Fce 545 Notes

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
FCE 545 – TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING III
Course Notes for Students
Compiled by
ENG. TABITHA KARIUKI
SEPTEMBER 2024
SYLLABUS
The course syllabus is outlined below:
1. Traffic: Traffic prediction: growth and forecasting

2. Pavement Design
3. Pavement Evaluation and Maintenance
4. Design of Control Devices
5. Transportation System Management: Traffic management
REFERENCES
1. N. J. Garber and L. A. Hoel, (2014) Traffic and Highway Engineering, Cengage

Learning, University of Virginia Australia.
2. TRL (2004), Overseas Road Note 40: A guide to axle load surveys and traffic counts
for determining traffic loading on pavements, TRL Ltd., Crowthorne, UK
3. Road Design Manuals Part I & III
4. Road Maintenance Manual, Ministry of Roads
5. Mannering, F. L., & Washburn, S. S. (2013). Principles of highway engineering and

traffic analysis (5th ed). Wiley.
Page | i
Table of Contents
1 TRAFFIC ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SURVEYS .................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Classified volume counts .............................................................................................. 1
1.2.2 Traffic growth rate estimation ........................................................................................ 1
1.2.3 Origin-Destination Survey ............................................................................................. 3
1.2.4 Non-Motorized Traffic Counts ....................................................................................... 3
1.2.5 Speed and Delay Surveys ............................................................................................ 3
1.2.6 Axle Load Surveys ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3 CLASSIFIED VOLUME COUNTS ................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Vehicle classification ..................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Field Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 5
1.3.3 Data Analysis and Presentation .................................................................................. 10
1.3.4 Common errors to be avoided during traffic volume counts ........................................ 16
1.4 TRAFFIC PROJECTIONS......................................................................................................... 17
1.4.1 Normal traffic .............................................................................................................. 17
1.4.2 Diverted Traffic ........................................................................................................... 17
1.4.3 Generated traffic ......................................................................................................... 18
1.4.4 Application of price elasticity of demand ..................................................................... 18
1.4.5 Accuracy of traffic forecasts ........................................................................................ 19
1.5 TRAFFIC LOADING................................................................................................................. 19
1.5.1 Axle Load Distribution ................................................................................................. 20
1.5.2 Equivalence Factors ................................................................................................... 20
1.5.3 Evaluation of Traffic Loading for Pavement Design..................................................... 22
1.5.4 Traffic Loading Classification ...................................................................................... 25
2 PAVEMENT DESIGN ..................................................................................................... 28

2.1 PAVEMENT ....................................................................................................................... 28
2.1.1 Pavement Materials .................................................................................................... 29
2.2 SUBGRADE ...................................................................................................................... 29
2.2.1 Classes of subgrade bearing strength ...................................................................... 30
2.3 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT FOUNDATION ........................................................................... 31
2.3.1 Materials suitable for pavement support ..................................................................... 31
2.3.2 Improved subgrade ..................................................................................................... 31
2.3.3 Influence of improved subgrade on subgrade bearing strength ................................... 32
Page | ii
2.3.4 Lime treated subgrade ................................................................................................ 33
2.4 STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES .......................................................................... 33
3 PAVEMENT EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE ........................................................ 39
4 DESIGN OF CONTROL DEVICES ................................................................................. 40

4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 40
4.1.1 Advantages of Traffic Signals ..................................................................................... 40
4.1.2 Disadvantages of Traffic Signals ................................................................................. 40
4.2 DEFINITIONS..................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1 Types of signals ......................................................................................................... 41
4.2.2 Pedestrian signals indications .................................................................................... 41
4.2.3 Flashing amber. .......................................................................................................... 42
4.3 COMPONENTS OF A SIGNAL SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 42
4.3.1 Signal Face ................................................................................................................ 42
4.3.2 Illumination of the Signals .......................................................................................... 44
4.3.3 Number and Location of Signal Faces ...................................................................... 44
4.4 ELEMENTS OF A SIGNAL TIMING SYSTEM ............................................................................... 45
4.5 WARRANTS FOR SIGNALS ..................................................................................................... 47
4.6 TIMING SCHEMES: FIXED-TIME VS VEHICLE-ACTUATED SIGNALS ............................................ 47
4.7 SIGNAL TIMING FOR PRE-TIMED ISOLATED SIGNALS ............................................................... 49
4.7.1 Webster’s Method....................................................................................................... 49
4.8 VEHICLE-ACTUATED SIGNALS ............................................................................................... 67
4.8.1 Differentiating between pre-timed and Vehicle-actuated signals ............................... 67
4.8.2 Vehicle-Actuated Signals............................................................................................ 68
4.9 COORDINATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS .......................................................................................... 70
4.9.1 Need for coordinated control ...................................................................................... 70
4.9.2 Off-set ......................................................................................................................... 71
4.9.3 Time-and distance diagram ........................................................................................ 72
4.9.4 Types of co-ordinated signal system .......................................................................... 73
4.10 SIGNAL APPROACH DIMENSIONS ........................................................................................... 75
4.11 AREA TRAFFIC CONTROL ...................................................................................................... 78
4.11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 78
4.11.2 Traffic control methods .............................................................................................. 78
4.12 DELAY AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS.................................................................................. 81
5 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT ............................................................ 82

5.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 82
5.2 TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................... 82
5.3 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................ 82
Page | iii
5.3.1 Scope of Traffic Management Measures.................................................................... 82
Page | iv
1 TRAFFIC
1.1 BACKGROUND
Traffic data is needed for design, operations, maintenance, programming of works,

forecasting and other functions such as feasibility studies. In all these cases the
personnel involved in data collection and processing require specific guidance
regarding collection procedures and on basic data handling.
The main purpose of carrying out traffic surveys and studies is to ensure that
sufficient and appropriate data is available to carryout necessary planning, design,
implementation and management of the road infrastructure, which is aimed at
meeting the prevailing traffic flow, future traffic growth and loading without
considerable deterioration in the level of service. The adequate design of paved
roads depends on the correct information on the number and composition of traffic.
If adequate survey is not carried, the deficiency in the selected pavement design
would turn out to be costly in the long-term. The data obtained from these surveys
therefore help in pavement design, planning of road network, geometric design and
traffic regulation and control.
1.2 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SURVEYS
The surveys for highway developments would normally encompass the following
elements of traffic studies:
• Classified volume counts

• Investigations for forecasting future traffic growth rates
• Origin – Destination surveys
• Non-Motorized Traffic counts
• Speed and delay surveys
• Axle Load surveys
1.2.1 Classified volume counts
This is the most common data required for highway design. The traffic counts are taken
by noting the number of vehicles of various classes that pass the survey point in each
direction during specified time intervals.
1.2.2 Traffic growth rate estimation
A future traffic forecast is a critical input in geometric design (sizing of geometric

elements), pavement design and economic analysis. The determination of reliable
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growth rate factors however is a challenge as it is based on baseline data that normally
has high levels of variability.
Traffic analyst may make use of time series analysis or econometric methods to
estimate reasonable growth factors depending on the availability of historical traffic
volume counts, macroeconomic data and any such data that may help in estimating
economic development within the project’s area of influence in the future.
i. Time series analysis

Historical data is analyzed to establish any definite trend after which the analyst could
employ the use of ordinary least squares regression to estimate best fit curve that
could take any of the following forms.
Constant compound growth rate: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑜 (1 + 𝑟)𝑡
Linear growth: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑎 + 𝛽𝑡
Exponential growth: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑐. 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑘𝑡
Where
Tf is the future traffic volume

t is the time variable (years after the base year)
a, β, c, k are parameters to be determined from the time series data.
This, however, requires sufficient data spanning several years, say 10 years.
ii. Econometric method

Past planning data on selected economic indicators such as Gross National Income
(GNI), population, industrial output or agricultural farm output, can be obtained from the
relevant government agencies alongside historic traffic volume counts and used in
econometric analysis to project future traffic growth rates. A regression equation with a
basic functional form as given below can be fitted into the data.
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑎 + 𝛽𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝐺𝑁𝐼)
Where:
T = Baseline traffic volume

a = Constant
β = coefficient of elasticity (elasticity)
GNI = Gross National Income
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Beta (β) in the above equation is a measure of elasticity of traffic with respect to GNI. If
for instance, it assumes a value of say 0.02, it would imply that for every 1% increase
in GNI there would be a growth of 2% in traffic. Therefore, if the GNI is expected to rise
by 3% in the future, the traffic growth rate will be 6%.
1.2.3 Origin-Destination Survey
The main purpose of Origin-Destination Survey is to ascertain the by-passable traffic at

towns and for planning new roadways. The surveys are intended to capture information
concerning travel patterns, commodity flows and route choice. The most common
method for carrying out Origin – Destination studies is the road-side interviews; others
are registration number matching and post-card questionnaires.
1.2.4 Non-Motorized Traffic Counts
Non-motorized transport (NMT) includes pedestrians, cyclists and pushcarts (including

animal traction). Bicycling and walking are increasingly recognized as a viable means
of transportation in Kenya today. NMT provides many benefits to users and non-users
alike, including travel choice and mobility, affordability, reduced road congestion,
Infrastructure savings, improved health, recreation and enjoyment, environmental
protection, and economic development. Walking and cycling improvements are critical
for creating more livable communities. Therefore, the knowledge of the number and
composition of NMT is vital for the planning and development of the NMT infrastructure
and its coexistence with the motorized traffic (MT).
1.2.5 Speed and Delay Surveys
Speed and delay surveys are carried out on an existing road system. They are
intended to measure the losses in travel time due to saturated conditions and
associated economic implications. This kind of survey yields baseline journey times (or
speeds) and the existing traffic volume used in determination of vehicle operating costs
and passenger time savings likely to accrue from road improvement.
1.2.6 Axle Load Surveys
The axle load surveys are conducted to estimate anticipated vehicular loading for the
design of road pavements. The data obtained is used to predict the cumulative traffic
loading that a pavement is expected to carry over its entire design life. For accurate
results, the survey needs to be conducted with a static portable weighbridge that can
weigh a single axle and not wheel loads separately.
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1.3 CLASSIFIED VOLUME COUNTS
Volume counts serve largely as indicators of mobility, which is the existing flow demand
on a facility. Traffic count data can be used in the following areas:
• Project identification and prioritization

• Project design and capacity analysis
• Planning the Maintenance of road infrastructure
• Source for regional and national transport statistics
• Road safety studies
• Traffic regulation and control
• Input to environmental and socio-economic impact studies
Traffic volume is measured in Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT), equivalent to total
annual volume of traffic divided by 365, the number of days in a year. This data can
easily be obtained where continuous traffic counts are recorded by permanently fixed
automatic traffic counters. In situations where this is not possible, good estimates of
AADT can be obtained by taking volume counts over a specific shorter period than a
year after which the data are scaled up to give an annual estimate using seasonal or
monthly adjustment factors.
Manual traffic counts could be conducted over a period of 7 consecutive days for the
entire 24 hours a day. When overnight counts are not practicable due to insecurity or
any other serious reason, a partial count is admissible. The duration in such
circumstances should preferably be 16 hours or at least 12 hours per day and at least
one 24-hour volume count on a weekday and one during a weekend. The partial day
counts are then grossed up to 24-hour volume counts in the same proportion as the 24-
hour/16-hour traffic flow split on those days when full 24-hour volume counts were
carried out.
1.3.1 Vehicle classification
The traffic flow count is categorized by visual assessment of the vehicle type, size and
use. The adopted manual traffic flow data collection system classifies vehicles into ten
categories as follows:
1. Saloon car
2. Four-wheel drive (FWD)
3. Pick-up/utility (less than 1.5ton)
4. Matatu (14-seating capacity)
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5. Minibus (25–30 – seating capacity)
6. Large bus – typically with seating capacity > 40
7. Light goods vehicle (LGV), 3 – 6 ton
8. Medium truck (MGV), with 2 axles, typically 7 – 10 ton
9. Heavy truck (3 axles), typically 12 – 15 ton capacity, and
10. Articulated truck (4 – 7 axles), typically 25 – 32 ton capacity
Whereas the above are the vehicle classes in traffic engineering practice in Kenya, it is
imperative to note that traffic counting, and classification is a dynamic process and is
project based. The classes are expected to change slightly with time.
The vehicle categorization for axle load analysis is much smaller as it considers only
the heavy commercial vehicles likely to exert significant loading on the pavements. The
common vehicle classes used in axle load surveys and analysis are as contained in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Vehicle classification for axle load analysis
Vehicle Category Definitions
Minibus Seating capacity of 26 – 30 passengers
Buses Seating capacity of > 40 passengers
Light Goods Vehicles 3-6 tonnes capacity
Medium Goods Vehicles 2 axles,7-10 tonnes capacity
Heavy Goods Vehicles 3 axles, 12-15 tonnes capacity
Articulated Trucks 4-7 axles, 25-32 tonnes capacity
1.3.2 Field Data Collection
1.3.2.1 Types of traffic counts
Traffic volume counts can be determined using manual counts, automatic counts,
and moving vehicle method. The choice of the method used would depend on the
level of traffic flow and the required data quality.
1.3.2.1.1 Manual count
Manual count is the most common method of estimating traffic flow given its simplistic
nature. Manual counts are carried out by observers stationed at an observation point at
5
an appropriately identified point at the roadside. The observer records each vehicle on
the survey form according to the vehicle type. Survey duration of seven days is usually
recommended, and each directional movement is recorded separately. This method of
counting can be expensive in terms of personnel; however, it has numerous merits
some of which include the following:
1. The data can be collected giving the breakdown of traffic in each direction
2. Specific vehicular movements at junctions can be noted and recorded
3. Details such as vehicle classification and the number of occupants can be easily
recorded
4. Even if the automatic methods are used, it is often necessary to check the
accuracy of these devices periodically using manual methods
5. Manual methods are suitable for short-term and non-continuous counts
Figure 1.1: A sample survey form used for manual traffic counts
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1.3.2.1.2 Automatic Counters
The automatic traffic counters use mechanical means to measure the volume of traffic
moving past a survey point. They record data continuously, regularly and over a long
period of time at a relatively low operational cost. The long-term data collection reduces
the sampling errors caused by fluctuation in traffic flow.
Automatic Counters consist of one or more pressure tubes or inductive loops

connected to a recording device and are most useful when data is gathered over an
extended period.
For pneumatic tubes (or pressure tube), once it is installed across the road at the
census station, it is compressed each time the axle of a vehicle traverses it. This action
transmits a pulse along the length of the tube, which is registered. This way, the
volume of traffic passing over it can be determined. The counter mechanism estimates
the flows by counting the number of impulses and then dividing them by a value
equivalent to the most common number of axles per vehicle. Where routes are known
to carry a high proportion of heavy vehicles, a higher factor should be employed.
Certain practical problems can occur with the use of this mechanism, including errors
arising from two vehicles traversing the tube at the same time or where vehicles
traveling at high-speed fail to compress the tube. The installation of the system does
not cause much disruption to traffic flow and is relatively less costly.
An inductive loop operates by detecting the mass of the vehicle that traverses it. In
each case, the metal mass of the vehicle induces a magnetic field within the loop. The
vehicles presence is thus detected directly, with one pulse emitted for every vehicle
crossing the device. This system is best suited for permanent traffic census stations as
it has a long service life and requires little maintenance. Installation cost is, however,
relatively high and the process of setting it up may cause significant disruption to traffic
flows.
For both types of counters, data can be collected and stored on a data tape located by
the roadside, near the automatic measuring device. The accuracy of either system
depends on the existence of favorable site conditions, with firm and even pavement
surfaces recommended for optimum performance. A smooth and even flow of traffic,
rather than erratic changes in vehicle trajectories and/ or changes in speed, will yield
more accurate outputs.
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1.3.2.1.3 Moving Observer Method
The moving observer method can be used to compute traffic volumes and average
travel times in both directions by making several runs in a test car between
predetermined test points on a road.
In this method, the traffic volume and average travel times can be obtained by
travelling in a test car against and with the flow and noting down the number of vehicles
met with from the opposite direction, and number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle
besides those it overtakes. A small, preferable even, number of test runs (a minimum
of 6 runs) is required in both directions.
Key features of this method are:
• It estimates traffic volume in each direction for the entire route with sufficient
accuracy, the intervening intersections and varying volume notwithstanding. In
cases where the road is sectioned into several links, the average link volumes
need to be weighted by individual section lengths
• It gives good estimates of average travel time of the entire traffic stream
• It is best suited for urban street studies
• Due to the amount of data gathered during each run—total travel time, vehicles
overtaken, vehicles that overtake test car, and vehicles met in the opposing
direction, at least 3 assistants will be required in the test vehicle.
1.3.2.2 Selection of census stations
The location and distribution of the counting points affects the consistency of the data
collected and forms the basis for the comparison of the collected data and past traffic
counts from the automatic permanent counters on the road network. The road class
and its geographical location influence the census locations. Traffic counts at major
intersections are usually useful as one survey station can effectively cover several road
links.
The counting sites should be uniformly distributed along the road section to give a good
representation of the flow characteristics. Other factors to be considered in the
selection of a traffic count station are:
• The site should be flat with a clear view of the road and traffic with adequate
shelter for enumerators; tents should be provided if there are no houses nearby
• Access to toilet facilities, water and food are also key in determination of a count
traffic census site
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• The enumerators need to be safe and secure; the site should thus be away from
accident black spots and free from criminals particularly at night (armed police
need to be part of the count team)
• Lighting should be adequate even in the night, where there are no streetlights
particularly in rural areas, lamps and generators will be necessary.
1.3.2.3 Survey duration
The traffic survey’s duration shall not be less than 7 days, shorter periods are not
recommended. Largely human economic activities are based around a weekly cycle
and traffic patterns reflect this with marked variations for weekends, market days,
public holidays and other unusual days, which need to be captured accurately in the
traffic volume counts. In rare occasions when a 7-day count maybe infeasible, the
survey should be for at least 3 weekdays and one weekend day. For instance, traffic
counts for rural access roads with low flows (< 200 veh/day) fall under such situations
where duration of counts could be less than 7 consecutive days but not less than 4
days.
Periods of extremely unusual traffic flow should be shunned, for example, election days
and public holidays. However, for harvest days when the abnormality is extended over
a longer period, repeat counts need to be undertaken at different times of the year to
normalize such data. Where seasonal adjustment factors are available, they could be
used to correct for the seasonal peaks in a bid to derive more representative Average
Annual Daily Traffic.
1.3.2.4 Combining classified counts with axle load surveys
The flow of traffic is normally interrupted during the axle load survey particularly when
goods vehicle drivers suspect there would be arrests for overloading. It is therefore
recommended that traffic counts are conducted before the axle load survey if there are
strong indications that traffic flow might be affected by fear of arrests. This should be
ascertained during the preliminary counts, otherwise a joint traffic count and axle load
survey is useful in estimating sample of traffic weighed during the survey period (i.e.
percentage proportion of vehicles weighed).
In situations where traffic counts are undertaken prior to axle load surveys, the counts
would provide a basis for planning the axle load survey by utilizing the information
obtained on the vehicle characteristics and their distribution over the day. A decision
can be made based on this information as to whether to weigh all commercial vehicles
or sample them by hour of day if commercial traffic flow is heavy.
During the surveys, traffic enumerators should not be very close to the axle load
9
weighing and interviewing team to avoid distraction of the enumerators.
1.3.3 Data Analysis and Presentation
The data obtained from traffic counts must be corrected and adjusted to give the best
estimate for the traffic volume used for planning and engineering design of roads. The
most useful traffic statistic is the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), classified by
vehicle category. It is derived by totaling annual traffic in both directions of flow and
divided by 365 (number of days in a year). The following subsections outline the
processes for converting field data obtained from the traffic counts into standard
formats.
1.3.3.1 Conversion of a partial day’s count into a full day’s traffic

count
A partial day count is converted to a full day count by grossing up the partial day count
using 24-hour traffic count and taking the ratio of traffic in the same counting period to
the full 24-hour count. For instance, a 12-hour survey from 0600 hours to 1800 hours
can be scaled up to a full 24-hour day count as follows:
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 12 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 (0600 ℎ𝑟𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1800 ℎ𝑟𝑠) ∗ 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
=
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0600 𝑡𝑜 1800 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑦
To enhance accuracy, traffic counts from the same periods of the day should be used
in the numerator and denominator of this equation. For example, a traffic count for the
period between 06.00 hours to 18.00 hours must be scaled up by the traffic in this very
period during the 24-hour count, as opposed to any other 12-hour period.
Partial weekend traffic count needs to be grossed up based on a weekend 24-hour

count given that traffic flows over the weekends vary significantly from the weekday
flows, especially for the commercial vehicles traffic.
The Average Daily Traffic (ADT) based on a 7-day traffic count, is obtained by
summing the five (5) full 24-hour weekdays counts and two (2) full 24-hour weekend
days and then dividing by seven.
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Table 1.2: Example of traffic data (ADT) presentation
1.3.3.2 Adjustments for seasonal variation
Seasonal adjustment is very important as traffic counts conducted over a limited period
of time say one week, can contain large errors. Traffic flows usually exhibit large
hourly, daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. Seasonal adjustment factors
(SF) are determined from the seasonal variations in traffic flow recorded over periods
of time.
The variability in traffic flows from one day to the other is normally more pronounced
than the week-to-week counts over the year. Therefore, large errors are inherent in the
estimates for daily traffic counts and consequently, the annual traffic flows based on
traffic surveys over shorter periods, for counts that exclude weekend days. The
accuracy in traffic data thus increases as the count days are increased from a few days
to say a week. There is, however, sufficient evidence indicating that traffic counts
lasting more than a week do not result into significant increase in accuracy. Seven
days of counts is generally the recommended optimum survey duration.
The variation in traffic flows by season is due to several reasons and these fluctuations
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could be large particularly over harvest seasons when the traffic volume is likely to be
higher. Conversely, in wet weather, the flows are likely to drop significantly.
Seasonal factors (SF) are used to normalize traffic counts undertaken at any time of
the year to more representative flow values of the annual means.
The SF values are the ratios of the average ADT in the specific month and the
AADT. The correction is obtained by dividing the traffic count by the SF. The SF
depends on the month of the year, the type of the vehicle and region of the country.
The Ministry of Roads has derived seasonal factors for every vehicle type and the
various geographical regions in Kenya. These may be outdated today and will therefore
require to be updated. The analyst needs to therefore select appropriate seasonal
factors for the region and time period in question.
1.3.3.3 Design Hour Volume
The traffic statistic used for geometric design is the 30th highest hourly volume
abbreviated as 30HV, defined as the hourly volume that is exceeded by 29 hourly
volumes during designated year. Design hourly volume, DHV, is derived from AADT by
multiplying the Average Annual Daily Traffic by a factor, K. Factor K is estimated
from the ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site, it largely depends on
the traffic conditions on a particular road as shown in Table 1.3. The design hourly
volume (DHV) should be the 30th HV for the future design year selected for design.
Table 1.3: Recommended 30th HV on Kenyan Highways
Traffic condition K = 30th HV as percentage of AADT
Heavily trafficked road under congested rural 8-12%

conditions (applies for urban roads as well)
Normal rural conditions 12-18%
Road catering for recreational or other traffic of 20-30%

seasonal nature
Since DHV is a two-directional flow (as is AADT), the flow in the peak direction (the
Directional Design Hour Volume, DDHV,) is estimated by multiplying it by a directional
factor D.
𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
Peak-hour factor (PKF) - the ratio of the hourly volume (V) to the maximum 15-min rate
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of flow (V15) expanded to an hourly volume. It accounts for the non-uniformity of traffic
flow over the peak hour and is given by:
𝑉
𝑃𝐻𝐹 =
𝑉15 ∗ 4
Service flow - the actual rate of flow for the peak 15-min period expanded to an hourly
volume and expressed in vehicles per hour.
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑉15 ∗ 4
𝑉
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹
Example
A divided rural multi-lane highway is required to cope with an AADT of 40,000 vehicles
per day. A 100kph design speed is chosen with standard lanes of 3.5m wide and there
are no obstructions within 1.83m of any traveled edge. The traffic is assumed to be
composed entirely of private cars and the driver population is ideal. The peak hour
factor is 0.9 and the directional factor, D, is estimated at 0.6. The highway is to be
designed to cope with the thirtieth hourly volume during the year. Calculate the service
flow.
Solution
Directional design hour volume, DDHV:
DDHV = K x D x AADT
= 0.12 x 0.6 x 40,000
= 2880 vph
We can now calculate the service flow, knowing the hourly volume and the peak hour
factor, as follows:
SF = V ÷ PHF
= 2880 ÷ 0.9
= 3200 vph
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1.3.3.4 Passenger car equivalence
Traffic composition has a significant influence on road capacity and other design
considerations. Traffic on Kenyan roads is heterogeneous in nature, usually consisting
of fast driven cars, trucks, buses and slow animal-drawn vehicles. The computations of
capacity, therefore, need to take cognizance of the fact that different vehicle types
occupy different amounts of relative space on the roadway.
Traffic flow data from classified counts needs to be transformed into ‘passenger
car units’ (PCUs) by multiplying vehicular flow in the design year by
corresponding ‘passenger car equivalent’ (E).
Passenger car equivalent (E) value is defined as the number of passenger cars that
are displaced by a single vehicle of a particular type under the prevailing traffic and
roadway conditions. The factor is a function of the road condition (type of road and
gradient) and the traffic composition (proportion of trucks or bicycles). The value of E is
determined by measuring headways between vehicles under saturated flow
conditions—the headway of a passenger car following another passenger car is used
as a benchmark upon which other headway values are compared.
The following guide values are given for the passenger car equivalent (E) applicable to
different vehicle types in different terrain types:
Table 1.4: Passenger Car Equivalent Factors for Kenyan Roads
Vehicle type Passenger Car Units
Level terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous

terrain
Passenger cars 1.0 1.0 1.5
Light vans 1.0 1.5 3.0
Medium goods 2.5 5.0 10.0

vehicle
Heavy goods vehicle 3.5 8.0 20.0
Buses 2.0 4.0 6.0
Motorcycles, scooters 1.0 1.0 1.5
Pedal cycles 0.5 0.5 N/A
14
Table 1.5: Passenger Car equivalent Factors for Urban Roads
Vehicle type Passenger Car Units

Urban Roundabout Traffic Signal
Design
Standard Design
Passenger cars 1.0 1.0 1.0
Light vans 2.0 2.0 2.0
Medium goods vehicle 2.5 2.8 1.75
Heavy goods vehicle 3.0 2.8 2.25
Buses 3.0 2.8 2.25
Motorcycles, scooters 0.75 0.75 0.33
Pedal cycles 0.33 0.5 0.20
1.3.3.5 Reporting
It is recommended that the reporting be done in graphical format to allow ease of

interpretation and comparison. The reports of the ADT for any period of the year and
the AADT from past years should also be reported. Data is easily understood when
summarized. Therefore, summary tables of the different categories of vehicles in terms
of their type and direction of flow should be produced. In addition, a summary of
percentage vehicle composition is usually important data output. The traffic growth
rates in percentages for each year over the entire design period should be produced for
each vehicle type and for each counting stations or road section as output from traffic
forecasting.
The analyzed data should be presented on simple maps (in form of a traffic flow desire
line diagram) supported by graphs and tables to give detailed information of various
vehicle traffic flow parameters such as daily and seasonal traffic flow patterns. Table
1.2 and Figure 1.2 illustrate typical traffic data presentation in current use.
15
Figure 1.2: Typical daily traffic flow variation
1.3.4 Common errors to be avoided during traffic volume counts
The following are some of the errors committed in the process of estimating traffic
volume counts, both at the data collection time and during the analysis:
▪ Failing to segregate traffic into distinct vehicle categories is likely to result

into loss of very important information for pavement design given that not all
vehicles exert significant loading onto the pavement. The proportion of
commercial traffic in the entire flow data must be ascertained. Failure to do this
would therefore lead to uneconomical design of road pavement.
▪ Presenting traffic flow data as total of flow (ADT) from both directions
conceals information on the directional distribution needed in pavement
design. Some pavement design manuals (e.g., ORN 31) require traffic volume
data in the most heavily trafficked lane for pavement layer selection, therefore if
the traffic flow is not differentiated by direction, an error margin of 100% in the
design loading could arise, leading to a very costly pavement design.
▪ Incorrectly converting a partial-day traffic count to a full 24-hour count. A
traffic count of say 12 hours cannot be simply doubled to estimate the count for
24 hours. For a 12-hour count, the result will depend on which period of 12
hours during the day the data were recorded, for instance, a traffic count from
06.00 to 18.00 will not be the same as a count from 9.00 to 21.00. In order to
scale up a partial day count to a full-day value the method described under
16
section 1.3.3.1 must be used.
▪ Counting errors arising from lack of concentration can be pronounced
particularly when the flow is moderate or higher. To collect high quality data,
enumerators need to work in shifts of not more than six hours.
1.4 TRAFFIC PROJECTIONS
Traffic forecasting is a vital step in transforming the baseline traffic flow data to the
design year, which is the future capacity the road facility is intended to satisfy. It is
worth noting that the existing and the diverted traffic are what constitute the baseline
traffic. The future traffic needs to be categorized into three components namely: normal
traffic, diverted traffic, and generated traffic (or developmental traffic). The three
components are forecasted differently based on certain underlying assumptions and
finally summed up in terms of AADT for various vehicle categories per direction of flow.
1.4.1 Normal traffic
This is the future traffic that would travel on the existing road even if it was not
improved. The projections for normal traffic are established applying growth rates
derived from socio-economic hypotheses to the last available traffic data. The
forecasting is normally done by extrapolating time series data on traffic levels and
assuming the growth rate will remain constant in absolute terms—a fixed number of
vehicles per year (a linear interpolation), or constant in relative terms, that is, a fixed
percentage increase. Growth can also be related linearly to the anticipated Gross
National Income (GNI) or Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This is preferable because it
explicitly considers changes in overall economic activity. If data on GDP is not
available, traffic forecasts should be based on time series data.
Fuel sales data could be used as a proxy to estimate a country-wide growth in vehicle
traffic. It is usually prudent to countercheck how realistic the future forecasts are
regardless of the forecasting method used. There are fluctuations inherent in traffic
forecasts arising from ever changing global fuel prices and vehicle import restrictions
that could impact severely on the future traffic growth rates particularly in developing
countries such as Kenya.
1.4.2 Diverted Traffic
This is the traffic currently travelling along other routes, but which is likely to divert onto
the improved/new road. It is the traffic that changes from another route (or mode of
transport) to the project road because of the improved facility, but still travels between
17
the same origin and destination. Diverted traffic is normally projected to grow at the
same rate as traffic on the road from which it is diverting from.
The origin destination survey is carried out to provide data for the traffic diversions
likely to occur and the assignment of the diverted traffic is normally done by an all-or-
nothing method in which it is assumed that all the vehicle that would save time or
money by diverting would do so, and that vehicles that would lose time or increase
costs would not transfer. And all the perceived costs should be included.
1.4.3 Generated traffic
This is the traffic resulting from increase in transport demand, as a direct consequence
of large reductions in Vehicle Operating Costs [VOC]: it corresponds to an underlying
transport demand which, due to the prevalent poor road conditions, remains
unattractive, since a number of persons (or goods) which would “normally” travel, finally
prefer (or are obliged) not to travel, due to high transport costs and may be longer
travel times.
The generated traffic should be forecasted using the demand relationships. The price
elasticity of demand for transport is the responsiveness of traffic to a change in
transport costs following a road investment. Distinction is made between
passenger traffic, freight traffic, agricultural and non-agricultural freight traffic. The price
elasticity of demand for transport should be based on door-to-door travel costs
estimated from origin and destination surveys and not just on that part of the trip
incurred on the road under study.
Generated traffic is closely associated with developmental traffic, which consists of

the additional trips to places that have recorded development due to a new road or
improvement of an old road. It is the traffic component resulting from economic
development within a project’s area of influence over and above the development
which otherwise would have taken place had the new highway not been there or had
improvement not taken place on the existing highway. In practice, it is difficult to
distinguish between the two types of traffic growth and therefore, the two are generally
considered together as generated traffic growth.
1.4.4 Application of price elasticity of demand
Demand curve from economic theory can be used to estimate generated traffic
component based on the interaction between price and demand of travel as defined by
price elasticity of demand—the responsiveness of traffic to change in transport
costs arising from an investment in a road infrastructure. It is defined as the
18
proportionate percentage change in travel demand to the percentage change in
travel cost.
Literature on price elasticity of demand from several studies in least developed and
emerging economies estimate typical values falling within a range of -0.6 to -2.0 with
an average value of approximately -1.0. This implies that a 1% reduction in transport
costs results in a 1% increase in traffic. Further, available evidence gives a general
indication that price elasticity of demand for passenger travel is normally greater than -
1.0. In contrast, elasticity of demand for freight is much lower, varying from -0.1 to -0.5
and largely depend on the proportion of transport costs in the commodity price.
Nevertheless, the ability to market or process some firm produce rests a lot on the
availability of good road access.
1.4.5 Accuracy of traffic forecasts
Baseline traffic flow estimates and traffic growth rates are prone to error however good
the method or approach adopted for estimation of travel demand. The accuracy of
traffic flow forecasts is largely dependent on the accuracy and appropriateness of the
base traffic count data.
Traffic count data are normally subject to errors arising from data sampling,
measurement techniques used, and human errors either during the field surveys or at
analysis stage. Manual classified traffic counts usually give accuracies of within ±10%
for all vehicles and ±18% for all goods vehicles, all within 95% confidence interval.
The forecasting process itself introduces some errors just as any predictive model
relies on a number of assumptions that cannot be proven beforehand. Future traffic
estimates then must always be treated as only that, that is, estimates, and any
analyses based on traffic forecasts should be subject to sensitivity tests. The tests
should cover a range around the estimated traffic forecasts to ensure that any
pavement design or economic evaluation decisions are robust against inaccuracies in
traffic forecasts.
1.5 TRAFFIC LOADING
Traffic loading information is required for road project design, road maintenance
planning and monitoring and evaluation of pavement performance. Often, pavement
design task is to select suitable and cost-effective pavement configuration that will
provide adequate service for the design traffic loading estimated for a specified design
period. The design traffic loading represents the cumulative number of times the
equivalent standard axle is expected to be supported by the pavement without
19
exceeding the limits of serviceability.
To determine the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles the following tasks
have to be performed:
i. The axle load distribution of the traffic which will use the road must be assessed.
ii. The axle loads must be converted to an equivalent number of standard 80kN
axles.
iii. The initial daily number of standard axles must be calculated.
iv. An annual growth rate and design period must be selected.
v. The cumulative number of equivalent standard axles can thus be calculated, and
the traffic class determined.
The concept of cumulative number of standard axles is adopted because deterioration
of paved and unpaved roads due to traffic loading results from both the magnitude of
the individual wheel loads and the number of repetitions/applications of the axle loads.
1.5.1 Axle Load Distribution
Axle Load Distribution provides information on the prevailing traffic loading on a

particular road corridor. In addition to traffic loading information, Axle Load Distribution
data may be used in absence of actual axle load survey field data to specifically
determine:
▪ The damage caused by heavy vehicles individual axles or axle groups.

▪ The proportions of axles that are overloaded.
▪ The proportion of axles belonging to a particular axle group type.
▪ The direction of travel that is most loaded.
Private cars and light good vehicles are not considered, since their damaging power is
almost negligible. All axles including tandem and triple axles are weighed separately.
1.5.2 Equivalence Factors
1.5.2.1 Axle Load Equivalence Factors
Axle load equivalence factor (EF) is a numerical ratio of the relative damage a vehicle
axle would cause in relation to the damage caused by a standard axle. The Standard
axle is a single axle with dual tyres and applies a conventional axle load of 80kN to the
pavement. The standard axle is also referred to as the design axle.
Independent single axle loads are converted into EF using the Liddle’s formula given
below:
20
Where;
EF is the axle load equivalence factor

Ls is the load on the single axle considered
Lf is the reference standard axle load (80 kN)

n is the damage exponent specific to the type of pavement damage or failure criterion
considered
This relationship does not hold for axle weights more than 130 kN.
The relative damage exponent “n” is dependent on both the type of the pavement
material, its failure mechanism and state. Traditionally the relative damage exponent
was taken as 4.5 but studies indicate that the value varies from 3-10. The value of 4.5
should be retained for general pavement design. The variation in values of n is meant
to account for different material strength properties, since the equivalence factors, have
been found to depend to some extent, on the pavement strength. The value of n = 4.5
should be retained for empirical design to obtain conservative design traffic loading
data.
In practice, all axles including tandem and triple axle should be weighed separately and
the loads converted to Axle Load Equivalence Factors. Where axle loads measured
exceed 130 kN, the designer should in conjunction with Materials Testing and
Research Division, Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure attempt to design for the
damaging power of such axles by not using the Liddle’s formula as it stands.
1.5.2.2 Vehicle Equivalence Factor
The vehicle equivalence factor is the sum of the axle load equivalence factors from the
entire axles in a typical vehicle.
Vehicle equivalence factors should be determined through comprehensive axle load

surveys for new road projects (road upgrading) and for axle load monitoring and
evaluation purposes using a calibrated portable weighbridge.
Comprehensive axle load survey is necessary to ensure correct axle load equivalence
factors are derived, that together with traffic volumes, are necessary for specifying
candidate pavement structure that provides adequate pavement structural capacity
21
over the specified design period.
To accommodate variations in axle loading, the 90th percentile vehicle equivalence

factor should be taken as the design vehicle equivalence factor. Axle load surveys
need also to capture traffic in sufficient samples to guarantee statistical significance of
the vehicle equivalence factor.
1.5.3 Evaluation of Traffic Loading for Pavement Design
1.5.3.1 Estimating the Initial Annual Daily Number of Commercial

Vehicles
The Average annual daily number of commercial vehicles expected to use the road
after its construction and opening to traffic is estimated from classified baseline traffic
counts and directional distribution for the entire road or the road segments for which
the upgrading works is intended. Uniform vehicle classification must be maintained for
both the classified traffic volume counts and axle load surveys to ensure accuracy in
each of traffic class population to be included in the estimation of pavement design
traffic.
In determining the baseline traffic, consideration should be given to the month during
which the survey is conducted, from which a suitable seasonal traffic flow adjustment
factor for the relevant month can be selected and applied to normalize the traffic flow.
This averaging over the entire year is conducted to ensure that the traffic estimate is
unaffected by day-to-day or season-to season fluctuations in daily traffic loading.
Where census traffic data is not available, historical traffic data may be extrapolated
provided such traffic data is representative of past trends and the future traffic
conditions are predictable.
Table 1.6 below should be used as a guide to define the design traffic.
Table 1.6: Commercial traffic to be considered in pavement design
Number of Carriageway Commercial Traffic to be

Traffic
Carriageways width considered
The total commercial traffic in

1 ≤7 -
both directions.
The total traffic on the most

1 >7 -
heavily trafficked lane.
2 - ≤2000 commercial The total commercial traffic in
22
vehicles per day one direction.
A special study of the

>2000 commercial
2 - distribution of traffic will be
vehicles per day
necessary
Notes:
❖ On single carriageway roads, offside wheel tracks of commercial vehicles tend

to follow the central part of the road, more so as the carriageway becomes
narrower and the traffic lighter. Where carriageway width is not more than 7m, it
is assumed that the central section would be used by about 70% to 80% of the
commercial vehicles and buses and the sum of the standard axles in both
directions is taken as the design traffic loading to account for the overlap.
❖ On dual carriageway roads, the slow - traffic lanes will carry a large proportion
(80 to 90%) of the commercial vehicles, as long as the flow in the direction
considered does not exceed 2,000 commercial vehicles per day.
1.5.3.2 Estimating the Initial Daily Number of Standard Axles
This step intends to determine the average daily traffic which will use the road in the
first year after opening expressed in terms of equivalent standard axles. Initial daily
number of standard axles is obtained by multiplying the average daily number of each
type of commercial vehicle by the appropriate vehicle equivalence factor and then
summing up the numbers of standard axles of all the vehicle types.
1.5.3.3 Estimating the Cumulative Number of Standard Axles
The following steps have to be taken in order to estimate the cumulative number of
standard axles for pavement design.
1. Determination of the traffic annual growth rates

2. Choosing a design period
3. Calculating the Cumulative Number of Standard Axles
1.5.3.3.1 Determination of the traffic annual growth rates
The traffic growth rates are determined as explained in section 1.2.2: Traffic growth
rate estimation.
1.5.3.3.2 Choosing a design period
The design period is the span of time considered appropriate for the pavement to
23
function without major rehabilitation or reconstruction. Therefore, it is a fundamental
parameter in pavement design and management schemes.
The concept of design period should not be confused with pavement life. At the end of
the “design period”, the pavement will only require to be strengthened to carry traffic for
a further period. At the end of the “design period”, the pavement will not be completely
worn out or have deteriorated to the point that reconstruction is needed.
During the design period, only minor maintenance works are carried out (e.g. bush
clearing, culvert and side drain cleaning and local pothole sealing).
In selecting the design period, the highway designer has to decide on the following
factors;
▪ The funds available for the project and consequently the level of design
standards to be adopted.
▪ The class of road under design.
▪ The likelihood of any major future upgrading and hence the need to plan for
stage construction.
The principal design aim is to minimize the cost of construction while providing a
pavement structure of suitable structural capacity. In cases where major future
upgrading works are planned, it is prudent to adopt a stage construction strategy as it
offers economic advantages. In such cases, the design period should not exceed 15
years, even if much longer pavement life is anticipated.
1.5.3.3.3 Calculating the Cumulative Number of Standard Axles
The cumulative number of standard axles, T over the chosen design period N (in years)
is obtained by:
(1 + 𝑖)𝑁 − 1
𝑇 = 365𝑡1
𝑖
Where:
t1 - the average daily number of standard axles in the first year after
opening
i - the annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction
24
1.5.4 Traffic Loading Classification
Traffic classification is based on the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.

Traffic flow and axle-load surveys have shown that the following classes satisfactorily
account for all traffic categories likely to be carried by the various classes of roads in
Kenya.
Table 1.7: Traffic classes
Class Cumulative Number of Standard Axles

T1 25 million – 60 million
T5 0.25 million – 1 million
Examples
1. It has been proposed to upgrade to bitumen standards the Shelemba - Voi Town
Road. Using the traffic loading data shown below, determine the traffic class to
be applied in pavement design for a 20-year design life. Assume a traffic growth
rate of 7% per year.
Axle load
Equivalence factor No of passes per day
(kg)
4540 0.09 300
5440 0.19 400
6350 0.35 500
7260 0.61 400
8160 1 650
9070 1.5 720
9980 1.9 200
10890 3.1 150
25
Solution
Standard axles per

Axle load Equivalence No of passes per day = Equivalence
(kg) factor day factor * No of
passes per day
4540 0.09 300 27
5440 0.19 400 76
6350 0.35 500 175
7260 0.61 400 244
8160 1 650 650
9070 1.5 720 1080
9980 1.9 200 380
10890 3.1 150 465
Total daily standard axles 3,097
Cumulative number of ESAL for a 20-year design life and a traffic growth rate
of 7% per year is:
(1+𝑖)𝑁 −1
𝑇 = 365 𝑡1 𝑖
(1+0.07)20 −1
𝑇 = 365 ∗ 3097 ∗ = 46.34 𝑥 106 𝐶𝐸𝑆𝐴
0.07
From Table 1.7, the traffic class is T1
2. You have been tasked to analyze traffic data collected for the design of a flexible
road pavement. The data is given below:
Number of vehicles per Vehicle Equivalence

Vehicle category
day factor
Buses 100 1
Medium Goods Vehicles 200 3
Heavy Goods Vehicles 60 10
Using the data provided, determine the traffic class to be applied in pavement
26
design for a 30-year design life. Assume a traffic growth rate of 5% per year.
Solution
Vehicle Daily
Number of
Vehicle category Equivalence Equivalent
vehicles per day
factor Standard axles
Buses 100 1 100
Medium Goods
200 3 600
Vehicles
Heavy Goods
60 10 600
Vehicles
of 5% per year is:
(1+𝑖)𝑁 −1
𝑇 = 365 𝑡1 𝑖
(1+0.05)30 −1
𝑇 = 365 ∗ 1300 ∗ = 31.53 𝑥 106 𝐶𝐸𝑆𝐴
0.05
27
2 PAVEMENT DESIGN
2.1 PAVEMENT
Figures 2.1 and 2.2 illustrate the terms used in describing the principal pavement
and cross-section components.
Figure 2.1: Cross section terminology
Figure 2.2: Pavement terminology
Subgrade is all the material below the pavement and may include in-situ material, fill
and improved subgrade.
Improved Subgrade is a layer of selected fill material, the top of which is at formation
28
level, placed where the natural in-situ or fill material is unsuitable for the direct support
of the pavement.
Formation is the surface of the ground, in its final shape, upon which the pavement
structure, consisting of subbase, base and surfacing is constructed.
Subbase is located immediately above the subgrade, the subbase layer consists of
material of a superior quality to that which is generally used for subgrade construction.
When the quality of the subgrade material meets the requirements of the subbase
material, the subbase layer may be omitted.
Base course lies immediately above the subbase. It is placed immediately above the
subgrade if a subbase course is not used. The specifications for base course materials
usually include stricter requirements than those for subbase materials, particularly with
respect to their plasticity, gradation, and strength. Materials that do not have the
required properties can be used as base materials if they are properly stabilized with
Portland cement, asphalt, or lime.
Surfacing is the uppermost pavement layer which provides the riding surface for
vehicles. It will normally consist of one of the following: surface dressing, sand asphalt,
hand packed stone, cobble stone or asphalt concrete.
2.1.1 Pavement Materials
The choice of the pavement materials and, hence, of the pavement structure, will
largely depend on the types and the respective costs of the natural materials
locally available. A thorough assessment of the local resources in road-making
materials is essential to enable the design engineer to select the most economical
pavement. Pavement materials consist of subbases, bases and surfacing.
Recommendations for their properties are provided in the Road Design Manual
part III.
2.2 SUBGRADE
For a rational approach to pavement design, the most important characteristic of

the subgrade is its resilient modulus. Unbound material such as the subgrade is
significantly non-linear. The resilient modulus can be used to separate the
component of behaviour which is approximately elastic (though still non-linear and
therefore stress dependent) from the plastic component, where strains are non-
recoverable. Under a given set of stress conditions resilient modulus is equivalent
to elastic modulus, i.e. stress divided by strain. It is to be noted that the
measurement of this modulus requires complicated and time-consuming tests.
29
However, it has been proved that there is good correlation between the California
Bearing Ratio and the resilient modulus of Kenyan soils. Since the CBR test is an
easy and widely used test, it has been decided to retain it as the quantitative
means of evaluating the subgrade bearing strength.
2.2.1 Classes of subgrade bearing strength
A survey of Kenyan subgrade soils, described in Materials Branch Report No.345, has
shown that they can be grouped into the following 6 bearing strength classes:
Table 2.1: Subgrade bearing strength classes
Soil Class CBR Range Median

(%) (%)
S1 2-5 3.5
S2 5 – 10 7.5
S3 7 - 13 10
S4 10 - 18 14
S5 15 - 30 22.5
S6 >30
The above CBR ranges correspond to the results obtained on materials of the same
type along sections of road considered homogeneous. They reflect both the variations
of the characteristics of the soil which inevitably occur, even at small intervals, and the
normal scatter of test results.
The following should be noted:
i. No allowance for CBR below 2 has been made, because it is technically and
economically out of the question to lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing
capacity. Such weak soils are saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or
compressible (swampy) soils, e.g. mud, soft clay, etc. Moreover, the
measurement of the bearing strength of such soft soils is most uncertain and
CBR below 2 is of little significance.
ii. The use of Class S1 soils (CBR 2-5) as direct support for the pavement should
be avoided as much as possible. Wherever practicable, such poor-quality soils
should be excavated and replaced or covered with an improved subgrade.
iii. The CBR range of Class S5 is wide. This is because Class S5 is either gravelly
material or unsoaked soil, the CBR plot always shows considerable scatter.
Furthermore, the difference in the pavement thickness required is comparatively
small when the subgrade bearing strength varies from the lower to the upper
limit of this Class.
30
iv. Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a CBR over 30 and which comply
with the plasticity requirements for natural materials for subbase as provided in
Chart SB1 in the RDM Part III. In such cases, no subbase is required. No class
of higher bearing capacity has been considered as such subgrade materials are
extremely rare and as a road base is always necessary to provide a
homogeneous and uniform layer.
v. It will be noted that the subgrade categories overlap. For any one section of a
road the average CBR should be higher or equal to the mean of the subgrade
class selected for design, and no individual result shall be below the lowest
value of the range for that subgrade class. Where the subgrade CBR values are
very variable the designer should balance the cost of having very short sections
of different subgrade categories against a conservative design taking account of
the worst conditions encountered over longer sections.
The result of incorrect subgrade classification can have significant effects, particularly
for poorer subgrade materials with CBR values of 5% and less. If the subgrade
strength is seriously overestimated (i.e. the support is weaker than assumed), there is
a high likelihood of local premature failures and unsatisfactory performance.
Conversely, if the subgrade strength is underestimated (i.e. the support is stronger than
assumed), then the pavement structure selected might be thicker, stronger and more
expensive than needed. The CBR results obtained from the subgrade soils testing are
used to determine which subgrade class should be specified for design purposes in
accordance with Table 2.1.
2.3 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT FOUNDATION
2.3.1 Materials suitable for pavement support
Materials forming the direct support of the pavement shall normally comply with the
following requirements:
➢ The upper 300mm below formation level should not be less than the
requirement for each foundation class as presented in Table 2.1.
➢ Swell at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak: less than 2%
➢ Organic matter (percentage by weight): less than 3%
This means that where the upper 300mm is of CBR less than the specified minimum
value for the selected foundation class, an improved subgrade shall be required.
2.3.2 Improved subgrade
31
Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct
support of the pavement, but also:
▪ Protects the upper layers of earthworks against adverse weather conditions

(protection against soaking and shrinkage),
▪ Facilitates the movement of construction traffic,
▪ Permits proper compaction of the pavement layers,
▪ Reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength, and
▪ Prevents pollution of open-textured sub-bases by plastic fines from the natural
subgrade.
It may prove technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade
on S1, S2 and S3 Class soils. The decision will generally depend on the respective
costs of subbase and improved subgrade materials.
2.3.3 Influence of improved subgrade on subgrade bearing strength
Where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the overall subgrade

bearing strength is increased to that of a higher class and the subbase thickness may
be reduced accordingly. Table 2.2 shows the minimum thickness of each class of
improved subgrade required on each class of natural soil to obtain a higher class of
subgrade bearing strength. These minimum thicknesses have been calculated taking
into account the respective resilient moduli of each class of soil.
Table 2.2: Minimum thickness of improved subgrade required
Improved Subgrade
Native Subgrade Foundation Class
Material Thickness (mm)
S2 400 S2
350 S2
S3
S1 425 S3
275 S2
S4 325 S3
450 S4
S3 300 S3
S2 200 S3
S4
350 S4
S4 300 S4
S3
S5 150 S4
32
350 S5
2.3.4 Lime treated subgrade
Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime may be considered in the following cases:
i. Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is
economically available, their treatment with hydrated lime may be the cheapest
solution.
ii. Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of
adverse weather conditions, their treatment with quick lime may allow
construction to proceed and provide a markedly stronger subgrade.
2.4 STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
The Road Design Manual part III provides 14 Standard Pavement Structures detailing
the layer thicknesses for each subgrade class and each traffic class. The 14 types of
pavements given in the RDM are considered to cover virtually all the bitumen road
designs required in Kenya. Nevertheless, the construction of other types of pavement
materials may be warranted by the local circumstances or economic considerations. In
such special cases, the design engineer should follow the structural design principles
set out in the RDM. The steps to be following in selecting the appropriate pavement
structure include:
i. Determining the subgrade strength class

ii. Determining the traffic class
iii. Inventory and study of the available road making materials and selecting the
possible type of pavement
iv. Economic and technical comparison of the possible pavement structures. Final
choice of one Standard Pavement Structure
v. Finalizing the pavement design and preparation of special specifications.
33
Figure 2.3: Standard Pavement Structures (RDM Part III)
34
Figure 2.4: Standard Pavement Structure Type I notes
35
Figure 2.5: Standard Pavement Structure Type I
Example
36
1. The test results of soil collected along the proposed alignment of a new road
gave a CBR = 14 per cent and a PI = 11 per cent. It has been proposed to
upgrade the road to bitumen standards. Using the traffic loading data shown
below, carry out a complete pavement design for a 20-year design life. Assume
a traffic growth rate of 7% per year.
Axle load
Equivalence factor No of passes per day
(kg)
4540 0.09 300
5440 0.19 400
6350 0.35 500
7260 0.61 400
8160 1 650
9070 1.5 720
9980 1.9 200
10890 3.1 150
Solution
Standard axles per

Axle load Equivalence No of passes per day = Equivalence
(kg) factor day factor * No of
passes per day
4540 0.09 300 27
5440 0.19 400 76
6350 0.35 500 175
7260 0.61 400 244
8160 1 650 650
9070 1.5 720 1080
9980 1.9 200 380
10890 3.1 150 465
37
of 7% per year is:
(1+𝑖)𝑁 −1
𝑇 = 365 𝑡1 𝑖
(1+0.07)20 −1
𝑇 = 365 ∗ 3097 ∗ = 46.34 𝑥 106 𝐶𝐸𝑆𝐴
0.07
For a subgrade CBR = 14%, the subgrade class is S4
On examination, pavement structure 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, & 14 are suitable.
Providing pavement structure type 11 comprising of the following layer

thicknesses:
Surfacing: 50 mm Asphalt Concrete Type 1
Base: 150 mm Dense Bitumen Macadam
Subbase: 225 mm Cement or lime improved material (Base quality)
38
3 PAVEMENT EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE
Refer to the slides
39
4 DESIGN OF CONTROL DEVICES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of traffic signals for control of conflicting streams of vehicular and
pedestrian traffic is extensive in most of the towns and cities. The first traffic signal
is reported to have been used in London as early as in 1868 and was of the
semaphore-arm type with red and green lamps for night use. During the hundred
years since then traffic signals have been developed to a high degree of
sophistication.
4.1.1 Advantages of Traffic Signals
Traffic signals, when properly designed, located and operated, have one or more of
the following advantages:
i. They provide for an orderly movement of traffic,

ii. When proper geometric layouts and control measures are employed, they
can increase the traffic-handling capacity of the intersection.
iii. They reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents, especially the
right- angle type and pedestrian accidents.
iv. Under favourable conditions, they can be co-ordinated to provide for
continuous or nearly continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed
along a given route.
v. They can be used to interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit other
traffic- vehicular or pedestrians-to cross.
vi. Traffic signals dispense with police control and can thus be economical.
vii. If properly designed and set, they can assign right-of-way impartially to
traffic, unlike manual controls which can stop and interrupt traffic streams at
the personal whim of the traffic controller.
4.1.2 Disadvantages of Traffic Signals
Their disadvantages include the following, especially if the signals are installed
improperly:
i. Excessive delay to vehicles may be caused, particularly during off-peak

hours.
ii. Unwarranted signal installations tend to encourage the disobedience of
the signal indications.
iii. Drivers may be induced to use less adequate and less safe routes to
40
avoid delays at signals.
iv. Accident frequency, especially of the rear-end type, may increase.
v. When the installations break down, due to any fault in the system, total
and widespread confusion and difficulties can result.
4.2 DEFINITIONS
4.2.1 Types of signals
The types, meaning and sequence of signal indications vary in different countries.
A. British practice.
In British practice, the signal sequence is red, red/amber shown together, green
and amber.
The common practice is to use circular red, amber and green signals, though in
certain circumstances green-arrow signals are also used. When the red signal is
displayed, the right of way is denied to the traffic from entering the intersection.
The red/amber signifies an alert to the drivers that the signal aspect is about to
change to green so that they can be in readiness to go. The green signal aspect
denotes that the right of way is given to the drivers to enter the intersection. The
amber signal alerts the drivers that the red signal aspect is about to commence
shortly, and the green aspect is about to be terminated. A green-arrow aspect
permits the drivers to enter the intersection to make the movement indicated by the
arrow.
B. American practice.
In American practice, the signal sequence is Red, Green and Yellow. Red
indication prohibits entry into the section, whereas the green permits entry. Yellow
indication warns the traffic that the related green movement is being terminated
and the red indication is about to commence. Thus, while allowing entry into the
intersection, the yellow aspect requires the traffic to clear the intersection before
the yellow expires. In addition to circular red, green and yellow, American practice
permits red arrow, green arrow and yellow arrow indications to control traffic in
certain direction.
4.2.2 Pedestrian signals indications
In U.K. practice, the don't cross indication is given by a red standing man. The
cross indication is a green walking man, whereas a flashing green signifies don't
start to cross.
41
Figure 4.1: Pedestrian Signal Indications
4.2.3 Flashing amber.
A flashing amber signal is a hazard identification beacon is normally used to warn

of obstruction and intersections to supplement regulatory signs and to warn of
midblock crosswalks.
4.3 COMPONENTS OF A SIGNAL SYSTEM
4.3.1 Signal Face
The minimum number of lenses in a signal face is three-red, amber and green, and
the maximum number in American practice is five. The lenses in a signal face can
be arranged in a vertical or horizontal straight line. The relative positions (top to
bottom or left to right) are red, amber and green.
42
The lenses are normally of two sizes, viz., 200 mm and 300 mm diameter. The
larger size is used where the 85th percentile approach speeds exceed 65 K.P.H.,
for special problem locations, for all arrow indications, for intersections where
signalization may be unexpected and for intersections where drivers may view both
traffic control and lane- direction control signs simultaneously. The British Standard
recommended a size of 200 mm for light signals intended for drivers, 300 mm for
green arrow signals and 300 mm for signals intended for pedestrians.
Figure 4.2: Standard arrow
The arrows are pointed vertically upward to indicate a straight-through movement

and in a horizontal direction to indicate a turn at approximately right angles. When
the angle of the turn is substantially different from a right angle, the arrow can be
positioned on an upward angle approximately equal to that of the turn.
Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/traffic-light-arrow
43
A suggested layout of the signal post is given below.
Figure 4.3: Typical layout of traffic signal installations in U.K.
4.3.2 Illumination of the Signals
The American Practice requires that the signals should be so illuminated as to be

visible for a distance of at least 0.4km under normal atmospheric conditions.
Detailed specifications for the illumination of the lamps for signals are contained in
relevant country codes.
4.3.3 Number and Location of Signal Faces
The American Practice requires a minimum of two signal faces to be provided and
be visible from a point at least the "following distances in advance of and to the
stop line:
44
Table 4.1: Location of Signal Faces
85 percentile speed
Minimum visibility (m)
(K.P.H.)
30 30
40 55
50 75
60 100
65 120
75 145
80 170
90 190
100 210
A signal face is, however, permissible for control of an exclusive turn lane.
Normally one primary signal is installed at 0.9 m from the stop line and a second
primary signal is usually installed if there is a central island. A secondary signal is
commonly installed diagonally opposite the first primary signal on the back of the
primary signal intended for the opposing traffic. The typical layout of traffic signal
installations as per British practice is given in Fig. 8-5 above.
The height of the signals shall be such that when erected the centre of the amber
signals shall not be less than 2.4 m nor more than 4.0 m above the carriageway
level.
4.4 ELEMENTS OF A SIGNAL TIMING SYSTEM
The cycle length is the time required for one complete sequence of signal indications.
Phase is defined as the sequence of conditions applied to one or more streams of

traffic which, during the cycle, receive simultaneous identical signal indications.
U.K. Practice:
A typical example of signal indications in a two-phase signal as per U.K. practice is

shown below:
45
Figure 4.4: Signal indications in a two-phase signal as per
U.K. practice.
American practice:
The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices recommends a yellow interval of 3

to 6 seconds, longer intervals being appropriate to higher approach speeds.
Sometimes a short all-red clearance interval may be provided immediately after the
yellow period to permit the intersection to clear before cross traffic is released.
Figure 4.5: Signal indications in a two-phase signal as per American practice
46
4.5 WARRANTS FOR SIGNALS
The following are warrants for traffic signals considered by various agencies
• 8-Hour Hourly vehicular volume

• 4-Hour Hourly vehicular volume
• Peak hour
• Pedestrian volume
• School crossing
• Coordinated signal system
• Crash experience
• Roadway Network
In U.K., the installation of signals at a particular intersection is judged on the merits
of the situation, there being no laid down warrants. Generally, the Department of
the Environment have laid down certain criteria for deciding on signal installation.
The minimum traffic flows for which signals are considered justified as per current
U.K. practice are given below:
Table 4.2: Minimum Traffic Flows for Signal Installation
Type of Area Average hourly flow in V.P.H. to

exceed
Total entering Contribution from

intersection side roads
Large Urban Area 500 150
Suburban and small urban 400 125

areas
Elsewhere 300 100
4.6 TIMING SCHEMES: FIXED-TIME VS VEHICLE-ACTUATED SIGNALS
Fixed time signals are those in which the green periods, and hence the cycle lengths
are predetermined and of fixed duration. Vehicle actuated signals, on the other
47
hand, are those in which the green periods vary and are related to the actual
demands made by traffic. This is made possible by installing detectors on all
the approaches. An intermediate type, semi-vehicle-actuated signals, is also
available, in which the right of way normally rests with the main road and detectors
are located only on the side roads.
Vehicle-actuated signals are popular in U.K., whereas in the U.S.A. fixed time
signals are popular than vehicle-actuated types.
The advantages and disadvantages of the three types are briefly given below:
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Fixed time i. Simple in construction i. Inflexible and hence

ii. Relatively may cause avoidable
inexpensive. delay.
iii. Most successfully
ii. Require careful setting
used in linked
systems requiring a
fixed cycle length for
a given pattern and
speed of progression
Vehicle-actuated. i. They are flexible and i. Require costly
can adjust to equipment such as
changing traffic detectors and
conditions sophisticated
automatically controllers.
ii. Delay is held to a ii. Cannot provide signal
minimum and coordination.
maximum capacity is
achieved
Semi-vehicle- actuated Useful for junction of a side They are believed to
street having low traffic
cause high accident
volume with a main street rates at times of light
having heavy flow. traffic.
The amber period is standardized in U.K. as 3 seconds and the red/amber at 2

seconds. The minimum inter-green period (i.e. the time from the end of the green
period of the phase losing right-of-way to the beginning of the green period of the
phase gaining right- of-way) is normally 4 second but can be increased to suit
48
particular needs such as pedestrian crossing requirement.
Modern fixed time equipment is built for operation with different settings at certain
periods of the day, to cover different conditions. This is achieved by providing time
switches.
4.7 SIGNAL TIMING FOR PRE-TIMED ISOLATED SIGNALS
Over the years, traffic engineers have used several methods for designing pre-
timed isolated signals. In more recent times, computer programs have been
developed for rapid design. Three manual methods of design are:
1. Homburger and Kell’s method

2. Webster’s method
3. Pignataro’s method
4.7.1 Webster’s Method
One of the important steps in designing a fixed time signal system is to determine
the cycle time. The British practice, which is easy and simple, is outlined here.
Main consideration in selecting the cycle time should be:
• least delay is caused to the traffic passing through the intersection

• proportion of the time lost (in the inter-green period and by starting delays) to
the cycle time.
If the cycle time is small, the proportion of the time lost to the cycle time will be
high, resulting in an inefficient signal operation and lengthy delays. On the other
hand, if the cycle is large, the proportion of the time lost to the cycle time will be
small, and the signal operation will be more efficient. If the cycle time is too large,
there is a danger that a good portion of the green time will be used by unsaturated
flow of traffic, which again leads to inefficiency. For each traffic flow volume there is
an optimum cycle time which results in the minimum delay to the vehicles.
The above subject was studied in the Road Research Laboratory (U.K.) by means
of computer simulation of flow at the traffic signals. Some examples of the variation
of delay with cycle time are shown in the figure below.
49
Figure 4.6: Effect of variation of cycle time on delay.
It will be seen therein that for cycle times within the range of ¾ to 1½ times the
optimum value the delay is never more than 10-20 per cent above that given by the
optimum cycle time. The result could thus be used in determining the compromise
cycle time that would suit variations in flow during the day.
By differentiating the equation for the total delay for the intersection with respect to
cycle time, the following equation for the optimum cycle time has been obtained:
Fig 4.7
50
Figure 4.7: Rate of flow against time.
The above figure shows that as soon as the green signal is given, the rate of
discharge begins to pick up and some time is lost before the flow reaches the
maximum value (saturation flow). Similarly, at the termination of the green phase,
the flow tends to taper off, involving a further lost time. The lost time for the phase
would then be:
51
52
Table 4.3: Saturation Flow for Widths 3 to 5.5 m
Width w in metres 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
s (PCU/hour) 1850 1890 1950 2250 2250 2900
When the approaches are in a gradient, the saturation flow needs some
adjustment. Approximately this can be done by decreasing the saturation flow by 3
per cent for each 1 per cent uphill gradient and increasing the saturation flow by 3
per cent for each 1 per cent of downhill gradient.
The effect of composition of vehicles can be accounted for in measuring the flow
and saturation flow by converting into PCU equivalents as per values given in
Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: PCU Equivalents for Traffic Signal Computations
Types of Vehicle PCU Equivalent
Heavy or medium goods vehicles 1.75
Light goods vehicle 1.00
Bus 2.25
Motorcycle, moped or scooter 0.33
Pedal cycle 0.20
The effect of right-turning traffic on the saturation flow can be accounted for in the
following manner:
(i) No opposing flow, no exclusive right turning lanes. An overall figure of

saturation flow for the approach, irrespective of turning movements, can be
obtained using the rules given above.
(ii) No opposing flow, exclusive right turning lanes. The saturation flow of right
turning stream through a right angle should be obtained separately by the
following formula:
53
1800
𝑠= 1.52 PCU/hour for single file streams
1+
𝑟
3000
𝑠= 1.52 PCU/hour for double file streams
1+
𝑟
where r is the radius of curvature (in metres) of the right turning stream through
a right angle.
(iii) Opposing flow, no exclusive right turning lanes. Three effects are possible
under these circumstances.
a. Due to opposing traffic, the right turners are themselves delayed and
consequently delay other non-right-turning vehicles in the same
stream.
b. Their presence tends to inhibit the use of the off-side lane by straight
ahead vehicle.
c. The third effect pertains to the discharge of right turners through
suitable gaps in the opposing stream.
The first two effects can be allowed by assuming that on the average each
right turning vehicle is equivalent to 1.75 straight ahead vehicles.
The following equation gives the maximum number of right turning vehicles per cycle
(nr) that can take advantage of gaps in the opposing stream:
𝑔𝑠 − 𝑞𝑐
𝑛𝑟 = 𝑠𝑟 ∗
𝑠 − 𝑞𝑐
Where:
sr = right turning saturation flow
g = green time
qc = flow in opposite arm
s = saturation flow for opposing arm
c = cycle time
If g and c are in seconds in the above equation, s should be flow per second.
54
If the average number of right turners per cycle is more than nr, the difference
between the two (nw) will have to wait at the intersection at the termination of the
green time. For allowing all these nw vehicles to clear the intersection, the inter-
green time can be made equal to 2.5nw seconds, assuming each vehicle takes 2½
seconds to clear.
(iv) Opposing flow, exclusive right turning lanes. There will be no delay to the
straight-ahead traffic using the same approach as the right turners, but there
will be an effect on the cross-phase, and this should be calculated as
outlined in (iii) above.
The effect of left turners on the saturation flow can be disregarded if left turners
are <10%. If more, a correction is made for the excess over 10 per cent by
assuming each left turner is equivalent to 1.25 straight ahead vehicles.
The effect of site characteristics can be considered by applying the factors

given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Effect of Site Characteristics on Saturation Flow
Percentage of
Site
Designation standard
Description saturation flow
Dual carriageway. No interference from pedestrians,

parked vehicles, right-turning traffic, (either owing to
Good their absence or because special provision is made for 120
them). Good visibility and adequate turning radii.
Average sites. Some characteristics of 'Good' and

Average 'Poor'. 100
Average speed low. Some interference from standing

vehicles, pedestrians, right turning traffic. Poor
visibility and/or poor alignment of intersection. Busy
Poor shopping 85
street.
The following examples illustrate the use of the approach described so far in
55
determining the settings of fixed time signals.
Example 1:
A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection having a North-

South and an East-West Road where only straight-ahead traffic is permitted. The
design hour flows from the various arms and the saturation flows for these arms
are given in the following table:
North South East West
Design hour flow (q) in PCUs/hour 800 400 750 600
Saturation flow (s) in PCUs/hour 2400 2000 3000 3000
Calculate the optimum cycle time and green times for the minimum overall delay.
The inter-green time should be the minimum necessary for efficient operation. The
time lost per phase due to starting delays can be assumed to be 2 seconds. The
value of the amber period is 2 seconds. Sketch the timing diagram for each phase.
Solution:
N S E W
q 800 400 750 600
s 2400 2000 3000 3000
y =q/s 0.33 0.20 0.25 0.20
y (max) values 0.33 0.25
56
The timing diagram is indicated in Fig. 15-11.
Figure 4.8: Timing Diagram
Example 2:
A three-phase traffic signal is to be installed at a right-angled crossing of two city

streets. The site is "average" and the approaches are 12 metres wide between
kerbs. The approaches are straight, and level and parking are prohibited on them.
One of the phases is to be a "pedestrian only" phase occurring at the end of each
cycle. Starting delay may be taken as 2 seconds. An "all-red" period of 4 seconds
is to be provided after each vehicle phase to allow clearance of right turning
vehicles left over in the crossing. The design hour traffic volumes in PCUs/hour are
57
given in the following table:
From N E S W
To E S W S W N W N E N E S
PCUs/hr 40 800 70 60 500 50 60 660 60 70 680 60
Calculate the optimum cycle time for a fixed time installation. Sketch the phasing
diagram for each phase. Draw a diagram showing the timings for all three aspects
for a complete cycle.
Make suitable assumptions for Amber and for the pedestrian interval.
Solution.
The width roadway being 12 metres, the time taken for pedestrians to cross the
street is 10 seconds, with a speed of walk of 1.2 metres per second. Because of the
large width of the streets, it is desirable to have a central pedestrian refuge of at
least 1 m width. The time that will be needed by a pedestrian to reach the
pedestrian refuge from the kerb will then be:
12 − 1 1
∗ = 4.6 𝑠𝑎𝑦 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 1.2
This will be the pedestrian clearance interval during which no signal is displayed to
the pedestrians and those who have just left the kerb or the central refuge before
the termination of the pedestrian green signal can reach safely the central refuge of
the kerb as the case may be. The American practice is to display the flashing
"DONT WALK" indication for this clearance interval. The pedestrian clearance
interval is followed by Amber of the next vehicular phase and by the Red signal in
the pedestrian phase.
A total length of 13 seconds will be provided for the pedestrian phase as follows:
• Pedestrian green time = 8 seconds

• Pedestrian clearance interval = 5 seconds
• The width of the approach road from each direction is (12-1)/2 = 5.5m and
this will be used to calculate the saturation flow from the formula
58
s = 525W
Since the site is "average" and is level with parking prohibited, no corrections are
needed for the saturation flow obtained from the above formula.
The effect of left-turning traffic will be accounted for if it constitutes more than 10
per cent of the traffic by counting each left turner as equivalent to 1.25 straight
ahead vehicles. Since no exclusive right turning lanes are provided, the effect of
right turning traffic will be accounted for by counting each right turner as equivalent
to 1.75 straight ahead vehicle.
The following tabulations indicate the sequence of calculations:
59
Timing diagram
60
g EW = 40 seconds
The phasing diagram is given in Fig. 15-13.
Figure 4.9: Phasing diagram
61
Example 3:
An intersection controlled by traffic signals is formed by two roads running North to

South and East to West. There is a heavy turning movement of 500 vehicles per
hour from South to East. The flow from North to South is 800 vehicles per hour
through an approach width at stop line of 8 m. The cycle time is 70 seconds and
the effective green time for the flow from the North is 32 seconds. The effective
right-turning saturation flow is 450 vehicles per hour for an opposing flow of 800
vehicles per hour, related to a minimum headway of 2½ seconds for the right-
turning stream. Calculate the early-cut-off period required to allow for the right-
turning movement.
Solution.
62
Thus, on an average, 9.72 – 2.88, i.e. 6.84 or 7 vehicles will be left over at the end
of the green period. These vehicles will take 7 x 2½ sec = 17-5 sec or 18 sec to
discharge.
Figure 4.10: Timing diagram.
Thus, the early cut-off period should be 18 sec. The timing diagram is indicated in
Figure 4.10
Example 4:
A dual carriageway runs North and South and is intersected by a single

carriageway running East and West. The layout of the junction has been designed
such that there are two straight through lanes of 3-50 m width and an exclusive
right-turn lane in each of the Northern and Southern approaches. The central
reservation is reduced to 12m at the junction to accommodate the exclusive right-
turning lane. The radius of the right-turning stream is 15 m. The width of the East-
West carriageway is 12 m. A fixed cycle three-phase signal is to be installed with
an exclusive phase for right-turners from North and South. Assume lost time due to
"starting up" and "tailing off to be 2 seconds. Suitable values for the inter-green and
amber times may be assumed. The traffic flow in PCUs I hour are given in the
following table:
63
From N E S W
Flow 55 1010 250 45 500 120 150 950 200 60 500 110
PUCs/Hour
Calculate the optimum cycle time and the actual green times to be set on the
controller for each phase. Draw the phasing diagram.
From N E S W
Given flow PCU/ hour 55 1010 250 45 500 120 150 950 200 60 500 110
Correction for left +38 +38

turners (+ 25%)
Correction for right +90 +83

turners (+-75%)
64
65
Figure 4.11: Timing Diagram.
66
Figure 4.12: Phasing Diagram
4.8 VEHICLE-ACTUATED SIGNALS
4.8.1 Differentiating between pre-timed and Vehicle-actuated signals
Now-a-days, controlling traffic congestion relies on having an efficient and well-

managed traffic signal control policy. Traffic signals operate in either pre-timed or
actuated mode or some combination of the two. Pre-timed control consists of a
series of intervals that are fixed in duration. They repeat a preset constant cycle. In
contrast to pre-timed signals, actuated signals have the capability to respond to the
presence of vehicles or pedestrians at the intersection. Actuated control consists of
intervals that are called and extended in response to vehicle detectors. The
controllers are capable of not only varying the cycle length & green times in
response to detector actuation, but of altering the order and sequence of phases.
Adaptive or area traffic control systems (ATCS) belong to the latest generation of
signalized intersection control. ATCS continuously detect vehicular traffic volume,
67
compute optimal signal timings based on this detected volume and simultaneously
implement them. Reacting to these volume variations generally results in reduced
delays, shorter queues and decreased travel times. Coordinating traffic signals
along a single route so that vehicles get progressive green signal at each junction
is another important aspect of ATCS. In the subsequent pages, the operating
principles and features of Vehicle-Actuated Signals & Area Traffic Control Systems
will be briefly discussed.
4.8.2 Vehicle-Actuated Signals
(a) Basic Principles

As stated earlier, Vehicle-Actuated Signals require actuation by a vehicle on one or
more approaches for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced. They are
equipped with detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the demands
placed on them. Vehicle-actuated control uses information on current demands
and operations, obtained from detectors within the intersection, to alter one or more
aspects of the signal timing on a cycle-by-cycle basis. Timing of the signals is
controlled by traffic demand. Actuated controllers may be programmed to
accommodate:
• Variable phase sequences (e.g., optional protected LT phases)

• Variable green times for each phase
• Variable cycle length, caused by variable green times
Such variability allows the signal to allocate green time based on current demands
and operations. A proper clearance interval between the green & the red phases is
also ensured.
(b) Advantages of Actuated Signals

The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below:
• They can reduce delay (if properly timed).

• They are adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow.
• Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time).
• Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions.
• Especially effective at multiple phase intersections.
68
(c) Disadvantages of Actuated Signals
The main disadvantages are as following:
• If traffic demand pattern is very regular, the extra benefit of adding local
actuation is minimal, perhaps non-existent.
• Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pre-timed signal installation.
• Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pre-timed
controllers, increasing maintenance costs.
• They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.
4.8.2.1 Types of Actuated Control
There are three basic types of actuated control, each using signal controllers that
are somewhat different in their design:
i. Semi-Actuated Control
ii. Full-Actuated Control
iii. Volume-Density Control
(a) Semi-Actuated Control

This type of controller is used at intersections where a major street having
relatively uniform flow is crossed by a minor street with low volumes. Detectors are
placed only on the minor street. The green is on the major street at all times unless
a call on the side street is noted. The number and duration of side-street green is
limited by the signal timing and can be restricted to times that do not interfere with
progressive signal-timing patterns along the major street.
(b) Full-Actuated Control

This type of controller is used at the intersections of streets or roads with relatively
equal volumes, but where the traffic distribution is varying. In full actuated
operation, all lanes of all approaches are monitored by detectors. The phase
sequence, green allocations, and cycle length are all subjected to variation. This
form of control is effective for both two-phase and multi-phase operations and can
accommodate optional phases.
(c) Volume-Density Control

Volume-density control is basically the same as full actuated control with additional
demand-responsive features. It is designed for intersections of major traffic flows
69
having considerable unpredictable fluctuations.
4.8.2.2 Detection for Actuated Signalization
The various types of detectors used for detection of vehicles are as following:
• Inductive loop detectors

• Magnetometer detectors
• Magnetic detectors
• Pressure-sensitive detectors
• Radar detectors
• Sonic detectors
• Micro loop detectors etc.
The vast majority of actuated signal installations use inductive loops for detection
purpose. Now, the type of detection is of greater importance than the specific
detection device(s) used. There are two types of detection that influence the design
and timing of actuated controllers:
1. Passage or Point Detection: - In this type of detection, only the fact that
the detector has been disturbed is noted. The detector is installed at a point
even though the detector unit itself may involve a short length. It is the most
common form of detection.
2. Presence or Area Detection: - In this type of detection, a significant length
(or area) of an approach lane is included in the detection zone. Entries and
exits of vehicles into and out of the detection zone are remembered. Thus,
the number of vehicles stored in the detection zone is known. It is provided
by using a long induction loop, or a series of point detectors. These are
generally used in conjunction with volume-density controllers.
4.9 COORDINATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS
4.9.1 Need for coordinated control
Need for co-ordinated control of signals arises on a main traffic route when it is
desirable to reduce delays and avoid main traffic from having to stop at every
junction. When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a junction, a queue of vehicles is
formed behind the stop line. When the signal changes to green, the vehicles start
moving in a platoon. If this platoon is made to meet a green aspect at the next
70
junction no delay is caused to the vehicles. This principle of linking adjacent signals
so as to secure maximum benefits to the flow of traffic is called co-ordinated
control of signals.
The co-ordination of signals is sought for with the following objectives in view:
i. To pass the maximum amount of traffic without enforced halts.

ii. To have minimum overall delay to traffic streams, both in the main and side
roads.
iii. To prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from extending and
reaching the next intersection.
4.9.2 Off-set
The offset is defined as the difference between the starts of green time at the
successive upstream and downstream signal. This is an important consideration in
planning a system of co-ordination. If the start of green at the downstream signal is
offset at a particular value such that the platoon, which starts at the upstream
signal upon a green indication there, arrives at the downstream signal just in time
for the green signal, the platoon has an unhindered movement).
Figure 4.13: Off-set.
71
4.9.3 Time-and distance diagram
In planning a system of co-ordinated signal control, it is often expedient to indicate

the system diagrammatically by what is known as a "time-and-distance" or "time-
and-space" diagram. On this diagram, the time and signal settings are indicated
along the horizontal axis to a suitable scale, whereas the distance travelled along
the major route is plotted vertically to a suitable scale. A typical time-and-distance
diagram for a one-way-street is shown in Figure 4.14 and one for a two-way-street
in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.14: Typical time-and-distance diagram for one-way streets with linked signals.
72
Figure 4.15: Typical time-and-distance diagram for a two-way street with linked signals.
4.9.4 Types of co-ordinated signal system
The four basic types of co-ordinated signal systems are:
i. Simultaneous system, also known as synchronized system

ii. Alternate system, or limited progressive system
iii. Simple progressive system
iv. Flexible progressive system.
These systems are described in detail below.
(a) Simultaneous system

Under this system, all the signals along a given street always display the same
indication to the same traffic stream at the same time. The division of the cycle
time is the same at all intersections. A master controller is employed to keep the
series of signals in step. The disadvantages of a simultaneous system are:
73
i. It is not conductive to give continuous movement of all vehicles.
ii. It encourages speeding of drivers between stops.
iii. The overall speed is often reduced.
iv. Because the division of the cycle time is the same at all the
intersections, inefficiency is inevitable at some intersection.
v. The simultaneous stoppage of a continuous line of traffic at all intersections
often results in difficulty for the side street vehicles in turning into or crossing
the main side street.
(b) Alternate system (limited progressive system)
Under this system, consecutive signal installations along a given road show
contrary indications at the same time. This permits the vehicles to travel one block
in half the cycle time. This system operates efficiency where the blocks are of equal
lengths. It also brings about a certain measure of speed control since speeding
drivers are stopped at each signal. Some of the disadvantages of this system are:
i. The green times for both the main and side streets have to be substantially
equal, resulting inefficiency at most of the intersections.
ii. In situations where the block lengths are unequal, the system is not well
suited.
iii. Adjustments are difficult for changing traffic conditions.
(c) Simple progressive system

With this system, the various signals along a street display green aspects in
accordance with a time schedule to permit, as nearly as possible, continuous
operation of platoons of vehicles along the street at a planned rate of motion, which
may vary in different parts of the system.
The offset at each installation is determined so as to secure the best continuous

movement of platoons in both directions. These offsets are fixed and cannot be
altered at different periods of the day. Each signal installation may have a cycle
division different from the others, but that division remains fixed throughout the
day.
(d) Flexible progressive system

This system is an improvement over the simple progressive system with the
following provisions:
i. It is possible to vary the cycle time and division at each signal depending
74
upon traffic.
ii. It is possible to vary the offset, thus enabling two or more completely
different plans.
iii. It is possible to introduce flashing or shut down during off-peak hours.
Flexible progressive systems require a master controller which keeps the

local controllers at each intersection in step.
4.10 SIGNAL APPROACH DIMENSIONS
The approach dimensions have an influence on the design and performance of

intersections. One method of improving the efficiency of signalized intersections is
to modify the approach dimensions.
Since the signals permit traffic movement from any approach for only a proportion of
the time, it stands to reason that the approach roads in immediate vicinity of the
intersection should have a wider roadway than the normal. Thus, when planning an
improvement in the geometric layout of the existing intersections or planning for
new facilities, it helps to keep in view the improvement in flow conditions that can
be achieved with wider approaches.
Webster and Newby have proposed the following simple rules for determining
the approach dimensions:
i. For two-phase cross-roads the approach widths should be proportional to

the square roots of the flows. If q1 and q2 are the maximum flows on
phase 1 and 2 respectively, the green times (g1 and g2), lengths widened
(d1 and d2) and widths (w1 and w2) are related in the following way, vide
Figure 4.16.
If the approach width deduced from the above rule is less than that of the
feeder road, it should be made equal to that of the feeder road and the green
time made correspondingly less. The extra green time thus allocated to the
other phase results in less widening being necessary on those approaches.
The flow used should be the maximum flow on the two or more arms of the
same phase.
75
ii. With multi-phase intersections the above rule itself can be extended as
follows:
Figure 4.16
iii. For T-junctions with 2-phase control, the ratios of widths, green times
and lengths should be:
𝑤1 𝑞 𝑔1 𝑑 2𝑞
= √2𝑞1 and = 𝑑1 = √ 𝑞 1
𝑤2 2 𝑔2 2 2
where the suffix 2 refers to the stem of the T-junction.
The examples given below illustrate the use of the above principles.
Example 5:
A T-junction has a design year flow of 300 vehicles per hour on the south arm and
2400 vehicles per hour on the east and west arms. What should be the ratio of
approach widths, lengths and green times of the arms?
Solution.
76
The east-west arm should be made twice as wide as the south arm. The green
time apportioned to the east-west phase should be four times the green time
apportioned to the south phase. The east-west approach should be widened over a
length which is four times the length widened on the south arm.
Example 6:
The following table gives the flows in the arms of an intersection where a two-
phase signal is to be designed.
Arm Flow (vehicle/hour)
North 4000
South 3800
East 1000
West 900
Determine the proportion of dimensions of the approaches and the green times for
the two phases.
Solution.
Selecting the maximum of the flows in each phase, and denoting N-S phase as
Phase 1 and E-W phase as Phase 2; q1 =4000 and q2 = 1000
77
4.11 AREA TRAFFIC CONTROL
4.11.1 Introduction
In an earlier section on coordinated signal systems, a description of simple linked

systems along a single road was given. Area traffic control is a further extension of
the same principles of co-ordination to include signals in a substantial area.
Area Traffic Control can be defined as a technique which provides for a centralized
control of numerous signal installations distributed throughout an urban area, such
that there is a planned co-ordination between signals at different junctions. The
technique invariably employs digital computers for achieving the desired objective.
The earliest known scheme of Area Traffic Control was in Toronto begun in a
modest scale in 1959. The success of the project prompted its application in many
important cities of the world. In U.K. controlled experiments were initiated in certain
areas of Glasgow and London to assess the amount of benefit that could be
expected from different system of centralized control. By now, nearly 100 cities
have some form of Area Traffic Control.
The subject has grown into a very interesting and promising field with
extensive literature. In this section only a general introduction is sought to be
given.
The objectives in an Area Control System are one or more of the following:
i. Minimizing journey time for vehicles

ii. Minimizing stops, resulting in less noise, pollution and fuel consumption
iii. Reducing accidents
iv. Discouraging use of certain areas
v. Minimizing person-time.
Area Control System has proved to be a very efficient tool in tackling the
serious problem of congestion at signalized intersection.
4.11.2 Traffic control methods
The following are the main types of methods in general use:
1. Fixed time plans based on historical data and calculated offline by a

computerized optimizing technique. The information about vehicle
movement is obtained manually or through detectors and fed to the
78
computer, which then determines the signal settings, and transmits the
settings to the signals. Examples of this type are the Combination Method
and TRANSYT (Traffic Analysis Study Tool), which will be described briefly
later.
2. Co-ordinated systems with local response at each signal. Example of this
type are the FLEXIPROG (Flexible Progressive) and EQUISAT (Equally
Saturated).
3. Fully responsive systems such as S.P.G., (Signal Plan Generation) and
PLIDENT (Platoon Identification).
4.11.2.1 Combination method
This method has been developed by the Road Research Laboratory, UK and uses
delay/offset relationship to obtain the relative timings or off-sets of traffic signals in
a network. It applies a rigorous optimization process to a reasonable model of the
traffic and assumes that the cycle time, green times, flow and saturation flows are
known and then chooses the offsets of the signals to minimize delay over the
whole network. The technique can be applied on an area basis, subject to some
restraints on the type of the network. It suffers from a serious restriction in
assuming that the delay between two signals depends solely on the relative
settings of the two signals, which is a good approximation only in heavily loaded
conditions.
4.11.2.2 TRANSYT method (Traffic Analysis Study Tool)
The TRANSYT, implemented by a digital computer programme, is a method of

automatically determining fixed time signal plans to meet known network conditions.
It is a widely used system, and as demonstrated by the Glasgow experiments, is an
improvement over the Combination Method. The traffic model makes allowance for
flow intersection between successive sections of roads and represents average
traffic behaviour more correctly than the Combination Method. It represents platoon
dispersion effectively. The solution time is short and good convergency on the
optimum signal settings is achieved by a "hill climbing" type of optimization
procedure. The overall impedance to traffic is measured by a "performance index"
that can be chosen with any desired balance between journey time and number of
stops. The optimization procedure minimizes the performance index by a altering
the points within the signal cycle at which each stage starts. Thus, both signal
offsets and green times are included in the optimization procedure.
79
4.11.2.3 FLEXIPROG (Flexible progressive)
This is a vehicle-actuated progressive system and requires the use of detectors on

the approach arms. With a continuous stream of traffic all over the detectors, the
signals behave as a fixed time system. Under lighter traffic conditions, the signals
can change after detecting a suitable gap in the traffic. Stages are missed if there
is no demand for them. This system has not proved better than the combination
method in the Glasgow experiments.
4.11.2.4 EQUISAT (Equally Saturated)
Under this system, the cycle time and offset pattern are fixed. The allocation of
green time is varied to equalize the degree of saturation of each stage. Detectors
on each approach arm and computer logic are used to measure or deduce both
flow and saturation flow. This system too did not prove to be measurably better
than the Combination method in the Glasgow experiments.
4.11.2.5 PLIDENT (Platoon Identification)
This is a system developed by the Road Research Laboratory, U.K. The system
identifies platoons of vehicles and operates signals to allow unimpeded passage to
them on priority routes. The scheme has no fixed cycle or offsets but adjusts the
length of each stage to suit the various platoons. The effect of the scheme is to
give the priority streets just the amount of green they require at times which avoid
delay to the approaching platoons. This scheme, though successfully implemented
in the Glasgow experiment, produced the largest average journey times there.
4.11.2.6 SPG (Signal Plan Generation)
This is a fully responsive system and generates cycle times, splits and offsets
online using measured data on traffic conditions. This type of system is installed in
Madrid and Barcelona.
4.11.2.7 SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Options Technique)
The SCOOT is a new entrant into the field of traffic signal-controlled network. It has
been developed in the U.K. by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory and
the British industry. A large number of detector loops are laid across the road which
transmit the data on traffic to the central control system which adjusts the signal
plans according to actual needs. Traffic delays can be substantially reduced (up to
12%) when compared to fixed time plans. Delay at Signalized Intersections.
80
4.12 DELAY AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS
An important consideration that must be faced by an engineer in designing and

operating a signalized installation is the delay to traffic. An understanding of the
delay problem is important because the economic losses involved by vehicular
delays at signals can be enormous.
Webster's investigations on the subject at the Road Research Laboratory, U.K. are
based on queueing theory and computer simulation. The following formula has
been presented by him for the average delay per vehicle on a particular
intersection arm:
Where:
d = average delay per vehicle on the particular arm
X = proportion of the cycle which is effectively green for the phase under
consideration (i.e. g/c)
x = the degree of saturation. This is ratio of the flow to the maximum possible flow
under the given settings of the signals and equals q/λs
c = cycle time
g = effective green time
q = flow
s = saturation flow.
In the above formula, if c is in seconds, q should be in vehicles per second and

delay will be obtained in seconds.
In order to simplify the calculations, ready-made tables are available. A nomogram

for the determination of delay based on the above equation has been presented.
81
5 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Congestion of traffic in cities is a serious problem. Medium- and long-term solutions

like widening roads, providing elevated flyovers and constructing bypasses and urban
expressways are costly. Simple and inexpensive solutions can mitigate the crisis for
some time. Transportation System Management (TSM) is a package of short-term
measures to make the most productive and cost-effective use of existing
transportation facilities, services and modes. TSM also embraces Travel Demand
Management (TDM).
5.2 TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT
TDM techniques are aimed at reducing the traffic flows, especially during the peak
hour. Some of the techniques commonly adopted are:
1. Car-pooling and other ride-sharing programs

2. Peripheral parking schemes
3. Chartered buses (Institutional buses) to serve areas of trip origins to
common workplace
4. Staggering of office hours and flexible time of work.
5. Internal shuttle service in the CBD
6. Parking restraint
7. Road pricing
8. Entry fee
9. Priority for buses in traffic.
5.3 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
5.3.1 Scope of Traffic Management Measures
Many of the urban streets carry traffic volumes for which they were not simply
designed. The inevitable result is delay, congestion and accidents. The resultant ills
can be got over to some extent by controlling the traffic, imposing regulatory
measures and enforcing management techniques, so as to make the most economic
use of the streets. Traffic control measures include traffic signals, and these have
been already considered. Regulatory measures include restrictions on speed,
Page | 82
parking, and size of vehicles and so on, and these also have been discussed
separately. The third of the set of measures available to the traffic engineer are
collectively known as traffic management measures. These measures also form part
of TSM.
The fundamental approach in traffic management measures is to retain as much as

possible existing pattern of streets but to alter the pattern of traffic movement on
these, so that the most efficient use is made of the system. In doing so, minor
alternations to traffic lanes, islands, curbs etc. are inevitable and are part of the
management measures. The general aim is to reorient the traffic pattern on the
existing streets so that the conflict between vehicles and pedestrians is reduced.
Some of the well-known traffic management measures are:
(i) Restrictions on turning movements

(ii) One-way streets
(iii) Tidal-flow operations
(iv) Exclusive Bus-lanes
(v) Closing side-streets.
5.3.1.1 Restrictions of turning movements
(a) The problem posed by turning traffic

At a junction, the turning traffic includes left-turners and right-turners.
Left-turning traffic does not usually obstruct traffic flows through the
junctions, but right-turning traffic can cause serious loss of capacity. At
times, right-turning traffic can lock the flow and bring the entire flow to a
halt. One way of dealing with heavy right-turning traffic is to incorporate
a separate right-turning phase in the signal scheme, or to introduce an
early cut-off or late start arrangement. These schemes have their
limitations and result in a long signal cycle. Another solution is to ban the
turning movement altogether.
(b) Prohibited right-turning movement

Prohibition of right-turning movement can be established only if the
existing street system can accommodate an alternative routing. Three
methods are available:
i. Diversion of the right-turning traffic to an alternative intersection

further along the road where there is more capacity for dealing with a
Page | 83
right-turn. The right turn gets shifted to a minor-minor junction. It is
often useful for dealing with a difficult right turn from a minor road into
a major road.
Figure 5.1: Prohibited right turning schemes.
ii. Diversion of the right-turning traffic to the left before the junction, the G-
turn. A right-turn from a major road is converted to a left turn from the
major road and a straight-over movement at the original junction.
iii. Diversion of the right-turning traffic beyond the junction, the Q-turn. It
involves three left turns, with the driver travelling twice through the
original junction. It increases the total volume of traffic handled by the
junction but is considered the least obstructive since only left turns are
involved.
Prohibition of right-turning movement increases saturation flow and capacity of a
junction. However, prohibition of a right turn at a junction may compound problems at
other junctions.
(c) Prohibited left-turning movements

Left-turning movement is not obstructive to traffic and is rarely prohibited. However, it
may be needed to provide a safe crossing for pedestrians, especially when the
pedestrian traffic across the minor road is heavy.
Page | 84
5.3.1.2 One-way Streets
One-way streets are those where traffic movement is permitted in only one direction.
They provide an immediate and cheaper method of alleviating the traffic conditions in
a busy area. In combination with other methods such as banned turning movements,
installation of signals and restrictions on loading and waiting, the one-way street
system achieves great improvement in traffic conditions of congested areas.
(a) Advantages of one-way streets

i. A reduction in the points of conflict.
ii. Increased capacity. The removal of opposing traffic and the reduction of
intersection points of conflict results in a marked increase in the capacity of a
one-way street.
iii. Increased speed. Since the opposing traffic is eliminated, drivers can operate at
higher speeds.
iv. Facilitating the operation of a progressive signal system.
v. Improvement in parking facilities
vi. Elimination of dazzle and head-on collision.
Figure 5.2: Vehicular points of conflict with 2-way streets and

one-way streets.
Page | 85
Figure 5.3: Conflict points between pedestrians and vehicles.
(b) Disadvantages of one-way street working

Several disadvantages are associated with one-way street working.
Some of these are:
i. Actual distances to be covered by drivers increase.

ii. Where buses operate on the streets, the stops will have to be relocated
and in many instances the passengers will have to walk extra distances.
iii. Increased speeds in one-way operation may be a hazard
iv. If located in a residential district, it may result in loss of amenity if traffic is
heavy
v. Introduction of one-way streets could adversely affect the business of the
area
vi. The existing street patterns may not accommodate a one-way street
system
vii. Emergency vehicles (fire services, ambulances etc.) may be
blocked at intersections
(c) Need for proper signing
When a one-way street system is introduced, proper signs should be put up to
foster safe and efficient traffic. 'No entry' signs are needed at all terminal points of,
the one- way streets. At the entrances and exits of all intersections within the
scheme, 'one-way' and/or 'two-way' traffic signs should be displayed. It may be
necessary to put up 'No left turn' and 'No right turn' signs at some junctions.
86
5.3.1.3 Tidal flow operation
Traffic flow on any street leading to the city centre is imbalanced in directional
distribution during the peak hours. For instance, the morning peak results in a
heavy flow towards the city centre, while the evening peak causes heavier flow
away from the city centre. In each case, the street space provided for the opposing
traffic is excessive. This phenomenon is commonly termed as "tidal flow". One
method of dealing with this problem is to allot more than half the lanes for one
direction during the peak hours, in a system known as "tidal flow operation", or
"reverse flow operation".
(a) Methods
The principle of tidal flow operation can be translated into practice in two ways:
i. The first is to apportion a greater number of lanes in a multi-lane street to the

in- bound traffic during the morning peak and similarly a great number of
lanes to the out-bound traffic during the evening peak.
ii. The second requires the existence of two separate streets parallel to each
other and close to each other, so that the wider of the two can be set apart
for the heavier traffic both during the morning peak and the evening peak. In
this case, the two streets will operate as one-way streets.
(b) Favourable conditions for operation
For undivided streets, tidal flow operation is best done with the number of traffic
lanes allocated to the two directions roughly corresponding with the directional split
in traffic flow. Generally, tidal flow operation is justified where 65 per cent or more
of traffic moves in one direction during peak periods. It is also necessary that the
remaining lanes for the lighter flow are adequate for that traffic.
1. With a three-lane street, two lanes can be reserved for heavier flow and one
lane for the smaller flow.
2. With a four-lane street, a 3-lane to 1-lane distribution may not correspond
with the directional split in traffic flow. In such cases, it may be more prudent
to allocate the entire street to one direction and designate a parallel street
nearly to be opposing traffic.
3. With a five-lane road, a 3-lane to 2-lane distribution becomes very
convenient. During off-peak hours a 5-lane facility can be worked with 2
lanes for each direction, with no traffic allowed in the central lane.
4. On a 6-lane street, 4-lane to 2-lane distribution is convenient. A six-lane
87
facility can be worked with 3 lanes for each direction during off-peak period.
(c) Special measures needed
With a tidal flow operation, special signing and additional control devices are
needed. The assignment of traffic to proper lanes can be achieved by placing
overhead signs. Better results are possible with signals to regulate the flow in each
lane. If these signals are properly designed, an additional advantage can be gained
by the progressive timing.
It is desirable to restrict parking on the side of the major flow during the peak
periods. Direct right-turns by traffic in the major direction should be forbidden at
important intersections.
Stanchions or traffic cones are desirable to separate the opposing traffic. 'No right
turn' and "Keep Left' signs on pedestals and stanchions are also necessary.
5.3.1.4 Closing Side-streets
A main street may have a number of lightly trafficked side-streets. It may be

possible to close some of these side-streets without adversely affecting traffic, and
still get the benefits of improved traffic flow.
(a) Advantages
The following are some of the advantages of closing side-streets:
(i) Since interference from the traffic from side streets is eliminated, the speed
increases and journey time reduces.
(ii) Accidents also get reduced.
(iii) It allows the formulation of a progressive signal system of signals
(iv) The closed side-streets can be utilized for parking
(v) The closed side-streets can also be pedestrianized to enhance safety,
comfort and convenience of pedestrians.
(b) Disadvantages
The disadvantages of closing the side-streets can be:
i. Closing a number of cross-streets may increase the flow to and from the
remaining cross-roads.
ii. When several side-streets are closed, the immediate effect is an increase in
the parking of vehicles on the main street itself. Those vehicles which used
88
to park on the side streets are now deprived of their parking space and may
create congestion on the main road leading to delays and lower speeds.
5.3.1.5 Exclusive Bus Lanes
It is a traffic management practice where a lane of the carriageway is reserved

exclusively for bus traffic. This is only possible where the carriageway width is
adequate for a lane to be easily spared for the buses. There should be at least 3
lanes in each direction. The exclusive lane must be adjacent to the curb for
convenience of alighting and embarking passengers.
Bus priority measures are a cheap and easy way to provide some aid to bus
services. The journey time can be considerably reduced, and bus journey made
more attractive. Regularity of the buses can be improved.
To be successful, the bus-lanes should be created for a good length of the road
instead of in small bits. 'Bus only' streets can also be established, prohibiting all
traffic except buses. This is usually enforced in shopping areas to facilitate
pedestrians reach the buses within short walking distances.
The width of the bus lane should be a minimum of 2.8 m and if possible 3.5 m.
89

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

FCE 545 – TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING III

Course Notes for Students

ENG. TABITHA KARIUKI

The course syllabus is outlined below:

1. Traffic: Traffic prediction: growth and forecasting

1. N. J. Garber and L. A. Hoel, (2014) Traffic and Highway Engineering, Cengage

3. Road Design Manuals Part I & III

4. Road Maintenance Manual, Ministry of Roads

5. Mannering, F. L., & Washburn, S. S. (2013). Principles of highway engineering and

2 PAVEMENT DESIGN ..................................................................................................... 28

3 PAVEMENT EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE ........................................................ 39

4 DESIGN OF CONTROL DEVICES ................................................................................. 40

5 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT ............................................................ 82

Traffic data is needed for design, operations, maintenance, programming of works,

1.2 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SURVEYS

• Classified volume counts

1.2.2 Traffic growth rate estimation

A future traffic forecast is a critical input in geometric design (sizing of geometric

i. Time series analysis

Constant compound growth rate: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑜 (1 + 𝑟)𝑡

Exponential growth: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑐. 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑘𝑡

Tf is the future traffic volume

ii. Econometric method

𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑎 + 𝛽𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝐺𝑁𝐼)

T = Baseline traffic volume

1.2.3 Origin-Destination Survey

The main purpose of Origin-Destination Survey is to ascertain the by-passable traffic at

1.2.4 Non-Motorized Traffic Counts

Non-motorized transport (NMT) includes pedestrians, cyclists and pushcarts (including

1.2.5 Speed and Delay Surveys

1.2.6 Axle Load Surveys

• Project identification and prioritization

1.3.1 Vehicle classification

Table 1.1: Vehicle classification for axle load analysis

Vehicle Category Definitions

Minibus Seating capacity of 26 – 30 passengers

Buses Seating capacity of > 40 passengers

Light Goods Vehicles 3-6 tonnes capacity

Medium Goods Vehicles 2 axles,7-10 tonnes capacity

Heavy Goods Vehicles 3 axles, 12-15 tonnes capacity

Articulated Trucks 4-7 axles, 25-32 tonnes capacity

1.3.2 Field Data Collection

1.3.2.1 Types of traffic counts

1.3.2.1.1 Manual count

Automatic Counters consist of one or more pressure tubes or inductive loops

Key features of this method are:

1.3.2.4 Combining classified counts with axle load surveys

1.3.3 Data Analysis and Presentation

1.3.3.1 Conversion of a partial day’s count into a full day’s traffic

𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

Partial weekend traffic count needs to be grossed up based on a weekend 24-hour

1.3.3.2 Adjustments for seasonal variation

1.3.3.3 Design Hour Volume

Table 1.3: Recommended 30th HV on Kenyan Highways

Traffic condition K = 30th HV as percentage of AADT

Heavily trafficked road under congested rural 8-12%

Normal rural conditions 12-18%