Prof M.

Rashid Khan
 MDCAT Physics Unit: Nuclear Physics
Study of nuclear structure and phenomenon occurring with in nucleus.

Atomic Nucleus
In 1911, Rutherford experimentally discovered
that central portion of an atom consists of thick
positively charged core, called nucleus.

𝐃𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐬 ≈ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝐦 𝐭𝐨𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝐦 ∙

𝐃𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐬 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒
= −𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝐃𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝟏𝟎
𝐃𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐬 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐃𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦
𝟏 ∙
𝐃𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐬 = 𝟒
× 𝐃𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦
𝟏𝟎
𝛒𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐬 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐤𝐠 𝐦−𝟑

99.9 % mass of an atom is concentrated in nucleus

Prof M. Rashid Khan
In 1918, Rutherford discovered proton in atomic nucleus as he bombarded 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝐍 by 𝛂 − 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞.
𝟏𝟒 𝟒 𝟏𝟕 𝟏
𝟕𝐍 + 𝟐𝐇𝐞 → 𝟖𝐎 + 𝟏𝐇(proton)
In 1932, James Chedwick discovered neutron in atomic nucleus as he bombarded 𝟗𝟒𝐁𝐞 by 𝛂 − 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞.
𝟗 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝟒𝐁𝐞 + 𝟐𝐇𝐞 → 𝟔𝐂 + 𝟎𝐧(neutron)

Nuclear masses are too small that they cannot be expressed in kg or g conveniently. So, by an international
agreement a new standard was adopted for nuclear masses, known as unified atomic mass unit.
1 u = 1.67× 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg
1 kg = 0.609191979× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟕 u

𝐦𝐏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝐮

𝐦𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝐮
𝐦𝐞 = 𝟗. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝐤𝐠 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝐮
Number of protons in nucleus, is called charge number Z
Number of protons and neutron in nucleus, is called mass number A
Number of neutrons in nucleus, is called neutron number N=A - Z
An atomic nucleus is represented as 𝐀𝐙𝐗 Prof M. Rashid Khan
 Isotopes Isobars Isotones Isomers
Nuclei of same element having Nuclei of different elements Nuclei of different elements Same nucleus having different
same charge number Z having same mass number A having same neutron number N excited states
40 40
18Ar , 19K A = 40
1 2 3
1H, 1H, 1H Z=1 13 14 12
239 239 6C, 7N, 5B N=7 A ⋆
→ AZX + γ
92U, 94Pu A = 239 ZX
36 37
12 13 14
6C, 6C, 6C Z=6 𝟐𝟑𝟗 16S, 17Cl N=20
𝟗𝟒𝐏𝐮is trans - uranium
3 4 element.
2He , 2He Z=2
233 235 236 238 239
92U, 92U, 92U, 92U, 92U
Z=92
Radioactivity
In 1896, Henri Becquerel observed that a piece of Uranium emits invisible radiations which
Both Xenon and Cesium cut or burn the papers in its vicinity. Careful experimental investigation revealed that nuclei
each have 36 isotopes. with Z > 82 emits energetic radiations at all conditions, known as nuclear radiations.
Maximum number of
Process of emitting nuclear radiations by nuclei with Z > 82, is called radioactivity
isotopes in nature
and element which emit nuclear radiations, are called radioactive elements.
Isotopes have same chemical Radioactivity is random, spontaneous and chemical process.
but different physical Merie curie and peri curie discovered new radioactive elements radium (Ra) and Polonium (Po)
properties
Nature Of nuclear radiations was investigated by experiment
shown in Fig.

When nuclear radiations are allowed to pass through

uniform magnetic field perpendicularly , the 𝛂 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲
and 𝛃 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲 follow a circular path in opposite direction
of radii.
𝐫∝ 𝐦
𝐦𝛂 > 𝐦𝛃 ⟹ 𝐫𝛂 > 𝐫𝛃
𝟏
𝐂𝐮𝐫 ∝ ⟹ (𝐂𝐮𝐫)𝛂 < (𝐂𝐮𝐫)𝛃
𝐫
Best shield
for
𝛂 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲 was identified as positively charged Helium 𝛄 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲𝐬
nucleus ( 𝟒𝟐𝑯++ 𝟎
𝒆 ) and 𝛃 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲 as electron ( −𝟏𝒆 ).

Prof M. Rashid Khan

 Nuclear Transmutation
Emission of nuclear radiation ( α or β) from an original nucleus change its nuclear structure and a nucleus of new
element is formed. An original nucleus is called parent nucleus and trans-mutated nucleus is called daughter nucleus.
Process of converting parent nucleus into daughter nucleus with emission of nuclear radiations, is called
Nuclear transmutation/radioactive decay
In radioactive decay law of conservation of mass, charge, momentum and energy hold.
𝛂 − emission 𝛃 − emission
Emission of α − particle from a parent Emission of β − particle from a parent +ve β − particle may also be created
nucleus, decreases its mass by 4 unit nucleus, leaves its mass unchanged and in nucleus as 11p transform into 10n.
and charge number by 2 unit. This increases charge number by 1 unit. This 1
→ 10n + 01e + ν (neutrino)
1p
nuclear change is represented as: nuclear change is represented as: 65 65
A A−4 A A 30𝑍𝑛 → 29Cu + 01e
ZX → Z−2Y + α ZX → Z+1Y + β
226
88R a → 222
86R n + 42He 234 234
+ −10e
𝛄 − emission
90Th → 91Pa
Q. How many number of 𝛂 and 𝛃 particles Emission of α or β from a parent
are emitted in reaction 𝟐𝟑𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟖 β − particle is an electron which does nucleus leaves it in excited state. The
𝟗𝟎𝐗 → 𝟖𝟐𝐘
not already present in the nucleus. It excited nucleus is highly unstable
AX −AY 232−208 24 and de-excite into its ground state by
No. of α-particle= = = =6 is created with in nucleus at instant of
4 4 4 emitting γ −radiation. This nuclear
its emission as a 10n transform into 11p
No. of β-particle=ZX − Zy − no. of α × 2 1
change is represented as:
0n → 11p + −10e + νത (antineutrino)
= 90 – 82 - 6× 2 = −4 A ⋇
ZX → A
ZX + γ
 Q. What is sequence of nuclear radiations emitted Q. What is end product nucleus if nuclear radiation emit
from 𝐀 𝐀 𝐀−𝟒
𝐙𝐗 → 𝐙+𝟏𝐘 → 𝐙−𝟏𝐖 → 𝐙−𝟏𝐌
𝐀−𝟒 in sequence 𝜷, 𝜶, 𝜸 from a parent nucleus 𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝟖𝟎𝐗 ?

Half Life
Time during which half of the parent nuclei of a radioactive sample decay Element Half Life 𝐓𝟏
𝟐
into daughter nuclei, is called half life 𝐓𝟏 .
238 4.9 × 109 yr
92U
𝟐
Half life depends upon elemental nature of a radioactive substance and is 286
independent of any physical or chemical change. Half life of few elements is 88R a 1600 yr
given in table shown. 222 3.8 D
86R 𝑛
If for a given radioactive sample 239
92U 23.5 min
N=no. of un-decayed nuclei at time instant t
14
∆𝐭 = time lapse 11Na 15 h
∆𝐍 = 𝐧𝐨. of decayed nuclei after time lapse ∆𝐭 59
26F𝑒 45 D
then 99
T𝑒 6h
∆𝐍 ∝ −𝐍∆𝐭
∆𝐍 = −𝛌 𝐍∆𝐭 131 8D
I
𝛌=decay constant/disintegration constant. Its value is 125
𝚫𝐍/𝐍 I 60 D
𝛌= (SI unit is 𝐬 −𝟏) 90
𝚫𝐭 Sr 28.8 Yr
Decay constant is fractional number of decaying nuclei per unit time. 32
P 14.19 D
Decay constant depends on elemental nature of substance and is independent of 60
Co 5.2714 Yr
any physical Or chemical change
Number of un-decayed nuclei N decreases exponentially with time t as shown

Number of un-decayed nuclei (N)

in N-t graph.
Graph indicates that a radioactive sample takes an infinite time to decay
completely or never decay completely in finite time
𝐍 = 𝐍𝐨 𝐞−𝛌𝐭
𝑁∝𝐴
A = 𝐀𝐨 𝐞−𝛌𝐭

𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
Half life = 𝐓𝟏 = ⟹ 𝐓𝟏 × 𝛌 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 (𝟐)
𝟐
𝛌 𝟐
𝟏
𝐓𝟏 ∝
𝟐 𝛌

𝟏
Mean Life = <T> =
𝛌

𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝐓𝟏 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 < 𝐓 > = 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝟕𝟎 % 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐟𝐞
𝟐 𝛌
𝐓𝟏 < < T >
𝟐
Prof M. Rashid Khan
 𝐍𝐎
No. of un-decayed nuclei after nth half life = Q. If at an instant ratio of un decayed nuclei to
𝟐𝐧
No. of decayed nuclei after nth half life = 𝐍𝐎 −
𝐍𝐎 decayed nuclei is 1:7 then how many half lives
𝟐𝐧 has been elapsed at that instant ?
t = n 𝐓𝟏 NO No
𝟐 1:7 ⟹ un decayed nuclei = =
8 23
Total time = no. of half lives × one half life n =3

Q. Half life of iodine -131 is 8 days. In a drug store

160 mg of iodine is present. What quantity of
iodine-131 is left in the store after 48 days.
t = n 𝐓𝟏
𝟐
𝟒𝟖
48 D = n 8 ⟹ 𝐧 = =𝟔
𝟖
𝐍𝐎 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝐦𝐠
No. of un-decayed nuclei after 6th half life = =
𝟐𝟔 𝟔𝟒
= 2.5 mg
Q. Amount of a radioactive element becomes ¼th
of its original value in 60 s. what is its half life?
No No
Un decayed = = ⟹n=2
4 22
t = n 𝐓𝟏
𝟐
𝐓𝟏 𝒕 𝟔𝟎 Prof M. Rashid Khan
= = =𝟑𝟎 𝒔
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Rate Of Decay/Activity
Measure of radioactivity, is called rate of decay and
defined as:
Number of nuclear radiations emitted per unit time
by a radioactive sample A
no of radiations emitted ∆N 0.693
A= = = λN= N
time ∆t T1
2
SI unit of activity is bequerel (Bq)
Activity of a sample is 1 Bq if it emit one
nuclear radiation in one second
Higher unit of rate of decay is curie (Cu)
1 Cu = 3.7× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐁𝐪
Rate of decay depends upon

Nature of Number of un-decayed

sample nuclei in sample at the
instant
Prof M. Rashid Khan
Mass Defect
𝐦𝐩 + 𝐦𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝐮 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟏 𝐮

Prof M. Rashid Khan

When a proton and a neutron combine to form deuteron nucleus, the observed mass of nucleus is
𝐦𝐧𝐮𝐜 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐮
𝐦𝐧𝐮𝐜 < (𝐦𝐩 + 𝐦𝐧) by 0.002 u
This decrease in nuclear mass than sum of the masses of isolated nucleons, is called mass defect △ 𝐦.
Mass defect of a nucleus 𝐀𝐙𝐗 is
−△ 𝐦 = 𝐦𝐧𝐮𝐜 − 𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧
Where −ve sign with △ 𝐦 represent decrease in nuclear mass
△𝐦
Mass defect per nucleon =
𝐀
△𝒎
Mass defect per nucleon( ) of elements were determined
𝑨
experimentally and then plotted versus their charge number
Z as shown in Fig. It can be seen that
△𝐦
𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐙 = 𝟏 𝐭𝐨 𝐙 = 𝟐𝟔
𝐀
△𝐦
𝐢𝐬 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐙 = 𝟐𝟔 ( 𝟓𝟕
𝟐𝟔𝐅𝐞 )
𝐀
△𝐦
𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐥𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐙 > 𝟐𝟔
𝐀
Binding Energy
Mass defect △ 𝐦 of a nucleus is released in form of energy during its formation according to Einstein equation
𝐄𝐁 = ∆𝐦 𝐜 𝟐
This energy is responsible for stability of the nucleus and is called its binding energy 𝐄𝐁 .
𝐄𝐁 𝐄𝐁 𝐄𝐁
B.E per nucleon = ⟹ 𝐁. 𝐄 𝐨𝐟 𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐮𝐬 = 𝐀 × ∝ Stability
𝐀 𝐀 𝐀
𝐄
B.E per nucleon 𝐁 of elements were determined experimentally and plotted them versus their mass number A
𝐀
as shown in Fig. it can be seen that
56
𝐄𝐁
increases sharply for A=1 to A=56 26Fe
𝐀
𝐄𝐁
is maximum for A=56
𝐀
𝐄𝐁
decreases slowly for A > 56
𝐀
𝐄𝐁
of 𝟓𝟔
𝟐𝟔𝐅𝐞 = 8.8 MeV (maximum)
𝐀
𝐄𝐁
of 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 = 7.7 MeV
𝐀
𝐄𝐁 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝟗𝟒
𝐀
of𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 , 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 , 𝟒𝟐𝐌𝐎 , 𝟓𝟎𝐒𝐧 , 𝟓𝟒𝐗 𝐞 , 𝟑𝟖𝐬𝐫
𝐄
is averagely 8.5 MeV which lies closer to 𝐁
𝐀
𝟓𝟔
of 𝟐𝟔𝐅𝐞 and are highly stable.
1 u = 1.6606× 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg = 931 Mev
Nuclear Fission
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann observed that when
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 nucleus is bombarded with slow moving neutron
𝟏
𝟎𝐧, it breaks up into two stable lighter nuclei along
with emission of averagely three neutrons and
tremendous energy as shown in Fig.

Breaking up of a heavier nucleus into two

lighter nuclei, is called nuclear fission.

Fission of 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 into
𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟗𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 is represented
by equation
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟏𝟎𝐧 ⟶ 𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 + 𝟗𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 + 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝐧 + 𝐐

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Source of energy release 𝐐 in fission reaction, is the
difference in mass of reactant 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟗𝟐𝐔 and mass of △𝐦 △𝐦
products 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐 ( of 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔) < ( of 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐
𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 & 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 )
𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 + 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 . 𝐀 𝐀

𝐄𝐁
of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 Mass of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝐔) > (Mass of 𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 & 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 )
𝐀 𝟗𝟐𝐔 = 7.7 MeV
𝐄𝐁 This difference in mass of reactant and Product
of 𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟓𝟔 𝐁𝐚 & 𝟗𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 = 8.5 MeV
𝐀 is released from nucleus as energy 𝐐 according
𝐄
( 𝐁 of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝐔) < (
𝐄𝐁
of 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝐁𝐚 & 𝟗𝟐 to E = (𝐌𝐫 − 𝐌𝐩 )𝐜 𝟐 = 𝐐
𝐀 𝟗𝟐 𝐀 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 )
 Mass of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝐔 is greater than Mass of 𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 & 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 by
𝐄𝐁
of 235
𝐀 92U = 7.7 MeV
8.5 MeV – 7.7 MeV= 0.9 MeV per nucleon 𝐄𝐁
EB of 235
92U = A × of 235
92U = 235 × 7.7 MeV
Thus, 𝐀
Energy release per nucleon of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 = 1809.5 MeV
𝟗𝟐𝐔 = 0.9 MeV
𝐄𝐁
Energy release from 235 nucleon of 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 = 235x0.9 MeV = 211 MeV 𝐀
of 141
56Ba = 8.5 MeV
𝐄𝐁
𝟐𝟑𝟓 EB of 141
56Ba = A × of 141
56Ba = 141 × 8.5 MeV
About 200 MeV energy is released in fission of one nucleus of 𝟗𝟐𝐔 𝐀
= 1198.5 MeV
E 92
Fission of 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐𝐔 does not always produce same fragments A
B
of 36 K r = 8.5 MeV
𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐
𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 & 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 . In fact any of two fragments may be produced whose 92 E 92
EB of 36 K r = A × B of 36 K r = 92 × 8.5 MeV
𝟓𝟔 A
B.E per nucleon lie closer to B.E per nucleon of 𝟐𝟔𝐅𝐞 in the B.E curve.
𝟐𝟑𝟓
= 782 MeV
Two possible such fission reaction of 𝟗𝟐𝐔 are given below as an
𝟗𝟐
example. EB of 141
56Ba + EB of 𝟑𝟔𝐊 𝐫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟓 𝐌𝐞𝐕 + 𝟕𝟖𝟐 𝐌𝐞𝐕
= 1980.5 MeV
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟏
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟎𝐧 ⟶ 𝟓𝟎𝐒𝐧 + 𝟒𝟐𝐌𝐎 + 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝐧 + 𝐐
EB of 235 141 92
92U > EB of 56Ba or EB of 36K r
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟏𝟎𝐧 ⟶ 𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝟓𝟒𝐗 𝐞 + 𝟗𝟒
𝟑𝟖𝐒𝐫 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝐧 + 𝐐
EB of 235 141 92
92U < (EB of 56Ba + EB of 36K r )

Fission of other heavy nuclei is also possible but it takes place easily
with 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟗
𝟗𝟐𝐔 and 𝟗𝟒𝐏𝐮

Prof M. Rashid Khan

 Fission Chain Reaction
Successive fission of nuclei in fissile substance is called fission chain reaction. Two types fission chain reaction are:
1. Controlled Fission Chain Reaction 2.Un Controlled Fission Chain Reaction

𝟑 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐌𝐞𝐕 = 𝐐

𝟏 𝟐𝟑𝟓
Out of 3 𝟏𝟎𝐧 emitted in fission of one 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐 𝐔 nucleus, one 𝟏
𝟎 𝐧 Out of three 𝟎 𝐧 emitted in fission of one 𝟗𝟐𝐔 nucleus,
cause further fission in fissile material. probably three 𝟏𝟎𝐧 cause further fission in fissile material.
Energy is released at constant rate. Energy is released at highly increasing rate and cause a
huge expulsion.
Mass of fissile material is equal to critical mass. Mass of fissile material is greater than critical mass.
Achieved in nuclear reactor. Achieved in nuclear bomb.

For mass of fissile substance less than critical mass, no fission chain reaction sustain.
Nuclear Reactor
Device which sustain controlled fission chain reaction and produce heat at constant rate to run electricity generator.
Principle
Mass of fissionable uranium is equal to critical mass
Construction
It consists of following major parts
1. Steel tank …………………………. Core
2. Fuel rods ......... 𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟗
𝟗𝟐𝐔, 𝟗𝟐𝐔, 𝟗𝟒𝐏𝐮
( Fuel of reactor)
3. Moderator ……Water, Heavy water(𝟐𝟏𝐇), Carbon, Hydrocarbon
(Slow down neutrons)
4. Control rods ….. Boron or Cadmium rods
(absorb excessive neutrons)

Working
Controlled fission chain reaction produce heat at constant rate. Temperature of core rises to about 500 𝐂𝐨 . Circulatory
water system(water, heavy water, any other liquid) extract heat from core and transfer into heat exchanger(ordinary
water) under high pressure. Heat exchanger produce steam at temperature 300 𝐂𝐨 which run turbine of electric
generator to generate electricity.
In Pakistan there are two nuclear power plant, KANUP and CHUSNUP.
 Two main types of nuclear reactor are:

(i) Thermal Reactors (ii) Fast Reactors

𝟐𝟑𝟖
Natural Uranium or slightly enriched 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 is used as Natural Uranium contain about 99 % 𝟗𝟐𝐔 which is converted
fuel. into 𝟐𝟑𝟗
𝟗𝟒𝐏𝐮 to use as fuel.

To obtain greater percentage of 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝐔 from
natural Uranium, is called enrichment.

Core consists of mixture of

Plutonium and uranium
dioxide surrounded by
blanket of Uranium-238.
Moderator is used to slow down neutron. Moderator is not used to slow down neutron.
Slow neutrons are used to sustain fission chain reaction and Fast neutron are used to sustain fission chain reaction.
so reactor is called thermal reactor. Fast Reactor is also called breeder reactor as it breed its fuel.
Fusion
Two lighter nuclei fuse to form a heavier one and energy is released.
Fusion of two lighter nuclei into heavier one, is called nuclear fusion.

Few fusion reactions are represented by equations

𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟏𝐇 + 𝟏𝐇 → 𝟐𝐇𝐞 +24 MeV=Q
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏𝐇 + 𝟏𝐇 → 𝟏𝐇 + 𝟏𝐇+ 4 MeV=Q
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏𝐇 + 𝟏𝐇 → 𝟐𝐇𝐞 + 𝟎𝐧+ 3.3 MeV=Q
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
𝟏𝐇 + 𝟏𝐇 → 𝟐𝐇𝐞 + 𝟎𝐧+ 17.6 MeV=Q
Energy released per nucleon in fusion reaction > energy released per nucleon in fission reaction
Rate of energy release in fusion reaction is much larger than rate of energy release in fission reaction.
Source of energy release in fusion reaction, is the difference in mass of reactants and mass of products.
𝐄𝐁 𝐄𝐁
( )𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 < ( )𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 This difference in mass of reactant and mass of product is released
𝐀 𝐀
from nucleus as energy according to E = (𝐌𝐫 − 𝐌𝐩 )𝐜 𝟐 =Q
∆𝐦 ∆𝐦
( )𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 < ( )
𝐀 𝐀 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 When 𝐌𝐫 > 𝐌𝐩 then Q= +ve and energy is released from reaction.
(𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬) > (𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬) When 𝐌𝐫 < 𝐌𝐩 then Q = -ve and energy is given to reaction.
𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭
Fusion reaction is very difficult to achieve because nuclei experience very large electrostatic force of
repulsion as they come closer to each other to produce fusion. Thus reactant nuclei require very large K.E to
overcome electrostatic force of repulsion to produce fusion. The required K.E of the reactants nuclei is
achieved at temperature of 10 million celcius degree ( K.E ∝ T ). Reaction taking place at such high
temperature is called thermonuclear reaction which could be achieved by fission.
Succession of fusion reaction is called fusion chain reaction.
Fusion Chain reaction may also be of TWO types like Fission
1. Uncontrolled fusion chain reaction 2. Controlled fusion chain reaction
Uncontrolled fusion chain reaction has been Controlled fusion chain reaction yet has not
achieved in H-bomb. been established and so is not being used to
generate electricity. It is hoped that controlled
fusion will be produced in nearer future and
we would have fusion reactors.
Fusion Chain reaction In Sun No. of protons involved=6
Scientists proposed that source of energy from sun is No. of protons used = 4
following fusion reaction which occur cyclically in the No. of protons left =2
sun.
1 1
→ 21H + 01𝑒 +E Energy released in one cycle = 25.7 Mev
1H + 1H 25.7 MeV
1 2
1H + 1H → 32He + 𝛾 +E Energy released per nucleon = = 6.4 MeV
4
1 1
1H + 1H → 21H + 01𝑒 +E Energy released per nucleon of one fusion cycle in
1 2
1H + 1H → 32He + 𝛾 +E sun is much larger than energy released per
3 3
2He + 2He →
4 1 1
2He + 1H + 1H+E nucleon of fission in one 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 nucleus.
 Fundamental Forces
1. Gravitational 2. Electric 3. Magnetic 4. Weak Nuclear 5. Strong Nuclear
Force Force Force Force Force

Unified by Faraday & Maxwell into

1. Gravitational 2. Electromagnetic 3. Weak Nuclear 4. Strong Nuclear
Force Force Force Force
Long Range Long Range Short Range ≈ 10−17 m Short Range
Attractive Attractive/Repulsive Repulsive Attractive
It keeps us, atmosphere, It binds together atoms, Responsible for spontaneous It keeps nucleons confine
and see fixed to Earth molecules, crystals, tress, breaking up of a radio active with in nucleus
buildings and us. element
It give rise tide to the ocean
Acting on microscopic level is
It keeps planet to orbit responsible for macroscopic
around sun. such as friction, cohesion and
adhesion.

Unified by Dr Abdulsalam, Weinberg and Glashow into

1. Gravitational 2. Electroweak 3. Strong Nuclear
Force Force Force
It is further expected that
electroweak force and strong
nuclear forces will unite into
single force, called Grand
Unified Electronuclear Force.
 Building Block Of Matter
Subatomic particles are divided into three groups
1. Photons 2. Leptons 3. Hadrons

Elementary particles It is believed that all matter . Not elementary particles

belongs to either leptons or . Supposed to be composed
quark group of elementary particles
quarks
Particle that do not experience strong nuclear force: Particle that experience strong nuclear force:
Electrons, Muons, Neutrinos Protons, Neutrons, Mesons
Particles equal or greater in mass than protons
are called Baryons.
Particles lesser in mass than protons are Mesons.

According to quark theory, initiated by M. Gellmann and G. Zweigh, the quarks are
assumed as basic building block of Baryons and Mesons.
Three quark make a Baryon.
A pair of quark and antiquark makes a Meson
 There are six quarks and six anti quarks listed in table below
Quarks Anti-Quarks
Name Symbol Charge Symbol Charge
Charm c തc
2 2
Up u + e uത − e
3 3
Top t tҧ
Bottom b bത
1 1
Down d − e dത e
3 3
Strange s തs

Charges of quarks and anti quarks are fraction of electronic charge e

A proton is assumed to be made up of 2 u and 1 d quarks

A neutron is assumed to be made up of 1 u and 2 d quarks

Quarks cannot exist their own and their existence has been verified indirectly