CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS IN ASSESSMENT

Key Terms
assessment
evaluation
measurement
test
testing
formative assessment
placement assessment
diagnostic assessment
summative assessment
traditional assessment
portfolio assessment
performance assessment

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. define the terms: assessment, evaluation, measurement, test, testing, formative
assessment, placement assessment, diagnostic assessment, summative assessment,
traditional assessment, portfolio assessment, performance assessment;
2. discriminate the different purposes of assessment;
3. differentiate the different types of assessment;
4. identify and discuss the general principles of assessment;
5. discuss the different guidelines for effective student assessment; and
6. differentiate norm-referenced interpretation from criterion-referenced interpretation.
INTRODUCTION
Assessment of Learning focuses on the development and utilization of assessment tools
to improve the teaching-learning process. It emphasizes on the use of testing for measuring
knowledge, comprehension and other thinking skills. As part of overall evaluation process, we
need specifically to find out if the learners are actually learning (changing their behavior) as a
result of the teaching. This will show us whether the teaching has been effective, which is
ultimately the most important issue. Assessment is a means of finding out what learning is taking
place. As well as specific knowledge and skills, we might also like to measure other changes in
behavior related to “personality”, social skills, interests, learning styles, among others.

There is a lot of debate about how to assess learning and especially about how to evaluate
performance. Our objectives give us guidance on what to assess, because they are written in
terms of what the learners should be able to do. Based on these objectives, it is very useful to
identify all the activities and skills which the learners will carry out, the conditions under which
they will perform these tasks and activities, the possible results which might be obtained, and the
standards by which their performance will be measured.

The assessment itself can be done in different ways:

1. Ask the learner to recall facts or principles (e.g., What is 'x'?).

2. Ask the learner to apply given or recalled facts or principles (e.g., How does x
help you solve this problem?).
3. Ask the learner to select and apply facts and principles to solve a given problem
(e.g., What do you know that will help you solve this problem?).
4. Ask the learner to formulate and solve his or her own problem by selecting,
generating and applying facts and principles (e.g., What do I see as the problem
here and how can I reach a satisfying solution?).
5. Ask the learner to perform tasks that shows mastery of the learning outcomes.

Once again, we need to stress the importance of participation, and this is especially
important in assessment and evaluation. Learners should be actively involved in both the
development of learning objectives, and as much as possible in their own assessment. In many
education systems, assessment is used as a tool for 'sorting' students for selection purposes
(progression to higher level education, higher rewards, among others). Assessment where
students are compared with each other is known as norm-referencing. It is much better if learners
are aware of what they need to learn and what they have learned, so they can set their own
targets and monitor their own progress. Of course, teachers and trainers should advise the
learners, and guide them in order to help them learn; this is the key role of the teacher.
Assessment of learners in relation to a particular target or level of performance is called
criterion- referencing
DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES: ASSESSMENT, TESTING, MEASUREMENT AND
EVALUATION

Assessment, measurement and evaluation mean many different things. These terms are
sometimes used interchangeably in the field of education. In this section, we shall point out the
fundamental differences of the terms assessment, testing, measurement and evaluation.

The term Assessment refers to the different components and activities of different
schools. An assessment can be used to student learning and in comparing student learning with
the learning goals of an academic program. Assessment is defined as an act or process of
collecting and interpreting information about student learning. Another source expands this
statement by adding that it is a systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and using this
information about student learning. It is a very powerful tool for educational improvement. It
emphasizes on individual student or groups of individuals and on the academic program of a
certain educational institution. There are different purposes of assessment such as: to provide
feedback to students and to serve as diagnostic tool for instruction. For this purpose assessment
usually answers the questions, "Was the instruction effective?" and "Did the students achieve the
intended learning outcomes?"

Assessment is a general term that includes different ways that the teachers used to gather
information in the classroom. Information that helps teachers understand their students,
information that is used to plan and monitor their classroom instruction, information that is used
to a worthwhile classroom culture and information that is used for testing and grading. The most
common form of assessment is giving a test. Since test is a form of assessment, hence, it also
answers the question, "how does individual student perform?" Test is formal and systematic
instrument, usually paper and pencil procedure designed to assess the quality, ability, skill or
knowledge of the students by giving a set of question in uniform manner. A test is one of the
many types of assessment procedure used to gather information about the performance of
students. Hence, testing is one of the different methods used to measure the level of performance
or achievement of the learners. Testing also refers to the administration, scoring, and
interpretation of the procedures designed to get information about the extent of the performance
of the students. Oral questionings, observations, projects, performances and portfolios are the
other assessment processes that will be discussed later in detail.

Measurement is a process of quantifying or assigning number to the individual's intelligence,

personality, attitudes and values, and achievement of the students. In other words, express the
assessment data in terms of numerical values and answer the question, "how much?" Common
example of measurement is when a teacher gives scores to the test of the students such as Renzel
got 23 correct answers out of 25 items in Mathematics test; Princess Mae got 95% in her English
first grading periodic test, Ronnick's score 88% in his laboratory test in Biology. In the
examples, numerical values are used to represent the performance of the students in different
subjects.
 After collecting the assessment data, the teacher will use this to make decisions or
judgment about the performance of the students in a certain instruction.

Evaluation refers to the process of judging the quality of what is good and what is desirable. It is
the comparison of data to a set of standard or learning criteria for the purpose of judging the
worth or quality. Example, in judging the quality of an essay written by the students about their
opinion regarding the first state of the nation address of Pres. Benigno C. Aquino, evaluation
occurs after the assessment data has been collected and synthesized because it is only in this time
where teacher is in the position to make judgment about the performance of the students.
Teachers evaluate how well or to what extent the students attained the instructional outcomes.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

Classroom assessment procedures can be classified according to the nature of assessment, format
of assessment, use in the classroom instruction and methods of interpreting the results (Gronlund
and Linn, 2000),

Nature of Assessment

1. Maximum Performance

It is used to determine what individuals can do when performing at their best. Examples of
instruments using maximum performance are aptitude tests and achievement tests.

2. Typical Performance

It is used to determine what individuals will do under natural conditions. Examples of

instruments using typical performance are attitude, interest, and personality inventories,
observational techniques and peer appraisal

Format of Assessment

1. Fixed-choice Test

An assessment used to measure knowledge and skills effectively and efficiently. Standard
multiple-choice test is an example of instrument used in fixed-choice test.

2. Complex-performance Assessment

An assessment procedure used to measure the performance of the learner in contexts and on
problems valued in their own right. Examples of instruments used in complex-performance
assessments are hands-on laboratory experiment, projects, essays, oral presentations.

Role of Assessment in Classroom Instruction

Teaching and Learning are reciprocal processes that depend on and affect one another
(Swearingen 2002 and Kellough 1999), “the assessment component of the instructional processes
deals with the learning progress of the students and the teacher's effectiveness in imparting
knowledge to the students.

Assessment enhances learning in the instructional processes if the result provides

feedbacks to both students and teachers. The information obtained from the assessment is used to
evaluate the teaching methodologies and strategies of the teacher. It is also used to make
teaching decisions. The result of assessment is used to diagnose the learning problems of the
students.

When planning assessment, it should start when teacher plans his instruction. That is,
when writing learning outcomes up to the time when the teacher assesses the extent of achieving
the learning outcomes. Teachers made decisions from the beginning of instruction up to the end
of instruction. There are four roles of assessment used in the instructional process. The first is
placement assessment, a type of assessment given at the beginning of instruction. The second
and third type of assessment are formative assessment and diagnostic assessment given during
instruction and the last is the summative assessment given at the end of instruction.

1. Beginning of Instruction

Placement Assessment according to Gronlund, Linn, and Miller (2009) is concerned

with the entry performance and typically focuses on the questions: Does the learner possess the
knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned instruction? To what extent has the learner
already developed the understanding and skills that are the goals of planned objectives? To what
extent do the student's interest, work habits, and personality indicate that one mode of instruction
might be better than another? The purpose of placement assessment is to determine the
prerequisite skills, degree of mastery of the course objectives and the best mode of learning.

2. During Instruction

During the instructional process the main concern of a classroom teacher is to monitor the
learning progress of the students. Teacher should assess whether students achieved the intended
learning outcomes set for a particular lesson. If the students achieve the planned learning
outcomes, the teacher should provide a feedback to reinforce learning. Based on recent
researches, it shows that providing feedback to students is the most significant strategy to move
students forward in their learning. Garnison and Ehringhaus (2007), stressed in their paper
"Formative and Summative Assessment in the Classroom”, that feedback provides students with
an understanding of what they are doing well, links to class room learning, and gives specific
input on how to reach the next step in learning progression. If it is not achieved, the teacher will
give a group or individual remediation During this process we shall consider formative
assessment and diagnostic assessment.

Formative Assessment is a type of assessment used to monitor the learning progress of

the students during instruction. The purposes of formative assessment are the following to
provide immediate feedback to both student and teacher regarding the success and failures of
learning; to identify the learning errors that are in need of correction; to provide teachers with
information on how to modify instruction and also to improve learning and instruction.

Diagnostic Assessment is a type of assessment given at the beginning of instruction or

during instruction. It aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the students regarding the
topics to be discussed. The purposes of diagnostic assessment are to determine the level of
competence of the students; to identify the students who already have knowledge about the
lesson; to determine the causes of learning problems that cannot be revealed by formative
assessment; and to formulate a plan for remedial action.

3. End of Instruction

Summative Assessment is a type of assessment usually given at the end of a course or

unit. The purposes of summative assessment are to determine the extent to which the
instructional objectives have been met; to certify student mastery of the intended learning
outcomes as well as use it for assigning grades; to provide information for judging
appropriateness of the instructional objectives; and to determine the effectiveness of instruction.

Methods of Interpreting the Results

1. Norm-referenced Interpretation

It is used to describe student performance according to relative position in some known

group. In this method of interpretation, it is assumed that the level of performance of students
will not vary much from one class to another class. Example: ranks 5th in a classroom group of
40.

2. Criterion-referenced Interpretation

It is used to describe student performance according to a specified domain of clearly

defined learning tasks. This method of interpretation is used when the teacher wants to determine
how well the students have learned specific knowledge or skills in a certain course or subject
matter. Examples: divide three-digit whole numbers correctly and accurately; multiply binomial
terms correctly.
 There are ways of describing classroom tests and other assessment procedures. This table
is a summary of the different types of assessment procedures that was adapted and modified
from Gronlund, Linn, and Miller (2009).

Classification Type of Assessment Function of Example of

Assessment Instrument
Nature of Assessment Maximum It is used to Aptitude tests,
Performance determine what Achievement tests
individuals can do
when performing at
their best.
Typical Performance It is used to Attitude, interest, and
determine what personality
individuals will do inventories;
under natural observational
conditions. techniques; peer
appraisal
Form of assessment Fixed-choice test An assessment used Standard multiple-
to measure choice test
knowledge and skills
effectively
Complex- An assessment Hands-on laboratory
performance procedure used to experiment, projects,
assessment measure the essays, oral
performance of the presentation
learner in contexts
and on problems
valued in their own
right
Use in Classroom Placement An assessment Readiness tests,
instruction procedure used to aptitude tests, pretests
determine the on course objectives,
learner's prerequisite self-report
skills, degree of inventories,
mastery of the course observational
goals, and/or best techniques
modes of learning.
Formative An assessment Teacher-made tests,
procedure used to custom-made tests
determine the from textbook
learner's learning publishers,
progress, provides observational
feedback to reinforce techniques
learning, and corrects
 learning errors.
Diagnostic An assessment Published diagnostic
procedure used to tests, teacher-made
determine the causes diagnostic tests,
of learner's persistent observational
learning difficulties techniques
such as intellectual,
physical, emotional,
and environmental
difficulties.
Summative An assessment Teacher-made survey
procedure used to test, performance
determine the end-of- rating scales, product
course achievement scales
for assigning grades
or certifying mastery
of objectives.
Methods of Criterion-referenced It is used to describe Teacher-made tests,
interpreting results student performance custom-made tests
according to a from textbook
specified domain of publishers,
clearly defined observational
learning tasks. techniques
Example: multiplies
three-digit to whole
numbers correctly
and accurately.
Norm-referenced It is used to describe Standardized aptitude
student's performance and achievement
according to relative tests, teacher-made
position in some survey tests, interest
known group. inventories,
Example: ranks 5th in adjustment
a classroom group of inventories
40.

OTHER TYPES OF TEST

Other types of descriptive terms used to describe tests in contrasting types such as the non-
standardized versus standardized tests; objective versus subjective tests; supply versus fixed-
response tests; individual versus group tests; mastery versus sur- vey tests; speed versus power
tests.
Non-standardized Test versus Standardized Test

1. Non-standardized test is a type of test developed by the classroom teachers.

2. Standardized test is a type of test developed by test specialists. It is administered, scored
and interpreted using a certain standard condition.

Objective Test versus Subjective Test

1. Objective test is a type of test in which two or more evaluators give an examinee the
same score.
2. Subjective test is a type of test in which the scores are influenced by the judgment of the
evaluators, meaning there is no one correct answer.

Supply Test versus Fixed-response Test

1. Supply test is a type of test that requires the examinees to supply an answer, such as an
essay test item or completion or short answer test item.
2. Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires the examinees to select an answer from
a given option such as multiple-choice test, matching type of test, or true/false test.

Individual Test versus Group Test

1. Individual test is a type of test administered to student on a one-on-one basis using oral
questioning.
2. Group test is a type of test administered to a group of individuals or group of students.

Mastery Test versus Survey Test

1. Mastery test is a type of achievement test that measures the degree of mastery of a
limited set of learning outcomes using criterion-reference to interpret the result.
2. Survey test is a type of test that measures students' general achievement over a broad
range of learning outcomes using norm-reference to interpret the result.

Speed Test versus Power Test

1. Speed test is designed to measure number of items an individual can complete over a
certain period of time.
2. Power test is designed to measure the level of performance rather than speed of
response. It contains test items that are arranged according to increasing degree of
difficulty.
MODES OF ASSESSMENT

There are different types or modes of assessment used by a classroom teacher to assess
the learning progress of the students. These are traditional assessment, alternative assessment,
performance-based assessment, and portfolio assessment.

Traditional Assessment

It is a type of assessment in which the students choose their answer from a given list of
choices. Examples of this type of assessment are multiple-choice test, standard true/false test,
matching type test, and fill-in-the-blank test. In traditional assessment, students are expected to
recognize that there is only one correct or best answer for the question asked.

Alternative Assessment

An assessment in which students create an original response to answer a certain question.

Students respond to a question using their own ideas, in their own words. Examples of
alternative assessment are short-answer questions, essays, oral presentations, exhibitions,
demonstrations, performance assessment, and portfolios. Other activities included in this type are
teacher observation and student self-assessment.

Components of Alternative Assessment

a. Assessment is based on authentic tasks that demonstrate students' ability to accomplish

communication goals
b. The teacher and students focus on communication, not on right and wrong answers.
c. Students help the teacher to set the criteria for successful completion of communication
tasks.
d. Students have opportunities to assess themselves and their peers.

Performance-based Assessment

Performance assessment (Mueller, 2010) is an assessment in which students are asked to

perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and
skills.

It is a direct measure of student performance because the tasks are designed to

incorporate context, problems and solution strategies that students would use in real life. It
focuses on processes and rationales. There is no single correct answer; instead, students are led
to craft polished, thorough and justifiable responses, performances and products. It also involved
long-range projects, exhibits, and performances that are linked to the curriculum. In this kind of
assessment, the teacher is an important collaborator in creating tasks, as well as in developing
guidelines for scoring and interpretation. Details regarding performance-based assessment will
be discussed in Chapter 7.

Portfolio Assessment

Portfolio assessment is the systematic, longitudinal collection of student work created in

response to specific, known instructional objectives and evaluated in relation to the same criteria
(Ferenz, K., 2001).

Portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student's efforts,
progress and achievements in one or more areas over a period of time. It measures the growth
and development of students. Further details about portfolio assessment will be discussed in
Chapter 7.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE STUDENT ASSESSMENT

Improvement of student learning is the main purpose of classroom assessment. This can
be done if assessment is integrated with good instruction and is guided by certain principles.
Gronlund (1998) provided the general guidelines for using student assessment effectively.

1. Effective assessment requires a clear concept of all intended learning outcomes.

2. Effective assessment requires that a variety of assessment procedures should be used.
3. Effective assessment requires that the instructional relevance of the procedure should be
considered.
4. Effective assessment requires an adequate sample of student performance.
5. Effective assessment requires that the procedures must be fair to everyone.
6. Effective assessment requires specifications of criteria for judging successful
performance.
7. Effective performance requires feedback to students emphasizing strengths of
performance and weaknesses to be corrected.
8. Effective assessment must be supported by comprehensive grading and reporting system.
Chapter Exercises

1. Define the terms: assessment, evaluation, measurement, test, testing, formative assessment,
placement assessment, diagnostic assessment, summative assessment, traditional assessment,
portfolio assessment, and performance assessment.

2. Differentiate between assessment, testing, measurement, and evaluation.

3. Discuss the different purposes of assessment.

4. What are the different roles of assessment in the instructional decisions?

5. How does diagnostic assessment differ from placement assessment?

6. Identify some characteristics that differentiate norm-referenced interpretation from criterion-

referenced interpretation.

7. Compare the different types of assessment.

8. Present and discuss the different guidelines for effective student assessment.

9. Differentiate norm-referenced interpretation from criterion-referenced interpretation.

10. What are the different issues related to the assessment of students' learning?