [0,1],/(B)=[-1,1]
fiA) czfiB) but AcxB
Hi) Lety be any element offiA u B). Then
y G /(A u B) => y =fix)for some jc g A u B
=> y =fix)for some jc g A or g B => y=fix) and fix) g fiA)or fix) e /(B)
=> y G fiA) or y G /(B) => yG/(A)u/(B)
/(AuB)c/(A)u/(B) ...(i)
Also A c A u B and B c A u B
=> /(A)c/(AuB) and /(B)c/(AuB)
=> AA)u/(B)c/(AuB) ...Hi)
Combining H)and Hi), we get AA u B)= AA)u AB)
Note,fix) G fiA) does not necessarily imply that jc g A.
For example. If/*: R R+ defined byfix)= and A = [0, 2], then AA)= [0, 4]
Now A- 1)= 1 so that A- 1)e fiA) but- 1« A
However jc g A =» fix) g AA)always.
Example 7.Iff:X-^Y and A cX,BczX,show that f(A n B)cfiA) n fiB).
Give an exampte to show that f(A n B)and f(A) n f(B) may be unequal.
Sol. Let y be any element offiA n B).‘ Then
y G fiA n B)=>y =fix)for some.jc g A n B
=> y = fix)for some jc g A and jc g B => y =fix),fix) G AA)and fix) g AB)
=> y G fiA) and y g AB) =» y G fiA)n AB).
AAnB)cAA)nAB)
Consider /*: R ^ R+ defined by fix)= xp- [Here X = R,Y = R+]
Let A = [— 2, 0] and B = [0, 2] so that A cz R,B c: R and A n B = {0}
Now AAnB)=A{0})= (0}
AA)=[0,4],AB)=[0,4]
/(A)n/(B)= 10, 4]
Clearly, /(AnB)?i/(A)n/(B).
1.26. COMPOSITE OF FUNCTIONS(OR PRODUCT OF FUNCTIONS)

Let /■: A B and ^ : B C be two functions such that
f{x)-y and giy) = z, wherex e A,y e B,2 e C.
Then the function /t: A C such that
hipc) - z =giy) =^g\f{x)] V X e A
is called the composite of functions f and g and is denoted hy go f
i.e.. gof\k-^C definedby (go/)(a:) =^|/(3i:)] V a: e A.
(o) The composite of functions is not commutative £.e., got^tog.
Let /^: R -» R defined hyfix) = and^: R ^ R defined by^f:*:) = x + l. Then
^ o/’: R ^ R is defined as (g o f)(x) = g\f{x)] =g(.x^) = x^ + l
Also fog :R->'Ris defined as (fo g)ix) = f |^(ai:)] =f[.x + l) = ix + 1)^
go f and fogaiQ both defined but gof^fog.
(6) The composite of functions is associative £.e., (h o g) o f = h o (g o f).
Let /■: A B, g: B ^ C, ; C -> D be three functions.
Also, let jc e A,y e B,0 € C such that/(jc) =y andg(y) = 2
Then [{h o g)o f]{x) = (/i o gMx)] ^(Jio g)(y) = h\giy)\ = h{z)
Also [ho{gof){x)]^h{{gof){x)\^h\g{f{x))\=h\g(y)]^h{z)
[{hog)of] (jc) = {ho{g o /*)] (jc) V ac e A.
Hence the composite of functions is associative,
(c) The product of any function with the identity function is the function itself,
I.C., if f: A B, then f o = f = Ig o f.
Let X be any element of A. Then 3 y e B s.t. f,x) = y
I^:A-»A and ftA-^B
/"o : A -> B and ifo =f I *●* Ia is the identity function]
Also /*: A —»B and Ig : B —»B
Igo/*:A-^B and (Igo/)(jc) = Ig|/(a:)l = Ig(y) = y =
{fo lj^){x) = f{x) = (Ig o f){x) V X e A
/●oIa = /=IbO/-.
{d) The composite of two one-one and onto functions is also a one-one and onto
function.
Or
The composite of two hijections is also a bijection.
Let /■: A -> B and g : B -» C be two one-one onto functions.
Then g o/* exists such that g o/■; A-» C.
We have to prove that g o/"is one-one as well as onto.
Let Oj, Og e A such that (g o f){af) = (g o f){a^
Then (g o f){af) = (g o /Xog) => gl/loj)] = gl/log)]
[V g is one-one]
a-i — 0-2 /is one-one]
g o f is also a one-one function.
Now let c be any element of C.

ceC =» 36 e B s.t.^(6)= c [v g is onto]
and 6eB 3aeAs.t.f{a)= b [●●● /is onto]
(g o f)ia)-glfia)] = gib)- c
=> every element c e C has pre-image \mder go f.
g o f is onto.
Hence g o fis also one-one and onto.
1.27. INVERSE FUNCTION

Let /: A B be a one-one and onto function. Then the function g : B A which
associates to each element b e B the imique element a e A such that fia) = 6 is called the
inverse function of /. The inverse function of/is denoted by /“^.
Note. Every function does not have an inverse. A function /: A B has inverse iff/is one-one
and onto. If/has inverse, then/is said to be invertible and/"^: B -> A. Also ifa e A, then/(o) = b where
beB=>a=f-Hb).
Theorem I. Iff: A-^Bis one-one and onto and g :B-¥ A is the inverse off, then fog =
Iq and go f-Ij^, where 7^ and are the identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.
Proof. Let a e A such that fid) = 6, 6 g B
Then a^gib) [ ●.* g is the inverse of / ]
Now igof)ia)=g[fia)\=gib) = a
ig of )(3c) = V ac G A Also I^(jc) = a: V a: g A
Now let b G B such thatg(6) = a, a e A.

Then b = fia)
Now (fog)ib) = f\gib)]=fia)^b
ifo g)ix) = a: V ac G B. Also Ig(ac) = ac V a: g B
fog = l B*
Theorem II. A function is invertible iff it is one-one and onto
Proof. I. Let /: A B be invertible. Then 3 a function g : B A such that
go/= 1^ and/og = lB.
(i) If possible, suppose / is not one-one.
Then 3 two elements Oj, a^^ A with Cj ^ Og such that
fiaf) = fia^\fiafi,fia^&B
gl/loj)] = g\fia^\ [v g:BÂ]
=> igof)iafi = igof)ia^
which is a contradiction. .*. f is one-one.

Hi) Let b be any element of B. Then f|g(6)] = ifo g)(b)= Ig(6)= 6

=» every element 6 € B has pre-image under f, namely g(b)
f is onto
fis invertible =^fis one-one and onto.
II. Letf: A -> B be one-one and onto.
Then for every be B,3 a unique a g A s.t.f[a)= b
Let g : B -» A defined as gib) =.a where fia)= b
(gof)ia)= g\fia)] = gib)= aV ae A => gof=T-A
Similarly fog = lB
.*. g is the inverse off
.-. fis one-one and onto => /"is invertible.
Theorem III. The inverse ofa function, if it exists, is unique.
Proof. Let A -> B be invertible. Then fis one-one and onto.
'H.e., for every be B,3 a unique a g A s.t.fia) - b
Let g : B -> A and A : B -> A be two inverses off.
Then gof=l^ = hof
gib)= g[fia)] =ig of)ia)= 1^(0)= ihof)ia)= h\f{a)] ^h(b)\/beB
g = h.
Theorem IV.Iff:A —>B is one-one and onto, then f~^ is also one-one and onto.
Or
The inverse ofa bijection is also a bijection.
Or
The inverse ofan invertible function is invertible.
Proof. Let /*: A ^ B be one-one and onto => /“is invertible.
Letg : B A be the inverse off
Also,let g(6j)= ai and gib^ = a^\a.^,aê A\ b.^,bê B
Then gib^)=gib^) => Oj= Og
fiaf)=f{a^) => 61 = 62
.*. g is one-one.
Again,if a is any element of A,then
ogA => 36gB s.t.fia)= 6 =❖ 36 g B s.t. a = g(6)
.-. every a g A has pre-image under g.
=> g is onto.
Hence g =f~^ is one-one and onto.
Note.f~^ is one-one and onto f~^ is invertible => if~^)~^ exists.
Theorem V. The inverse ofthe inverse ofa function is the function itself i.e., =f
Or
If a function g be the inverse ofa function f, then fis the inverse ofg.
Proof. Let /*: A -> B be invertible. Then 3 a functiong’ : B —> A s.t.

/(a)= 6 => a =^(6), a*€ A,6 G B.
Also fis invertible => fis one-one and onto
=> ^ is one-one and onto [Art. 1.31]
=> ^ is invertible i.e., g~^ exists.
Now (fog){b)=f\g{b)]=f{a)= b => fog = IB
=> /'is the inverse of^ => f=B~^ f=(f-^)-\
Theorem VI.Iff:A B and g:B C are two one-one and onto functions, then the
inverse ofg o fexists and (g o f)~^ = f~^ o g~^.
Proof. Let/“: A —> B and^: B —» C be one-one and onto
=> go fis one-one and onto [Prove it as in Art. 1.26 (rf)]
=> g ofis invertible.
gof\A-^C .*. igofy^'.C-^k
Also :C B and /""^: B A .-. f~ôg~^ A
domain of{go f)~^ - domain off~ô g~^.
Now let a e A,6 G B,c G C such that
f{a)= 6 and^(6)= c => a = f~\b) and b - g~\c)
Now {gof){a)=g\f{a)]=g{h)-c =» {gof)-Kc) = a
{f-^ o g-^){c)= /●-VHc)] = f-Kb) = a = (go f)-Hc)
Hence (g o f)~^ - o g~^.
Example 1. Let fbea function with domain X and range in Y and E, F be the subsets of
Y, then prove that
(i)E<zF=^f-KE)<=:f-HF) {ii)f-HE u F) = f-\E) u f-\F)
{Hi) /●-! {EnF)= f~HE) n f~HF).
Sol. (i) Let X be any element of /^~KE). Then
X G /-1(E) => /(x) G E => f{x)&¥ [v E c F]
=> .X G /-1(F)
/-1(E) c/-1(F).
{ii) Let X be any element of /-i (E u F). Then
X G /-I (E u F) => f{x) G E u F
=> f{x) G E or f{x) G F => X G /-1(E) orx G /-1(F)
=> XG/-1(E) u/-1(F)
/-i(E u F) c /-1(E) u /-1(F) ...(a)
Again, let x be any element of /“i (E) u /-i(F). Then.
XG /-I (E)u/-i(F) X G /-1(E) or xg /-1(F)
f{x) G E orf{x) G F => /(x) G E u F => X G /-I (E u F)
/●-HE) u f~HF) c f~HE u F) ...(h)

Combining (a) and (b), we have f~HE u F) = /“-HE) u f~HF).
(Hi) Please try yourself.
Example 2. Prove that
(i)f-HA<^) = \f-HA)Y (ii) f-HA -B)= f-HA) - f-HE).
Sol. (i) Let X be any element of Then
X e f-\A^) =» f(x)eA^ =» Ax)€A
X « /●-HA) => a; e I/-HA)]‘'
f-\A^) c \f-HA)r ...(a)
Again, let x be any element of |/●-^(A)]®. Then
ic e \f-KA)V => x£ f~HA) =» f(x) i A
=> f(x) e A'^ => e f-HA^)
[f-HA)rczf-HA<^) ...(b)
Combining (a) and (b), we get f~HA^) = 1/-^(A)]®.
Remember, x g f~HA) <=> f(x) g A always.
(ii) Let X be any element of f~HA - B). Then
xe f-HA-B) => f(x) G A - B f(x) G A and f(x)« B
=> XG f-\A) and x « f~HB) => xGf~HA)-f-HB)
f-HA-B)<zf-HA)-f-HB) ...(a)
Again, let x be any element of f~HA) - f~HB). Then
X G f-HA)-f-HB) => xe /●-HA) and x g^-HB)
f(x) G A and f(x) e? B => f(x)eA-B => xef-HA-B)
f-HA)-f~HB)c:f-HA-B) ...(b)
Combining (a) and (b), we have f~HA - B) = f~HA) - f~HB).
Example 3. What is meant by the statement that composite of functions f g and h is
associative ? Verify the associativity for the following three functions :
fiN-^Zg such that f(x) = 2x g : Zq-^Q such that g(x) =
h : Q ->R such that h(x) = e*.

Sol. Composite of functions f g and h is associative
ho(gof) = (hog)of
Now h : Q->R,go/^: NQ => b o(g o /): N -» R.
Also bog : Zq-^R,/^: N-^Zq => (bog)o/*: N-> R.
Let X G N arbitrarily, y g Zq, 2 g Q s.t. f(x) =y and g(y) = z
\
[h o(g 0 /))(*) = hUg o f%x)\ = Afe(/i:*))] = Afe(2x)l = A = e^
\ZXJ
[(h o g) of](x) = (ho g)\f(x)] =(hog)(2x) = h\g(2x)]

= h I —J =
[b o(g o/●IKx) = [(b og) o/*](x) V X G N
ho(gof) = (hog)of.
Example 4. Let f:R^R defined by f(x) = ox + b, where a, b,xe R and aiÔ. Prove that
fis invertible.
Sol. For any x^,jCg e R s.t.f(x^) = /(aCg)

ojCj + 6 = cpcg + b
CUCj.= OJCg => Xi=JC2 [v a 9^0]
.*./ f is one-one. / ■
Let y be any element of R,the co-domain off. Let x be its pre-image under f.
Then fix)=y
y-b
ax + b = y X- G R.
a
Since every element of the co-domain has its pre-image under f.
f is onto,
/is one-one and onto => /is invertible.
2
Countability of Sets and
the2Real Number System
2.1. INITIAL SEGMENT OF N
Let m e N. Then the subset = {/i: /i e N and < m} = {1, 2, 3, , m}

of N is called an initial segment of N determined by the natural number m.
e.g. {1,2,3,4,5} = N5.
is the initial segment of N determined by 5.
Thus an initial segment of N determined by m e N contains all natural numbers from 1
to m.
I 2.2. EQUIVALENT SETS
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if 3 a bijection i.e. a one-one and onto func
tion, from A to B.
A is equivalent to B is written as A ~ B.
For example, the sets N and E = {2, 4, 6, } of all even natural numbers are equiva¬
lent because the function.
/: N —> E defined by f(ji) = 2n, n. e N is one-one from N onto E.
2.3. THEOREM
The relation is an equivalence relation.

Proof. will be an equivalence relation if it is :
(i) reflexive (ii) symmetric and {Hi) transitive.
(i) is reflexive.
For any set A, the identity function : A -> A is one-one and onto.
A ~ A for any set A => is reflexive.
{ii) is symmetric.
Let A ~ B,then 3 a function /: A —» B which is one-one and onto. Its inverse function f~^:
B —> A is also one-one and onto.
B~A
Since A~B => B~ A
is symmetric.
{Hi) is transitive.
Let A ~ B and B ~ C, then 3 one-one and onto functions /: A —> B and : B —> C.
Their composite function go f:A-^C is also one-one and onto.
34
COUNTABILITY OF SETS AND THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM 35
A~C
Since A~B and B ~ C => A-C
is transitive.
From ii),(ii) and (Hi), is an equivalence relation.
Note. For m e N, - N,, <=> m-n.
2.4. FINITE SET

A set which is either empty or equivalent to a subset of N is said to be a finite set.
Thus A is finite if A = (|) or A ~ for some natural number m.
Note. If A ~ N^, then m is called the cardinal number of A.
2.5. INFINITE SET

A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.
Thus A is an infinite set if A 5* <1) and A is not equivalent to for any m g N.
2.6. DENUMERABLE(OR ENUMERABLE)SET

A set is said to be denumerable if it is equivalent to N,the set of all natural numbers.
Thus A is denumerable => A - N.
2.7. COUNTABLE SET

A set A is said to be countable if either A is finite or A is denumerable i.e., if either A is
finite or A ~ N,the set of all natural numbers.
2.8. UNCOUNTABLE SET

A set which is not countable is said to be an uncountable set.
Thus a set A is uncountable if A is not finite and A is not equivalent to N,the set of all
natural numbers.
2.9. THEOREM
A is finite and B c A => B is finite (Every subset of a finite set is finite)
(0 If B = (j), then B is finite [By def.]
(ii) If B = A,then B is finite because A is finite.
(Hi) Suppose B (|) and B A.
Since A is finite, there exists m g N such that A ~ N^.
Since B e A,B has k elements where k <m i.e. B ~
.-. B is finite.
2.10. THEOREM
A is infinite and B 3 A => B is infinite (Every super-set of an infinite set is
infinite)
Proof. Let B be finite, then A c B and B is finite.
A is finite [Th. 2.9] which is a contradiction. Hence B is infinite.
2.11. THEOREM
If A and B are finite sets, then A o B is also a finite set
Proof. A n B c A and A is finite.
A n B is a finite set.
2.12. THEOREM
If A and B are finite sets, then A u B is also a finite set
Proof,(i)If A = 4> = B,then A u B = t|) is finite.
(ii)If A = (j) or B = (|), then A u B is either B or A, both of which are finite.
.-. A u B is a finite.
(Hi)If A (j), B 0, since A and B are finite, there exist natural numbers n and m such
that A ~ N„n and B ~ N„.fn
If A n B = <j), then A u B has m + n elements and A u B ~ Nn+m

=> A u B is finite.
If A n B <j), then there exists a natural number k < min {n, m)such that A n B ~
Now A u B has n -^m-k elements.
AuB~Nn+m-k ^ A u B is finite.
2.13. THEOREM
Every subset of a countable set is countable.
Proof. Let A be a countable set. Then A is either finite or denumerable.
Case I. When A is finite.
Since every subset ofa finite set is finite,every subset ofA is finite and hence countable.
Case II. When A is denumerable.
Here A ~ N,the set of natural numbers.
Let A = {cj, Ug,03, } and let B cz A.
Sub-case 1. If B is finite, then B is countable. (Bydef.)
Sub-case 2. If B is infinite, let be the least +ve integer s.t.o„j e B.
Since B is infinite, Let /ig be the least +ve integer s.t. /ig > anda„2 e B.
Since B is infinite, B (u„j, }.
Continuing like this, B = {a„j, , } where < ng < <,
Define/: N ^B by f(k) \/k e N
Then/is one-one and onto.
. B~N
=» B is denumerable => B is countable.
Cor. 1. Every infinite subset of a denumerable set is demunerable.
[See Case II, Sub-case 2].
Cor.2. If A and B are countable sets, then A n B is also a countable set.
A n B c A and A is countable
A n B is countable.
Cor.3.Every super-set of an uncountable set is uncountable.

Let A be an uncountable set and let B be any super-set of A.
Suppose B is countable. Then A being a subset of a countable set must be countable,
which is a contradiction.
Hence B is uncountable.
2.14. THEOREM
Every infinite set has a coimtable subset.
Proof. Let A be an infinite set. Let g A.
Since A is infinite, A 9^ {ajl. => 3 ttg 5^ Oj s.t. Og 6 A.
Since A is infinite, A 5^ {a Og). 3 Cg Og 9* Oj s.t. Og G A.
Continuing like this as long as we please, we can have a proper subset
B = {Uj, 0,2, O3, } of A.
If B is finite, B is countable. (By def.)
If B is infinite, define /*: N B by /(^)= a;^VAG N
Then/*is one-one and onto.
B~N
B is denumerable => B is countable.
2.15. THEOREM
A is countable,B is countable => A u B is countable.
Proof. Case I.If A and B are both finite,then so is A u B.
=> A vj B is countable.
Case II. If one of A and B is finite and the other is denumerable.
Let us assume that A is finite and B is denumerable. Then we can write
A = {Uj, Og, Og,
B = {6j, 6g,6g, ,1
Let C = B - A,then C c B
Since A is finite, C is infinite.
C being an infinite subset of a denumerable set is denumerable,so we can express C as
C = {Cj, Cg, Cg,
Clearly, AuB = AuC = {oj, Og, » ®/n> ^1’ ^2’ } and A n C = (j)
ifife = 1.2,..
Define : N A u C by fik)=
pk~m.
AuC~N => AuB~N
A VJ B is denumerable => A u B is countable.
Case III. If A and B are both denumerable sets, we can write.
A = {Oj, Og, Og, } j B — {6j,6g, 6g,
Let C = B - A,then C c B and A u B = A u C.
If C is finite, then A u C is countable. (By case II)
If C is infinite, then C is denumerable and we can write

C = {cj, Cg, C3, }
Clearly, A U C = {Oj, Cp Cg, Cg, Ug, Cg, }
a n *1 if n is odd
Define/: NÂuC by /(/i) = 0
2 if n is even
JL
. 2

AuC-N AuB~N
=» A u B is denumerable => A u B is countable.
●4-
2.16. THEOREM
The union of a denumerable collection of denumerable sets is denumerable
Proof. Let{A J isN be a denumerable collection of denumerable sets.

Since each A^- is denumerable, we have
Aj = {Ojj, aj2> Ojg, a ln> .}
A2 = {0-2V ®22’ ®23’ a 2n» .}
Ag = {a 31, Ugg, Cgg, a 3n>
Then a^j is the jth element of A^..

Let us list the elements ofI€N
u A-,*’ as follows :
Oil
“21, “12
“31, “22, “l3
“41.“32,“23, “14
From the above scheme it is evident that o^^ is theq^th element of (p + g - l)th row. Thus
all the elements of A, have been arranged in an infinite sequence as
{“ll> “21» ®12» “31» ®22» ®13» ®41> ^32> ®23» ®14 }
In fact, the map /: »eN
u A-‘ -> N defined by
(p + g-2)(p + g-l)
+q gives an enumeration of u A -
2 ie N '
u A. ~ N
j6 N *
Hence u A- is denumerable.
ieN '
2.17. THEOREM
The set of real numbers x such that 0 < x < 1 is not countable
Or
The unit interval [0,1] is not countable.
Proof. Let us assume that [0,1] is countable.

=> either [0,1] is finite or denumerable.
Since every interval is an infinite set,[0,1] is denumerable,
=> There is an enumeration jCj, X2, Xg, of real numbers in [0, 1].
Expanding each jc- in the form of an infinite decimal, we have
JCj = 0 . Cjj Cj2 Oi3 aIn
^2“0 .^21 ^22 ^23 ®24 a2n
*„ = 0-a„,O„2O„3O„4 ann
where each
a^j e (0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9}.
Consider the number b with decimal representation b = 0.b^b^ b^ bn
where fej is any integer from 1 to 8 s.t. 6j^
feg is any integer from 1 to 8 s.t. 62 a^2
b^ is any integer from 1 to 8 s.t. ^ and so on.

Clearly, b g [0,1] and b^x^\/ n since the decimal representation of b is different from
the decimal representation of x^ as b^ ^ Thus b escapes enumeration and we arrive at a
contradiction.
I
Hence [0,1] is not countable.
2.18. THEOREM
The set of real numbers is not countable.
Proof. We know that every subset of a countable set is countable.
If R were countable, then [0, 1] which is a subset of R must also be countable.
But the unit interval [0,1] is not countable. [Theorem 2.17]
Hence R is not countable.
2.19. THEOREM
The set of all rational numbers is countable.
Proof. Consider the sets
-1 1-2 2
(Common denom. 1)
1 ’1’ 1 ’r
Jo -1 1 -2 2 (Common denom. 2)
2 ’2’ 2 ’2’
-1 1-2 2
n (Common denom. n)
n n n n
Clearly, the set of rational numbers Q = ^ A,

ie N ‘
r-1
if r is odd
2n
Consider a mapping /: N defined by f{r)= > - r
if r is even
2n
fis one-one and onto. -N

Le. A„
n is denumerable. => A„
n is countable.
Since Q =leN
u A,-* is the union of a countable collection of countable sets.
Q is countable.
2.20. THEOREM
The set of all positive rational numbers is countable.
Proof. Let denote the set of positive rational numbers ; then c Q.
Since every subset of a countable set is countable, and Q is countable.
.-. is countable.
2.21. THEOREM
The set of irrational numbers is uncountable.
Proof. Suppose the set of irrational numbers is countable. We know that the set of
rational numbers is countable. Since R, the set of real numbers is the union of the set of
rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers, therefore, R is countable. But R is not
countable. We are,"thus, led tq a contradiction.
Hence the set ofirrational numbers is uncountable.
2.22. THEOREM
A finite set is not equivalent to any of its proper subsets.
Proof.Let A be a finite set.
If A = (j), then A has\po proper subset and we have nothing to prove.
If A ?£ <b then A ~ N„ for some me N.
Let B be a
proper ûbset of A,then B has k elements, where k<m i.e., B ~ Nj^.
Since A and B do not have same number of elements, A cannot be equivalent to B.
2.23. THEOREM
Every infinite set is equivalent to a proper subset of itself.
Proof. Let A be an infinite set. Since every infinite set contains a denumerable subset.
[SeeTh. 2.14]
Let B = {Cp Og, Og, } be a denumerable subset of A.
Let C = A - B,then A = B u C
Let P = A -{a j} be a proper subset of A
Consider the mapping : A P
defined by f(a.)= for a. e B and fia)= a for o g C
Then fis one-one and onto. Hence A ~ P.
Note. If A is a denumerable set, then A ~ N and we can write A as the indexed set {a^: i g N|,
where a- ^ Oj for i ^j. The process of writing a denumerable set in this form is called enumeration.
T7T
^.24. THEOREM
The union of a finite set and a countable set is a countable set.
Proof. Let A be a finite set and B be a countable set.
If B is finite then A u B is a finite set and hence countable.
If B is denumerable then there are two possibilities :
(t) A n B = (|) and (ii) A n B <{)
Case ii) When A n B = (])
Let A = {aj, Og, ,op and B = {bj, ,bn’
Then AuB = {Oj, Og, ●> ^2» » ^n’ J
if 1 ^ /I < p
Define a function /‘:N-»AuBby/(o) =
n-p if o > p + 1
Clearly/is one-one and onto.
.*. A u B ~ N. Hence A u B is denumerable and so countable.
Case, (ii) When A n B (j)
Let C = B - A, then C c B
Since A is finite, C is infinite.
C being an infinite subset of a denumerable set is denumerable.
Clearly AuB = AuC = {Oj, Og, » Ctpj Cj, Cg, } and A n C = (|)
.●. By case (i), A u C is countable. Hence A u B is countable.
2.25. THEOREM
The set N x N is countable.
Proof. Consider the sets Ai = {Q, 1),(1,2),(1, 3),
Ag = {(2,1), (2, 2), (2, 3),
A3 = {(3,1), (3, 2), (3, 3), }
A„ = {(n, 1), (n, 2), (n, 3),
Clearly NxN= u A
neN
Also the function /: A^ N defined by

fin, i) = iis one-one and onto.
.'. A^ is denumerable. Since N x N is a denumerable collection of denumerable sets, it is
denumerable and hence countable.
Corollary 1. The set of all positive rational numbers is countable.
Proof. (p . . . . 1
Q^ = i —; P, 9 are co-pnme positive integers ►
Let A= {(p, q) ;p,g are co-prime positive integers)
Clearly the elements of Q'*' and A are in one-one correspondence and therefore is
countable iff A is countable. Since Ac N x N and N x N is countable, therefore, A is countable.
Hence Q+ is countable.
GOLDEN REAL ANALYSIS
42
Note 1. The set Q+ is denumerable can also be proved as under,
Consider the sets

il’ 1’ 1 1
J1 2 3
^"l2’ 2’ 2 ...}
f1 2 3
^3 = [3’ 3’ 3 ’■■■ ■I
A =
n■ n 1
Clearly Q+= neN
u A„"
/n = i is one-one and onto.

Also, the function defined by ^
A is denumerable. Since Q+ is a denumerable collection of denumerable sets, it is denumerable
and hence countable.
Note 2. Q = Q" u {0} u is denumerable, since and Q” are in one-one correspondence.
2.26. ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE

A non-empty set with one or more compositions (operations) defined on it is called an
‘algebraic structure’ or ‘algebraic system’. If A is the given non-empty set and * is a com
position defined on A, then this algebraic structure is denoted by (A, *).
For example, if R is the set of real numbers, then (R, +, x) is an algebraic structure with
two compositions.
2.27. REAL NUMBER SYSTEM AS AN ORDERED FIELD

Let R be the set of real numbers and the two binary operations addition and multiplica
tion be denoted by and respectively.
Then the algebraic structure (R, +, .) satisfies the following axioms :
I. Field Axioms
(i) The Addition Axioms
A^. (Closure Law of addition) Va, 6eR, u + 6eR
Ag. (Commutative Law of addition) \f a, b&'R,a + b = b + a
Ag. (Associative Law of addition) \f a, by ce R, o (6 + c) = (a -I- b) + c
A4. (Existence of additive identity) VoG R,30g Rs.t.a + 0 = 0 + a = a
This real number ‘0’ is called the additive identity of R.
Ag. (Existence of additive inverse) VcgR, 36gR s.t. a + b = Q = b
This real number ‘6’ is called the additive inverse of‘a’.
[But a + 6 = 0 = 6+ aif6 = -a i.e., additive inverse of a real number ‘a’ is its negative
Thus o ●»● (- a) = 0 = (- a) -I- a].
Hi) The Multiplication Axioms,
Mj. (Closure Law of multiplication) V o, 6 G R, a.b G R
Mg. (Commutative Law of multiplication) a, by e R, a.b = b.a
COUNTABILITY OF SETS AND THE REAL NUMBER SYb I EM HO
Mg.(Associative Law of multiplication) V a,6,c e R,a.(6.c)= {a.h).c

M4.(Existence of multiplicative identity) VaeR,31eR s.t. a.l = l.a = a
' This real number *V is called the multiplicative identity of R.
Mg.(Existence of multiplicative inverse) Vae R,o^tO,36e R s.t. a.6 = b.a = 1
The real number h is called the multiplicative inverse of a and is denoted by a~^ or —
a
which is the reciprocal ofa.
(Hi)Distributivity. Multiplication distributes over addition in R.
D. Va,6,ceR a.(b+c)= a.b+ a.c.
A non-empty set with at least two elements in it and with two binary operation satisfying
all the above eleven axioms Aj to Ag, Mjto Mg and D is called a field.
Thus(Q,+,.)is also a field whereas(Z,+ ,.) and(N,+,.) are not so.]
II. Order Axioms(>)

Oj. V a,6 e R,exactly one of the following holds:
(i) a>b (ii)a = b (Hi) b>a (Trichotomy Law)
Og. a, by c e R,a > 6 and b>c a>c (Transitivity)
O3. V a,6 e R,a > 6 a +06 + cVcG R
This is known 2ls monotone law ofaddition.
O4. V o, 6,c e R,a > 6 and 00 => aobc
This is known as monotone law of multiplication.
Ordered Field
! If a field satisfies all the four order axioms Ojto O^,then it is called an ordered field.
[Thus(Q,+,.)is an ordered field.]
Hence(R,+,.)is an ordered field.
2.28. THE SET OF RATIONAL NUMBERS AS AN ORDERED FIELD

The set Q ofrational numbers is an ordered field because(Q,+,.)satisfies the following
axioms.
I. Field Axioms
(i) The Addition Axioms
Aj. V a,6 e Q, a +6 G Q (Closure Law of addition)
A2. V a,6 G Q, a +6 =6 + a (Commutative Law of addition)
Ag. V a,6,c G Q, a +(6 + c)=(a + 6)+ c (Associative Law of addition)
A4. V a G Q,30 G Q s.t. o + 0 = 0 + o= a
This rational number ‘0’ is called the additive identity of Q.
Ag. V a G Q,36 G Q s.t. a + 6 = 6 + a = 0.
This rational number b is called the additive inverse ofa or negative ofa and is denoted
by- a.
Thus a +(- o)=(- a)+ a = 0.
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GOLDEN MATHEMATICS SERIES

FOR ALL COLLEGE CLASSES

PLEASE WRITE FOR FREE CATALOGUE

€ ‘belongs to’ or ‘is an element of’

nS ^ “n (or Su^) infinite series Uj + Uj + “3 +

n Un (or n M„) infinite product u, Ug “3

1.2. METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET

(ii) if B is the set ofletters of the word FOLLOW,then in roster form,

1.3. FINITE AND INFINITE SETS

1.4. NULL SET

1.5. SINGLETON SET,

1.6. SUBSET AND SUPER-SET

1.7. EQUALITY OF SETS

No. of subsets of A having n elements = «C,

1.9. COMPARABLE SETS

1.10. FAMILY OF SETS(OR SET OF SETS)

1.11. POWER SET OF A SET

1.12. OPERATIONS ON SETS

Aj r. Ag ni Ag n n A„ or A- and defined as the set of all elements which belong to

each A.. Thus A- = {a:: a: e A- for every

Properties of Intersection of Sets

1.14. UNIVERSAL SET

1.15. DIFFERENCE OF SETS

1.16. COMPLEMENT OF A SET

1.17. PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY

Example 1.IfA,B, C are any three sets, then prove that

Again, let x be any element of(A -B)n(A - C). Then

Example 8.Prove that A n(B-C)=(AnB)-C.

Again, let x be any element of (A n B)o(A - B). Then

Combining (i) and (ii), A =(A n B)u(A - B).

(x 6 A and x g B)and (x g A and x g C) => X G A and (x g B and x g C)

Example 13.Prove that for any two sets A and B.

Example 18.Prove that B =5 n A.

1.18. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE

A n(B A C)= A n [(B - C)u(C - B)]

1.19. INDEXED FAMILY OF SETS

1.20. UNION AND INTERSECTION OF AN ARBITRARY FAMILY OF SETS

L/ A, = {a:: a: G Aj for at least one X g A).

(«)Intersection. Let{Ax}^^^ be an arbitrary family of sets. Then the.intersection of