Unit 1 – Ch1 - Introduction to Software Project

Management

Q-1) What is a project? why is project management important?

What is a project (1 mark)
aspect of a project is that the undertaking is non-routine: a job which is repeated a number of times
is not a project. There is a hazy boundary in between. The first time you do a routine task it will be
very like a project. On the other hand, a project to develop a system that is very similar to previous
ones that you have developed will have a large element of the routine.
why is project management important (4 marks)
• Strategic Alignment: Project management is important because it ensures what is being delivered,
is right, and will deliver real value against the business opportunity.
• Leadership: Project management is important because it brings leadership and direction to
projects.
• Clear Focus & Objectives: Project management is important because it ensures there’s a proper
plan for executing on strategic goals.
• Realistic Project Planning: Project management is important because it ensures proper
expectations are set around what can be delivered, by when, and for how much.
• Quality Control: Projects management is important because it ensures the quality of whatever is
being delivered, consistently hits the mark.
• Risk Management: Project management is important because it ensures risks are properly
managed and mitigated against to avoid becoming issues.
• Orderly Process: Project management is important because it ensures the right people do the
right things, at the right time – it ensures proper project process is followed throughout the project
lifecycle.
• Continuous Oversight: Project management is important because it ensures a project’s progress
is tracked and reported properly.
• Managing and Learning from Success and Failure: Project management is important because it
learns from the successes and failures of the past.

Without it, teams and clients are exposed to chaotic management, unclear objectives, a lack of
resources, unrealistic planning, high risk, poor quality deliverables, projects going over budget and
delivered late.

Q-2) Explain key characteristics of projects & list difference between Software projects
versus other types of project

key characteristics of projects are follows:- (2 marks)

• non-routine tasks are involved;
• planning is required;
• specific objectives are to be met or a specified product is to be created;
• the project has a predetermined time span (which may be absolute or relative);
• work is carried out for someone other than yourself;
• work involves several specialism's;
• work is carried out in several phases;
• the resources that are available for use on the project are constrained.

Software projects versus other types of project (3 marks)

One way of perceiving software project management is as the process of making visible that which is
invisible.
• Invisibility When a physical artifact such as a bridge or road is being constructed the progress being
made can actually be seen. With software, progress is not immediately visible.
• Complexity Per dollar, pound or euro spent, software products contain more complexity than
other engineered artifacts.
• Flexibility The ease with which software can be changed is usually seen as one of its strengths.
However this means that where the software system interfaces with a physical or organizational
system, it is expected that, where necessary, the software will change to accommodate the other
components rather than vice versa. This means the software systems are likely to be subject to a
high degree of change.

Q-3) What do you mean by Contract management, contract type and

technical project management?
Contract management: (2 marks)
• We now need to consider the communications between the supplier and the customer while the
work contracted for is being carried out.
• It would probably suit all concerned if the contractor could be left to get on with the work
undisturbed. However, at certain decision points, the customer needs to examine work already done
and make decisions about the future direction of the project.
• The project will require representatives of the supplier and customer to interact at many points in
the development cycle - for example, users need to be available to provide information needed to
carry out effective detailed interface design.
• This interaction, or other external factors, often leads to changes being needed, which effectively
vary the terms of the contract and so a careful change control procedure is needed. Each of these
topics will now be tackled in a little more detail.

Contract type: (1 mark)

• a bespoke system, that is. a system that is created from scratch specifically for one customer.
• off-the-shelf, which you buy *as is’ - this is sometimes referred to as shrink wrapped software;
• customized off-the-shelf (COTS) software - this is a basic core system, which is modified to meet
the needs of a particular customer.

Technical Project Management (2 marks)

• is the ability to support the management of an IT initiative from a concept through to a concrete
deliverable as a project with specialist technical knowledge.
• Working with a project requires that we have clear goals, a defined scope and a definite start and
end.

Q-4) Explain different Activities covered by software project management.

Software project management covers a wide range of activities aimed at effectively planning,
executing, controlling, and closing software projects. Some of the key activities covered by
software project management include:

Any 5 – 5 marks
1. **Project Planning**: This involves defining project goals, scope, objectives, timelines,
resources, and deliverables. It includes activities like requirements gathering, feasibility analysis,
risk assessment, and creating project plans.

2. **Resource Allocation**: Assigning the right people with the appropriate skills to various tasks
within the project. This includes human resources, budget allocation, and procurement of
necessary tools and technologies.

3. **Scheduling and Time Management**: Creating project schedules, milestones, and timelines.
Tracking progress against the schedule and making adjustments as necessary to ensure timely
completion.

4. **Risk Management**: Identifying potential risks to the project and developing strategies to
mitigate or eliminate them. This involves risk assessment, risk analysis, risk response planning, and
risk monitoring throughout the project lifecycle.

5. **Communication Management**: Establishing effective communication channels among

project stakeholders including team members, clients, sponsors, and other relevant parties. It
involves regular reporting, meetings, documentation, and stakeholder engagement.

6. **Quality Management**: Ensuring that the software product meets specified quality standards
and requirements. This includes quality planning, quality assurance, and quality control activities
throughout the development process.

7. **Change Management**: Managing changes to project scope, requirements, schedule, and

resources. This involves assessing change requests, evaluating their impact on the project, and
implementing approved changes while minimizing disruption.

8. **Issue Tracking and Resolution**: Identifying and resolving issues and conflicts that arise
during the project lifecycle. This includes tracking reported problems, assigning responsibility for
resolution, and implementing corrective actions.

9. **Documentation Management**: Creating and maintaining project documentation including

requirements documents, design documents, test plans, user manuals, and other relevant
artifacts.
10. **Stakeholder Management**: Engaging and managing relationships with all stakeholders
involved in the project. This includes understanding their needs, expectations, and concerns, and
keeping them informed and involved throughout the project.

11. **Project Closure**: Formalizing project completion, obtaining acceptance from the client or
stakeholders, and conducting post-project reviews to document lessons learned and identify areas
for improvement.

These activities are typically carried out by project managers and their teams using various project
management methodologies and tools to ensure the successful delivery of software projects.

Q-5) Explain Stages in SDLC.

The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a structured approach to software development
that outlines a series of phases or stages that a software project goes through from initiation to
deployment and maintenance. The specific stages may vary depending on the methodology being
used (e.g., Waterfall, Agile, Spiral, etc.), but the following are common stages found in most SDLC
models:

All stages name & explanation 5 marks

1. **Planning**: In this initial stage, the project's feasibility is assessed, and the scope, objectives,
requirements, constraints, and resources are defined. Project planning also involves establishing a
high-level project timeline and budget.

2. **Requirements Gathering/Analysis**: This stage involves gathering and documenting detailed

requirements for the software system. This includes understanding the needs of stakeholders,
eliciting requirements through interviews, workshops, and other techniques, and documenting
them in a requirements specification document.
3. **Design**: In the design stage, the software architecture, system design, and detailed technical
specifications are developed based on the requirements gathered in the previous stage. This
includes defining system components, data structures, interfaces, algorithms, and other design
aspects.

4. **Implementation/Coding**: During this stage, the actual code for the software system is
developed based on the design specifications. Programmers write, test, and debug the code
according to coding standards and best practices.

5. **Testing**: In this stage, the software is tested to ensure that it meets the specified
requirements and functions correctly. Testing may include various types such as unit testing,
integration testing, system testing, performance testing, and user acceptance testing (UAT).

6. **Deployment/Installation**: Once the software has been tested and approved, it is deployed
or installed in the production environment. This may involve packaging the software, preparing
installation scripts, and performing the installation on the target hardware or platform.

7. **Maintenance**: After deployment, the software enters the maintenance phase where it is
monitored, updated, and maintained to address any issues, bugs, or changes that arise. This
includes providing ongoing support, releasing patches or updates, and making enhancements or
modifications as needed.

It's important to note that while these stages are presented sequentially, in practice, they may
overlap or be revisited iteratively, especially in Agile methodologies where development occurs in
short, iterative cycles called sprints. Additionally, some SDLC models may include additional stages
or variations of these stages based on specific project needs and requirements.

Q-6) Explain Plans, methods and methodologies with diagram.

Diagram 2 marks
Plans(1 mark), methods(1 mark) and methodologies (1 mark)
A plan for an activity must be based on some idea of a method of work. For example, if you were
asked to test some software, you may know nothing about the software to be tested, but you could
assume that you would need to:
• Analyze the requirements for the software.
• Devise and write test cases that will check that each requirement has been satisfied.
• Create test scripts and expected results for each lest case.
• Compare the actual results and the expected results and identify discrepancies.

While a method relates to a type of activity in general, a plan takes that method (and perhaps
others) and converts it to real activities, identifying for each activity:
• Its start and end dates
• Who will carry it out
• What tools and materials - including information - will be needed

The output from one method might be the input to another. Groups of methods or techniques are
often grouped into methodologies such as object-oriented design

Q-7) Explain below mentioned categories of software projects

Information systems versus embedded systems

Objectives versus products

Information systems versus embedded systems (2 marks)

the system interfaces with the organization, whereas in the latter case the system interfaces with a
machine! A stock control system would be an information system that controls when the
organization reorders stock.

• An embedded, or process control, system might control the air conditioning equipment in a
building.
Objectives versus products (3 marks)
• Projects may be distinguished by whether their aim is to produce a product or to meet certain
objectives.
• A project might be to create a product the details of which have been specified by the client. The
client has the responsibility for justifying the product.
• On the other hand, the project might be required to meet certain objectives. There might be
several ways of achieving these objectives in contrast to the constraints of the product-driven
project.
• Many software projects have two stages. The first stage is an objectives-driven project, which
results in a recommended course of action and may even specify a new software application to meet
identified requirements. The next stage is a project actually to create the software product.

Q-8) Explain Project Charter & the roles of a Project Charter.

Project Charter (3 marks)

• Project Charter refers to a statement of objectives in a project. This statement also sets out
detailed project goals, roles and responsibilities, identifies the main stakeholders, and the level of
authority of a project manager.
• It acts as a guideline for future projects as well as an important material in the organization's
knowledge management system.
• The project charter is a short document that would consist of new offering request or a request for
proposal. This document is a part of the project management process, which is required by Initiative
for Policy Dialogue (IPD) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM).

the roles of a Project Charter: (2 marks)

• It documents the reasons for undertaking the project.
• Outlines the objectives and the constraints faced by the project.
• Provides solutions to the problem in hand.
• Identifies the main stakeholders of the project.

Q-9) Who all can be considered as stakeholders? Why do we need to set Objectives?

Stakeholders (3 marks)
Stakeholders might be internal to the project team, external to the project team but in the same
organization, or totally external to the organization.
• Internal to the project team This means that they will be under the direct managerial control of
the project leader.
• External to the project team but within the same organization For example, the project leader
might need the assistance of the information
• External to both the project team and the organization External stakeholders might be
customers (or users) who will benefit from the system that the project implements or contractors
who will carry out work for the project. One feature of the relationship with these people is that it is
likely to be based on a legally binding contract.

Within each of the general categories there will be various groups. For example, there will be
different types of user with different types of interests. Different types of stakeholder might have
different objectives and one of the jobs of the successful project leader is to recognize these
different interests and to be able to reconcile them. It should therefore come as no surprise that the
project leader needs to be a good communicator and negotiator.

setting Objectives (2 marks)

To have a successful software project, the manager and the project team members must know what
will constitute success. This will make them concentrate on what is essential to project success.
There might be more than one set of users of a system and there might be different groups of staff
who are involved its development. There is a need for well defined objectives that arc accepted by
all these people. Where there is more than one user group, then a project authority needs to be
identified. Such a project authority has overall authority over what the project is to achieve.
There may be several stakeholders, including users in different business areas, who might have some
claim to project ownership. In such a case, a project authority needs to be explicitly identified with
overall authority over the project.
This authority is often a project steering committee (or project board or project management board)
with overall responsibility for setting, monitoring and modifying objectives. The project manager
runs the project on a day-to-day basis, but regularly reports to the steering committee.

Q-10) Define Objective. What do you mean by SMART objectives?

Objectives (2 marks)
Informally, the objective of a project can be defined by completing the statement:
The project will be regarded as a success
if……….
…………
Rather like post-conditions for the project
Focus on what will be put in place, rather than how activities will be carried out

Objectives should be SMART (3 marks)

S – specific, that is, concrete and well-defined
M – measurable, that is, satisfaction of the objective can be objectively judged
A – achievable, that is, it is within the power of the individual or group concerned to meet the
target
R – relevant, the objective must relevant to the true purpose of the project
T – time constrained: there is defined point in time by which the objective should be achieved

Q-11) What is Business case? Is business case important for the success or failure of the project?

The Business Case (2 marks)

 Most projects need to have a justification or business case: the effort and expense of pushing the
project through must be seen to be worthwhile in terms o f the benefits that will eventually be felt.
• A cost-benefit analysis will often be part of the project’s feasibility study.
• The benefits will be affected by the completion date: the sooner the project is completed, the
sooner the benefits can be experienced.
• The quantification of benefits will often require the formulation of a business model which explains
how the new application can generate the claimed benefits.
Any project plan must ensure that the business case is kept intact. For example:
• that development costs are not allowed to rise to a level which threatens to exceed the value of
benefits;
• that the features of the system arc not reduced to a level where the expected benefits cannot be
realized;
• that the delivery date is not delayed so that there is an unacceptable loss of benefits.

Project Success and Failure (3 marks)

• The project plan should be designed to ensure project success by preserving the business case for
the project.
• However, every non-trivial project will have problems, and at what stage do we say that a project
is actually a failure?
• The project objectives are the targets that the project team is expected to achieve.
• In the case of software projects, they can usually be summarized as delivering: o The agreed
functionality
o The required level of quality
o On time
o Within budget

• while project managers have considerable control over development costs, the value of the
benefits of the project deliverables independent on external factors such as the number of
customers.
• the project management of an e-commerce website implementation could plan activities such as
market surveys, competitor analysis, focus groups, prototyping, and evaluation by typical potential
users - all designed to reduce business risks.

Q-12) Explain Management control in detail w.r.t. project management with

suitable diagram.
Management control:-
Diagram(2 marks) & explanation (3 marks)
Data – the raw details
e.g. ‘6,000 documents processed at location X’
Information – the data is processed to produce something that is meaningful and useful
e.g. ‘productivity is 100 documents a day’
Comparison with objectives/goals
e.g. we will not meet target of processing all documents by 31st March
Modelling – working out the probable outcomes of various decisions
e.g. if we employ two more staff at location X how quickly can we get the documents
processed?
Implementation – carrying out the remedial actions that have been decided upon

Q-13) Explain different Phases of Project Management Life Cycle with suitable
diagram.
Diagram – 1 mark
Phases of Project Management Life Cycle ( 4 phases – 1 mark each)
Project Initiation
During the project initiation phase it is crucial for the champions of the project to develop a
thorough understanding of the important characteristics of the project.

In his W5HH principle, Barry Boehm summarized the questions that need to be asked and
answered in order to have an understanding of these project characteristics.
Project Planning
Various plans are made:
Project plan: Assign project resources and time frames to the tasks.

Resource plan: List the resources, manpower and equipment that required to execute the
project.

Financial plan: plan for manpower, equipment and other costs.

Quality plan: Plan of quality targets and control.

Risk plan: Identification of the potential risks, their prioritization and a plan for the actions that
would be taken to contain the different risks.

Project Execution
Tasks are executed as per the project plan
Monitoring and control processes are executed to ensure that the tasks are executed as per
plan

Corrective actions are initiated whenever any deviations from the plan are noticed.
Project Closure
Involves completing the release of all the required deliverables to the customer along with the

necessary documentation.

Subsequently, all the project resources are released and supply agreements with the vendors
are terminated and all the pending payments are completed.

Finally, a post-implementation review is undertaken to analyze the project performance and to

list the lessons learnt for use in future projects.
Q-14) Explain Traditional versus Modern Project Management Practices in detail.

5 valid points – 5 marks

• planning Incremental Delivery Instead of making a long-term project completion plan, the project
manager now plans all incremental deliveries with evolving functionalities. This type of project
management is often called extreme project management. Extreme project management is a highly
flexible approach to project management that concentrates on the human side of project
management
• Quality Management Of late, customer awareness about product quality has increased
significantly.
• Change Management Earlier, when the requirements were signed off by the customer, any
changes to the requirements were rarely entertained. Customer suggestions arc now actively being
solicited and incorporated throughout the development process.
• Requirements Management In modem software development practices, there is a conscious effort
to develop software such that it would, to a large extent, meet the actual requirements of the
customer.
• release Management Release management concerns planning, prioritizing and controlling the
different releases of a software. For almost every software, multiple releases are made during its life
cycle.
• Risk Management In modem software project management practices, effective risk management
is considered very important to the success of a project.
• Scope management Once a project gets underway, many requirement change requests usually
arise. Some of these can be attributed to the customers and the others to the development team. As
we have already mentioned, modem development practices encourage the customer to come up
with change requests. While all essential changes must be carried out, the superfluous and
ornamental changes must be scrupulously

Unit 1 - Ch2 - Project Evaluation and

Programme Management - Overview of Project
Planning
Q-15) Explain the Contents of a business case in detail.
If all mentioned correctly with proper explanation – 5 marks
1. Introduction/background: describes a problem to be solved or an opportunity to be
exploited
2. The proposed project: a brief outline of the project scope
3. The market: the project could be to develop a new product (e.g. a new computer game).
The likely demand for the product would need to be assessed.
4. Organizational and operational infrastructure: How the organization would need to
change. This would be important where a new information system application was being
introduced.
5. Benefits These should be express in financial terms where possible. In the end it is up to
the client to assess these – as they are going to pay for the project.
6. Outline implementation plan: how the project is going to be implemented. This should
consider the disruption to an organization that a project might cause.
7. Costs: the implementation plan will supply information to establish these
 8. Financial analysis: combines costs and benefit data to establish value of project

Q-16) What do you mean by Project Portfolio Management & also explain its 3 elements.

Project portfolio management (2 marks)

The concerns of project portfolio management include:
Evaluating proposals for projects

Assessing the risk involved with projects

Deciding how to share resources between projects

Taking account of dependencies between projects

Removing duplication between projects

Checking for gaps

There are three elements to PPM: (each element 1 mark each)

1. Project portfolio definition
Create a central record of all projects within an organization

Must decide whether to have ALL projects in the repository or, say, only ICT projects

Note difference between new product development (NPD) projects and renewal projects e.g. for
process improvement
2. Project portfolio management

Actual costing and performance of projects can be recorded and assessed

3. Project portfolio optimization

Information gathered above can be used achieve better balance of projects e.g. some that are
risky but potentially very valuable balanced by less risky but less valuable projects
You may want to allow some work to be done outside the portfolio e.g. quick fixes
Q-17) Explain all Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques in detail

Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques

Net profit
The net profit of project is the difference between the total costs and the total income over the life
of the project.
payback period
The payback period is the time taken to break even or pay back the initial investment. Normally, the
project with the shortest payback period will be chosen on the basis that an organization will wish to
minimize the time that a project is ‘in debt’.
Return on investment
The return on investment (ROI), also known as the accounting rate o f return (ARR), provides a way
of comparing the net profitability to the investment required. There are some variations on the
formula used to calculate the return on investment but a straightforward common version is:
Net present value

The calculation of net present value is a project evaluation technique that takes into account the
profitability of a project and the timing of the cash flows that are produced.

Internal rate of return

One disadvantage of NPV as a measure of profitability is that, although it may be used to com pare
projects, it might not be directly comparable with earnings from other investments or the costs of
borrowing capital. Such costs are usually quoted as a percentage interest rate.
The internal rate o f return (IRR ) attempts to provide a profitability measure as a percentage return
that is directly com parable with interest rates. Thus, a project that showed an estimated IRR of 10%
would be worthwhile if the capital could be borrowed for less than 10% or if the capital could not be
invested elsewhere for a return greater than 10%.

Q-18) What is Programme Management? Explain different forms of Programme Management.

Programme management (1 mark)

One definition:

‘a group of projects that are managed in a co-ordinated way to gain benefits that would not be
possible were the projects to be managed independently’

Programmes can exist in different forms, as can be seen below. (any 4 – 4 marks)
• Business cycle programmes

We have seen that many organization has fixed budget for ICT development. Decisions have to be
made about which project to implement within that budget within the accounting period, which
often coincides with the financial year.
• Strategic programmes

several projects together can implement a single strategy. each activity could be treated as a distinct
project, but would be coordinated as a programmes
• Infrastructure programmes

Organizations can have various departments which carry out distinct, relatively self-contained,
activities. In a local authority, one department might have responsibilities for the maintenance of
highways, another for refuse collection, and another for education.
• Research and development programmes

Truly innovative companies, especially those that are trying to develop new products for the market,
are well aware that projects will vary in terms of their risk of failure. and the potential returns that
they might eventually reap.
Other projects might be extremely risky, but the end result, if successful, could be a revolutionary
technological breakthrough that meets some pressing but previously unsatisfied need.
• Innovative partnerships

Companies sometimes come together to work collaboratively on new technologies in a ‘pre-

competitive’ phase. Separate projects in different organizations need to be coordinated and this
might be done as a programme.

Q-19) What is Strategic Programme Management? What factors are involved in Creating a
Programme?
Strategic Programme Management ( 1mark)
A different form of programme management is where a portfolio of projects all contribute to a
common objective. Take, for example, a business which carries out maintenance work for clients. A
customer’s experience of the organization might be found to be very variable and inconsistent.

This objective might require changes to a number of different systems which until now have been
largely self-contained. The work to reorganize each individual area could be treated as a separate
project, coordinated at a higher level as a programme.

Creating a Programme (4 marks – if all mentioned properly)

Programme mandate
planning of a programme will be triggered by the creation of an agreed programme mandate. Ideally
this should be a formal document describing:
• The new services or capabilities the programme should deliver
• How the organization will be improved by use of the new services or capability
• How the programme fits with corporate goals and any other initiatives

At this point, a programme director ought to be appointed to provide initial leadership for the
programme. To be successful, the programme needs a champion who is in a prominent position
within the organization. This will signal the seriousness with which the organization takes the
programme.
Programme brief
A programme brief is now produced which outlines the business case for the programme. It will have
sections setting out:
• A preliminary vision statement which describes the new capacity that the organization seeks - it is
described as ‘preliminary’ because this will later be elaborated
• The benefits that the programme should create - including when they are likely to be generated
and how they might be measured
• Risks and issues
• Estimated costs, timescales and effort

Vision statement
• The programme brief should give the sponsors enough information to decide whether to request a
more detailed definition of the programme. This stage would justify the setting up of a small team. A
programme manager with day-to-day responsibility for the programme would be appointed.

Blueprint
The achievement of the improved capability described in the vision statement can come only
through changes to the structure and operations of the organization. These are detailed in the
blueprint. This should contain:
• Business models outlining the new processes required
• Organizational structure - including the numbers of staff required in the new systems and the skills
they will need
• The information systems, equipment and other, non-staff, resources that will be needed
• Data and information requirements
• Costs, performance and service level requirements

Q-20) Why Dependency diagrams is important in Programme Management? Explain with

suitable diagram.

Diagram 1 mark & proper explanation – 4 marks

Dependency diagrams
there will often be physical and technical dependencies between projects. dependency diagram for a
programme to merge two organizations, the constituent parts of which are explained below.

A. Systems study/design A project is carried out which examines the various existing IT applications
in the two old organizations, analyses their functionality, and makes recommendations about how
they are to be combined.
B. Corporate image design Independently of Project A, this project is designing the corporate image
for the new organization. This would include design o f the new logo to be put on company
documents.
C. Build common systems Once Project A has been completed, work can be triggered on the
construction of the new common ICT applications.
D. Relocate offices This is the project that plans and carries out the physical co-location of the staff in
the two former organizations. In this scenario, this has to wait until the completion of Project A
because that project has examined how the two sets of applications for the previous organizations
could be brought together, and this has repercussions on the departmental structure of the new
merged organization.
E. Training Once staff have been brought together, perhaps with some staff being made redundant,
training in the use of the new systems can begin.
F. Data migration When the new, joint, applications have been developed and staff have been
trained in their use, data can be migrated from existing databases to the new consolidated database.
G. Implement corporate interface Before the new applications can ‘go live’, the interfaces, including
the documentation generated for external customers, must be modified to conform to the new
company image.

Q-21_ What do you mean by benefits management? Explain any four types.

Benefits Management (1 mark)

Benefits management is an attempt to remedy this. It encompasses the identification, optimization
and tracking of the expected benefits from a business change in order to ensure that they are
actually achieved.
To do this, you must:
• Define the expected benefits from the programme
• Analyse the balance between costs and benefits
• Plan how the benefits will be achieved and measured
• Allocate responsibilities for the successful delivery of the benefits
• Monitor the realization of the benefits

Benefits can be of many different types, including: ( any 4 – 4 marks)

• Mandatory compliance Governmental or European legislation might make certain changes
mandatory.
• Quality of service An insurance company, for example, might want to settle claims by customers
more quickly.
• Productivity The same, or even more, work can be done at less cost in staff time.

• More motivated workforce This might be because of an improved rewards system, or through job
enlargement or job enrichment.
• Internal management benefits (for instance, better decision making)
• Risk reduction The insurance example might also be applicable here, but measures to protect an
organization’s networks and databases from intrusion and external malicious attack would be even
more pertinent.
• Economy The reduction of costs, other than those related to staff - procurement policies might be
put in place which encourage the consolidation of purchasing in order to take advantage of bulk-
buying at discount.
• Revenue enhancement/acceleration The sooner bills reach customers, the sooner they can pay
them.
• Strategic fit A change might not directly benefit a particular group within the organization but has
to be made in order to obtain some strategic advantage for the organization as a whole.

Q-22) What do you mean by project planning explain step by step.

This is an overview of the main steps: (all steps – 5 marks)

0. Select project There must be some process by which the project to be executed was selected.
Chapter 3 on project evaluation looks at this in more detail.
1. Identify project objectives It is important that at the outset the main stakeholders are all
aware of the precise objectives of the project. This has already been discussed in Chapter 1.
2. Identify project infrastructure This may not be a significant step where you are working on an
in-house project in a very familiar environment. However, where the project is being carried out
for external clients then you may need to investigate the characteristics of the environment in
which the project is to be carried out.
3. Analyse project characteristics Different types of project will need different technical and
management approaches. For example, a project to implement control software embedded in
industrial equipment will need a different set of methods than a project to implement a
business information system. A multimedia application would again need a different set of
activities. (This is not to say that there could not be considerable overlaps in the approaches).
4. Identify products and activities With software projects, it is best to start by listing the
products, both deliverable and intermediate, to be created. The activities needed to create the
products can then be identified
5. Estimate effort for activity.
6. Identify activity risks Having assessed the amount of effort and the elapsed time for a project,
the reasons why these might be vary during the actual execution of the project need to be
considered. Where there is a very high risk of additional effort/time being needed then actions
to reduce this risk may be formulated.
7. Allocate resources With software projects, these resources will mainly be staff, but could be
equipment etc.
8. Review/publicize It is no good having a plan if no one knows about it
9. Execute Plan
10. Lower level planning Not all of a project, especially when it is large, can be planned in detail
at the outset. Not all the information needed to plan the later stages will be available at the
beginning: for example software development cannot be broken down into precise sub-tasks
with realistic target times until more is known about what the overall design of the system is
known.

Q-23) Explain below mentioned terms:

Risk identification and ranking , Cost-benefit analysis, Risk profile analysis, Risk Evaluation, Risk
and net present value

Risk identification and ranking (1 mark)

In any project evaluation we should identify the risks and quantify their effects. One approach is to
construct a project risk matrix utilizing a checklist of possible risks and classifying risks according to
their relative importance and likelihood.
a basic project risk matrix listing some of the business risks for a project, with their importance and
likelihood classified as high (H), medium (M), low (L) or exceedingly unlikely.

Cost-benefit analysis (1 mark)

rather than a single cash flow forecast for a project, we will then have a set of cash flow forecast,
each with an associated probability of occurring.
Risk profile analysis (1 mark)
An approach which attempts to overcome some of the objections to cost-benefit averaging is the
construction of risk profiles using sensitivity analysis. This involves varying each of the parameters
that affect the project’s cost or benefits to ascertain how sensitive the project s profitability is to
each factor.
By studying the results of a sensitivity analysis we can identify those factors that are most important
to the success of the project. We then need to decide whether we can exercise greater control over
them or otherwise mitigate their effects. If neither is the case, then we must live with the risk or
abandon the project.

Risk Evaluation (1 mark)

Every project involves risk. We have already noted that project risks, which prevent the project from
being completed successfully, are different from the business risk that the delivered products are
not profitable.

Risk and net present value (1 mark)

Where a project is relatively risky, it is a common practice to use a higher discount rate to calculate
net present value. This risk premium might, for example, be an additional 2% for a reasonably safe
project or 5% for a fairly risky one. Projects may be categorized as high, medium, or low risk using a
scoring method and risk premiums designated for each category.

Q-24) Describe the Evaluation of Individual Projects w.r.t. Technical assessment, Cost-benefit
analysis & Cash flow forecasting

Evaluation of Individual Projects

Technical assessment (1 mark)
Technical assessment of a proposed system consists of evaluating whether the required functionality
can be achieved with current affordable technologies.
Cost-benefit analysis (2 marks)
Even where the estimated benefits will exceed the estimated costs, it is often necessary
to decide if the proposed project is the best of several options.
Cost-benefit analysis comprises two steps:
• identifying all of the cost and benefits of carrying out the project and operating the delivered
application These include the development costs, the operating costs, and the benefits expected
from the new system.
• Expressing these costs and benefits in common units We must express each cost and benefit - and
the net benefit which is the difference between the two - in money.
• Development costs, including development staff costs.
• Setup costs, consisting of the costs of putting the system into place, recruitment , staff training
• operational cost related to operation after installation

Cash flow forecasting (2 marks)

As important as estimating the overall costs and benefits of a project is producing a cash flow
forecast which indicates when expenditure and income will take place.
Accurate cash flow forecasting is difficult, as it is done early in the project’s life cycle (at least before
any significant expenditure is committed) and many items to be estimated (particularly the benefits
of using software) might be some years in the future.

Q-25) How Decision tree can be used for project Risk Evaluation? Explain with suitable diagram.

Diagram 2 marks & rest Explanation 3 marks

Using decision trees

The approaches to risk analysis discussed previously rather assume that we are passive bystanders
allowing nature to take its own course - the best we can do is to reject over-risky projects or choose
those with the best risk profile. There are many situations, however, where we can evaluate
whether a risk is important and, if it is, decide a suitable course of action.
Such decisions will limit or affect future options and, at any point, it is important to be able to assess
how a decision will affect the future profitability of the project.
Unit 2 – Ch 3 - Selection of an Appropriate Project
Approach
Q-1) Explain the various factors involved in the decision of building or buying software?

5 valid points – 5 marks

 Software development can be seen from Iwo different viewpoints: that of the developers and that
of the clients or users. with inhouse development, the developers and the user are in the same
organization. Where the development is outsourced. they are in different organization.
• The development of a new IT application within an organization would often require the
recruitment of technical stall who, once the project has been completed, will no longer be required.
• Contracting the project out to an external IT development company may he attractive in these
circumstances
• Whether in-house or outsourced, software development is still, involved.
• obtain a licence to run off-the-shelf software.
• The advantages of such an approach include:
o The supplier of the application can spread the cost of development over a large number
of customers and thus the cost per customer should be reduced.
o software already exist and so
▪ It can be examined and perhaps even trialed before acquisition
▪ There is no delay while the software is being built
o Where lots of people have already used the software, most of the bugs are likely to have
been reported and removed, leading to more reliable software.

Q-2) Short note on waterfall model with suitable diagram & its advantages and
disadvantages.

waterfall model – explanation 2 marks, diagram 1 mark, advantages – 1 mark &

disadvantages – 1 mark.
The Waterfall Model is a traditional sequential software development methodology that follows a
linear and sequential approach, with each phase of the software development life cycle (SDLC)
flowing sequentially from one stage to the next. Here's a brief overview of its advantages and
disadvantages:

Advantages:

1. **Simplicity**: The Waterfall Model is straightforward and easy to understand, making it

suitable for projects with well-defined requirements and predictable outcomes.

2. **Structured Approach**: It follows a structured and systematic approach to software

development, with distinct phases such as requirements gathering, design, implementation,
testing, deployment, and maintenance, ensuring clarity and organization throughout the project.

3. **Clear Milestones**: Each phase in the Waterfall Model has clearly defined milestones and
deliverables, making it easier to track progress and measure success.

4. **Documentation**: The emphasis on documentation at each stage ensures comprehensive

documentation of requirements, design specifications, test plans, and other project artifacts,
which can be valuable for future reference and maintenance.

Disadvantages:
1. **Inflexibility**: The Waterfall Model is highly sequential and rigid, with little room for
flexibility or iteration. Changes to requirements or design late in the development process can be
difficult and costly to implement.

2. **Limited Customer Involvement**: Customer feedback and involvement typically occur late in
the development process, often during the testing phase or after deployment, which can lead to
misunderstandings or mismatches between the final product and customer expectations.

3. **High Risk**: Since testing and validation occur towards the end of the project lifecycle, there's
a higher risk of identifying defects or issues late in the process, which can lead to delays, cost
overruns, or even project failure.

4. **No Early Prototyping**: The Waterfall Model does not prioritize early prototyping or iterative
development, which may result in delivering a final product that doesn't fully meet user needs or
market demands.

Overall, while the Waterfall Model offers a structured and systematic approach to software
development, its lack of flexibility and limited customer involvement can pose challenges in
adapting to changing requirements and ensuring the successful delivery of complex projects. It's
essential for organizations to carefully consider their project requirements and constraints before
opting for the Waterfall Model or explore alternative methodologies such as Agile or Iterative
models.
Q-3) Short note on spiral model with suitable diagram & its advantages and
disadvantages.

explanation 2 marks, diagram 1 mark, advantages – 1 mark & disadvantages – 1 mark.

The Spiral Model is a flexible and iterative software development methodology that combines
elements of both waterfall and iterative development approaches. It emphasizes risk analysis,
frequent prototyping, and gradual refinement of the software through multiple cycles of
development. Here's a brief overview of its advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

1. **Risk Management**: The Spiral Model incorporates risk analysis as a fundamental aspect of
the development process. It allows for early identification and mitigation of potential risks,
thereby reducing the likelihood of project failure.

2. **Flexibility**: Unlike the Waterfall Model, the Spiral Model is highly flexible and
accommodates changes to requirements, design, and functionality throughout the development
lifecycle. This flexibility enables adaptation to evolving project needs and stakeholder feedback.

3. **Early Prototyping**: The Spiral Model encourages early prototyping and iterative
development, enabling stakeholders to visualize and interact with the evolving software product at
an early stage. This facilitates early validation of requirements and fosters greater collaboration
between developers and users.

4. **Gradual Refinement**: Through successive iterations, the Spiral Model allows for gradual
refinement and improvement of the software product. Each iteration builds upon the previous
one, incorporating feedback, resolving issues, and enhancing features, leading to a more robust
and high-quality final product.

Disadvantages:

1. **Complexity**: The Spiral Model can be more complex to manage and implement compared to
linear methodologies like the Waterfall Model. It requires careful planning, coordination, and
communication to ensure that iterations are conducted effectively and efficiently.

2. **Resource Intensive**: The iterative nature of the Spiral Model may require significant
resources, including time, manpower, and budget. Managing multiple iterations and addressing
changing requirements can increase project overheads and extend project timelines.

3. **Documentation Overhead**: While the Spiral Model emphasizes the importance of

documentation, managing documentation across multiple iterations can be challenging.
Maintaining accurate documentation throughout the development process requires diligent effort
and may add to project overheads.

4. **Dependency on Risk Analysis**: The effectiveness of the Spiral Model depends heavily on the
accuracy of risk analysis and the ability to mitigate identified risks effectively. Inadequate risk
analysis or failure to address critical risks can lead to project delays, cost overruns, or quality
issues.

Overall, the Spiral Model offers a pragmatic approach to software development, balancing the
need for flexibility and adaptability with systematic risk management and iterative refinement. It is
well-suited for projects with evolving requirements, complex functionalities, and a high degree of
uncertainty. However, organizations should carefully evaluate the suitability of the Spiral Model
based on project-specific factors, such as size, complexity, and stakeholder dynamics.

Q-4) Short note on prototyping model with & its advantages and disadvantages.

Explanation – 3 marks, advantages – 1 mark and disadvantages – 1 mark

The Prototyping Model is a software development methodology where a basic version of

the system is built quickly and iteratively, allowing stakeholders to visualize and interact
with the software early in the development process. Here's a short note on the
Prototyping Model along with its advantages and disadvantages:

**Short Note on Prototyping Model:**

The Prototyping Model is an iterative approach to software development where a
simplified version of the system, known as a prototype, is rapidly developed based on
initial requirements and user feedback. The prototype serves as a tangible
representation of the final product, allowing stakeholders to provide feedback, validate
requirements, and refine the system incrementally. The development process typically
involves multiple iterations of prototyping, with each iteration focusing on specific
aspects of functionality or user experience. Once stakeholders are satisfied with the
prototype, it is used as a blueprint for developing the final system.

**Advantages of Prototyping Model:**

1. **Early Feedback:** Stakeholders can provide feedback on the prototype early in the
development process, allowing for better alignment with user needs and expectations.

2. **Reduced Development Time:** Rapid prototyping enables quicker development

cycles, facilitating faster delivery of the final product.

3. **Improved Requirement Understanding:** Prototyping helps clarify and refine

requirements by visualizing the system and identifying potential issues or gaps early on.

4. **Enhanced User Involvement:** Users are actively involved in the development

process, fostering collaboration and ensuring that the final product meets their needs.

5. **Risk Mitigation:** Identifying and addressing issues early in the development

process reduces the risk of costly changes or rework later on.

**Disadvantages of Prototyping Model:**

1. **Incomplete Functionality:** Prototypes may lack certain features or functionalities

present in the final product, leading to potential misunderstandings or discrepancies.

2. **Scope Creep:** Continuous iteration and refinement can lead to scope creep,
where additional features are added beyond the initial requirements, resulting in project
delays or budget overruns.

3. **Increased Cost:** Developing multiple prototypes and iterating on them can

increase development costs, especially if significant changes are required.

4. **Documentation Overhead:** Maintaining documentation for multiple iterations of

prototypes can be cumbersome and time-consuming.
5. **Misinterpretation of Prototypes:** Stakeholders may misinterpret the purpose or
limitations of prototypes, leading to unrealistic expectations or dissatisfaction with the
final product.

Overall, the Prototyping Model is well-suited for projects where requirements are
uncertain or evolving, and user involvement is critical. However, it requires careful
management to balance the benefits of rapid iteration with the potential drawbacks of
scope creep and increased costs.

Q-5) Short note on incremental model with suitable diagram & its advantages and
disadvantages.

explanation 2 marks, diagram 1 mark, advantages – 1 mark & disadvantages – 1 mark.

The Incremental Model is a software development methodology that combines the

iterative nature of prototyping with the structured approach of the waterfall model. It
involves breaking down the software development process into smaller, manageable
increments or modules that are developed and delivered incrementally. Here's a short
note on the Incremental Model along with its advantages and disadvantages:

**Short Note on Incremental Model:**

The Incremental Model divides the software development process into multiple stages,
with each stage representing a distinct set of functionalities or features. Development
occurs incrementally, with each increment adding new capabilities to the system. The
initial increments focus on developing core functionalities, while subsequent increments
build upon the existing system, adding additional features or enhancements. Each
increment undergoes the complete software development life cycle, including
requirements gathering, design, implementation, testing, and deployment. The process
continues iteratively until the entire system is completed.
**Advantages of Incremental Model:**

1. **Early Delivery of Core Functionality:** Incremental development allows for the

delivery of core functionalities early in the development process, enabling stakeholders
to start using and benefiting from the system sooner.

2. **Flexibility and Adaptability:** The incremental approach accommodates changes

and updates to requirements throughout the development process, allowing for greater
flexibility and adaptability to evolving project needs.

3. **Reduced Risk:** Breaking the project into smaller increments reduces the overall
risk associated with software development, as issues and challenges can be addressed
incrementally rather than all at once.

4. **Improved Feedback Mechanism:** Each increment provides an opportunity for

stakeholders to provide feedback on the delivered functionality, facilitating better
alignment with user needs and expectations.

5. **Modular Development:** The system is developed in modular increments, making

it easier to manage and maintain. Modules can be developed and tested independently,
reducing dependencies and improving overall system stability.

**Disadvantages of Incremental Model:**

1. **Complexity Management:** Managing dependencies and interactions between

different increments can be challenging, especially as the system grows in size and
complexity.

2. **Integration Issues:** Integrating new increments with existing system

components may lead to compatibility issues or conflicts, requiring careful coordination
and testing.

3. **Increased Overhead:** Developing and managing multiple increments can increase

overhead in terms of time, resources, and coordination efforts.

4. **Documentation Overhead:** Maintaining documentation for each increment and

tracking changes across iterations can be cumbersome and time-consuming.

5. **Dependency on Initial Architecture:** The success of the Incremental Model

depends on establishing a robust initial architecture that can accommodate future
increments without significant rework or refactoring.
Overall, the Incremental Model offers a balance between the flexibility of iterative
development and the structure of traditional methodologies, making it suitable for
projects with evolving requirements and a need for early delivery of core functionality.
However, it requires careful planning, coordination, and management to effectively
manage dependencies and ensure successful integration of increments.

Q-6) Short note on Agile methodologies and list any 3 models based on
Agile.

Short note – 2 marks & 3 type of model – 1 mark each

**Short Note on Agile Methodologies:**

Agile methodologies are iterative and incremental approaches to software development

that prioritize flexibility, collaboration, and customer feedback. These methodologies
emphasize delivering working software in short, iterative cycles called sprints, allowing
teams to adapt to changing requirements and deliver value more quickly. Agile
methodologies promote close collaboration between cross-functional teams, frequent
communication, and continuous improvement throughout the development process.

Agile methodologies are based on the Agile Manifesto, which outlines four key values
and twelve principles that emphasize individuals and interactions, working software,
customer collaboration, and responding to change over following rigid processes and
documentation.

**Various Models Based on Agile:**

1. **Scrum:** Scrum is one of the most popular Agile methodologies, characterized by

its iterative approach and emphasis on short, time-boxed iterations called sprints.
Scrum teams work collaboratively to deliver incremental releases of the product, with a
Scrum Master facilitating the process and a Product Owner representing the customer's
interests.

2. **Extreme Programming (XP):** Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile methodology

that focuses on improving software quality and responsiveness to changing customer
requirements. XP practices include pair programming, test-driven development (TDD),
continuous integration, and frequent releases.

3. **Kanban:** Kanban is an Agile methodology that visualizes the workflow of a

project using a Kanban board, which consists of columns representing different stages
of development. Work items are represented as cards and moved across the board as
they progress through the workflow. Kanban emphasizes continuous delivery and
limiting work in progress (WIP).

4. **Lean Software Development:** Lean Software Development is an Agile

methodology inspired by Lean manufacturing principles. It focuses on delivering value
to the customer by eliminating waste, optimizing flow, and fostering a culture of
continuous improvement. Lean practices include just-in-time delivery, optimizing the
whole system, and empowering teams.

5. **Crystal:** Crystal is an Agile methodology that emphasizes human interaction and

communication. It comes in various flavors, each tailored to the specific needs and
characteristics of the project. Crystal methodologies prioritize simplicity, frequent
delivery, and reflective improvement.

6. **Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM):** DSDM is an Agile methodology

that provides a framework for delivering projects quickly and effectively. It emphasizes
active user involvement, iterative development, and frequent delivery of working
software. DSDM incorporates principles from Agile, Lean, and traditional project
management approaches.

7. **Feature-Driven Development (FDD):** Feature-Driven Development (FDD) is an

Agile methodology that focuses on building features incrementally. It emphasizes
domain modeling, feature prioritization, and regular progress reporting. FDD breaks
down the development process into five key activities: Develop Overall Model, Build
Feature List, Plan by Feature, Design by Feature, and Build by Feature.

These Agile methodologies offer different approaches to software development, each

suited to different project contexts, team dynamics, and organizational cultures.
Organizations can choose the Agile methodology that best fits their needs and adapt it
over time to continuously improve their development processes.

Q-7)Explain Atern /DSDM model in detail with MOSCOW priorities.

Atern, also known as the Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM), is an Agile
methodology focused on delivering projects quickly and effectively while ensuring high-
quality outcomes. It provides a framework for iterative and incremental software
development, emphasizing active user involvement, frequent delivery of working
software, and continuous collaboration among stakeholders.
**Key Principles of Atern/DSDM:** (3 marks)

1. **User Involvement:** Atern/DSDM promotes active involvement of users and

stakeholders throughout the development process to ensure that the delivered solution
meets their needs and expectations.

2. **Iterative and Incremental Development:** Projects are divided into a series of

iterations, with each iteration delivering a working increment of the software. This
iterative approach allows for early delivery of value and enables flexibility to
accommodate changes in requirements.

3. **Deliver on Time and Budget:** Atern/DSDM places a strong emphasis on delivering

projects on time and within budget. It achieves this through careful prioritization of
requirements, frequent delivery of increments, and ongoing monitoring and control of
project progress.

4. **Collaboration and Communication:** Effective communication and collaboration

among team members and stakeholders are essential for the success of Atern/DSDM
projects. Regular meetings, workshops, and reviews facilitate shared understanding and
alignment of project goals.

5. **Focus on Quality:** Atern/DSDM emphasizes the importance of delivering high-

quality software that meets the needs of users. Quality is built into the development
process through continuous testing, validation, and feedback.

**MOSCOW Prioritization:** (2 marks)

MOSCOW prioritization is a technique used in Atern/DSDM to prioritize project
requirements based on their importance to the business. The acronym MOSCOW stands
for:

- **M**ust have: Requirements that are deemed essential for the project's success and
must be delivered within the specified time frame. These requirements are considered
non-negotiable and have the highest priority.

- **S**hould have: Requirements that are important but not critical for the project's
success. These requirements are desirable and should be included if possible, but they
may be deferred if necessary to meet time or budget constraints.

- **C**ould have: Requirements that are nice to have but not essential. These
requirements are considered optional and can be included if time and resources permit.
However, they are lower in priority compared to must-have and should-have
requirements.

- **W**on't have (this time): Requirements that are explicitly excluded from the
current project scope. These requirements may be considered for future iterations or
releases but are not included in the current project plan.

By prioritizing requirements using the MOSCOW framework, Atern/DSDM teams can

focus their efforts on delivering the most important features first while ensuring that
less critical requirements are addressed as time and resources allow. This helps to
manage stakeholder expectations, maximize the value delivered by the project, and
ensure that key business needs are met within the project constraints.

Q-8) Short note on XP with its limitations.

Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile software development methodology that emphasizes

collaboration, feedback, simplicity, and continuous improvement. It is designed to improve
software quality and responsiveness to changing customer requirements through a set of practices
and values. Here's a short note on XP along with its limitations:

**Short Note on Extreme Programming (XP):** (3 marks)

Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile methodology that advocates for close collaboration
between developers and customers, frequent releases of working software, and a focus on
simplicity and flexibility. XP emphasizes the following key practices:
1. **Pair Programming:** Developers work in pairs, with one programmer writing code while the
other reviews and provides feedback. This practice promotes knowledge sharing, code quality, and
collaboration.

2. **Test-Driven Development (TDD):** Developers write automated tests before writing the
corresponding code. This ensures that the code meets the specified requirements and can be
easily tested for correctness.

3. **Continuous Integration:** Code changes are integrated into the main codebase frequently,
often multiple times a day. This practice helps detect and address integration issues early, ensuring
that the software remains stable and maintainable.

4. **Refactoring:** Developers continuously refactor the code to improve its design, readability,
and maintainability. Refactoring helps keep the codebase clean and adaptable to changing
requirements.

5. **Simple Design:** XP advocates for keeping the design of the software as simple as possible
while still meeting the requirements. This approach prioritizes clarity, flexibility, and ease of
maintenance over unnecessary complexity.

**Limitations of Extreme Programming (XP):** (2 marks)

1. **Resource Intensive:** XP practices such as pair programming and test-driven development

can be resource-intensive, requiring additional time and effort from developers.

2. **Learning Curve:** Adopting XP may require a significant learning curve for teams that are
new to Agile methodologies or unfamiliar with XP practices.

3. **Dependency on Pair Programming:** XP relies heavily on pair programming, which may not
be suitable for all developers or all types of tasks.

4. **Limited Documentation:** XP prioritizes working software over comprehensive

documentation, which may lead to challenges in knowledge transfer and long-term maintenance.

5. **Resistance to Change:** Some team members or stakeholders may be resistant to adopting

XP practices due to cultural or organizational barriers.
Overall, while Extreme Programming (XP) offers many benefits in terms of code quality,
collaboration, and responsiveness, it may not be suitable for all projects or teams. It's important
for organizations to carefully consider the potential limitations of XP and assess whether it aligns
with their project goals, team dynamics, and organizational culture before adopting it.

Q-9) Short note on Scrum with its key components & benefits.

Scrum is an Agile framework for managing and organizing complex projects, particularly in
software development. It provides a structured yet flexible approach to delivering high-quality
products iteratively and incrementally. Here's a short note on Scrum:

**Short Note on Scrum:** ( 1 mark)

Scrum is an Agile framework characterized by its iterative and incremental approach to project
management. It emphasizes collaboration, transparency, and adaptability, enabling teams to
deliver value quickly and respond to changing requirements effectively.
Key components of Scrum include: (2 marks)

1. **Roles:** Scrum defines three primary roles: the Product Owner, Scrum Master, and
Development Team. The Product Owner is responsible for defining and prioritizing the product
backlog, the Scrum Master facilitates the Scrum process and removes impediments, and the
Development Team is responsible for delivering the increments of the product.

2. **Artifacts:** Scrum defines several artifacts to support project management, including the
Product Backlog, Sprint Backlog, and Increment. The Product Backlog is a prioritized list of features
and requirements, the Sprint Backlog contains the tasks to be completed during the sprint, and the
Increment is the potentially shippable product increment produced at the end of each sprint.

3. **Events:** Scrum events provide opportunities for collaboration, inspection, and adaptation
throughout the project. Key events include Sprint Planning, Daily Standup (or Daily Scrum), Sprint
Review, and Sprint Retrospective.

4. **Sprints:** Sprints are time-boxed iterations, typically lasting between one to four weeks,
during which a potentially shippable product increment is delivered. Sprints provide a cadence for
the team to focus on delivering value and enable regular feedback and adaptation.

5. **Empirical Process Control:** Scrum is based on empirical process control, which emphasizes
transparency, inspection, and adaptation. Teams continuously inspect and adapt their work
processes and product increment based on feedback and learning.

Scrum provides several benefits, including: (2 marks)

- **Faster Time to Market:** By breaking down work into smaller, manageable increments and
delivering value incrementally, Scrum enables faster delivery of products to market.

- **Improved Collaboration:** Scrum promotes collaboration and communication among team

members, stakeholders, and customers, fostering a shared understanding of project goals and
requirements.

- **Adaptability:** Scrum allows teams to adapt to changing requirements and priorities quickly,
enabling them to respond effectively to customer feedback and market dynamics.

Overall, Scrum is a powerful framework for managing complex projects in a dynamic and fast-
paced environment, providing teams with the structure and flexibility needed to deliver high-
quality products iteratively and incrementally.
Q-10) Explain below mention terms in short w.r.t. Scrum:-

Sprint Planning, Daily Scrum, Sprint Review Meeting, Product Backlog, Sprint
Backlog
1 mark each for each short note

Sprint Planning
In this meeting, the product owner and the team members decide which Backlog Items the Team
will work on in the next sprint

Scrum Master should ensure that the Team agrees to realistic goals

Daily Scrum
Held daily:
Short meeting

Lasts for about 15mins only

Main objective is to answer three questions:

What did you do yesterday

What will you do today?

What obstacles are in your way?

Sprint Review Meeting

Team presents what it accomplished during the sprint
Typically takes the form of a demo of new features or underlying architecture
Informal meeting:
The preparation time should not exceed about 2-hours

Product Backlog
A list of all desired work on the project --- usually a combination of :
story-based work (e.g. “let user search and replace”)

task-based work (“improve exception handling”)

List is prioritized by the Product Owner

Sprint Backlog
A subset of Product Backlog Items, which define the work for a Sprint
Created by Team members

Each Item has it’s own status

Updated daily

Q-11) Explain various Sprint artefacts in detail.

In Scrum, Sprint artifacts are the tangible deliverables and documentation

that are created or updated during the course of a sprint. These artifacts
provide transparency, facilitate collaboration, and help the Scrum Team stay
focused on delivering the sprint goal. The key Sprint artifacts in Scrum are the
Product Backlog, Sprint Backlog, Increment, and the Sprint Burndown Chart.
Let's explore each of these artifacts in detail:

1. **Product Backlog:** (2 marks)

- The Product Backlog is a prioritized list of all the features, enhancements,
bug fixes, and other work items that need to be implemented in the product.
It is managed and prioritized by the Product Owner.
- Each item in the Product Backlog represents a user story or requirement,
described in a way that is understandable to the Scrum Team.
- The Product Backlog is dynamic and evolves over time as new insights are
gained, priorities change, or new requirements emerge.
- The Product Backlog serves as the single source of truth for all work items
that need to be done, providing transparency and alignment for the entire
Scrum Team.

2. **Sprint Backlog:** (1 mark)

- The Sprint Backlog is a subset of the Product Backlog that contains the
work items selected for implementation during a specific sprint.
- The Sprint Backlog is created during the Sprint Planning meeting, where
the Scrum Team selects the highest-priority items from the Product Backlog
that they believe they can complete within the sprint.
- Each item in the Sprint Backlog is broken down into smaller tasks and
estimated by the Development Team.
 - The Sprint Backlog is owned by the Development Team, who are
responsible for delivering the items within the sprint.

3. **Sprint Burndown Chart:** (2 marks)

- The Sprint Burndown Chart is a visual representation of the amount of
work remaining in the Sprint Backlog over time.
- It tracks the daily progress of the Development Team towards completing
the sprint goal and shows whether the team is on track to deliver all planned
work by the end of the sprint.
- The Sprint Burndown Chart helps the Scrum Team identify any potential
issues or bottlenecks early in the sprint and adjust their plans accordingly.

These Sprint artifacts provide transparency, focus, and alignment for the
Scrum Team, Product Owner, and stakeholders throughout the sprint. They
enable effective collaboration, communication, and decision-making,
ultimately leading to the successful delivery of valuable product increments
at the end of each sprint.

Q-12) “Taking Good

Practices to Extreme” explain given statement w.r.t
Extreme Programming Model
5 valid points – 5 marks

Taking Good Practices to Extreme

If code review is good:
Always review --- pair programming
If testing is good:
Continually write and execute test cases --- test-driven development
If incremental development is good:
Come up with new increments every few days
If simplicity is good:
Create the simplest design that will support only the currently required functionality.
If design is good,
everybody will design daily (refactoring)
If architecture is important,
everybody will work at defining and refining the architecture (metaphor)
If integration testing is important,
build and integrate test several times a day (continuous integration)
developers work in pairs

test cases and expected results devised before software design

Unit 2 – Ch 4 - Software Effort Estimation

Q-13) Define Software effort estimation? List down the difficulties arise during this
estimation.

Definition – 1 mark, 4 difficulties – 4 marks

A successful project is one delivered on time, within budget and with the required quality This
implies that targets are set which the project manager then tries to meet.

Some of the difficulties of estimating arise from the complexity and invisibility of software. Also, the
intensely human activities which make up system development cannot be treated in a purely
mechanistic way. Other difficulties include:
• Subjective nature of estimating: underestimate the difficulty of small tasks and over-estimate that
of large ones.
• Political implications: ensure that the project is within budget and time scale, otherwise this will
reflect badly , To avoid these ‘political’ influences, one suggestion is that estimates be produced by a
specialist estimating group, independent of the users and the project team .
• Changing technology Where technologies change rapidly, it is difficult to use the experience of
previous projects on new ones.
• lack of homogeneity of project experience Even where technologies have not changed, knowledge
about typical task durations may not be easily transferred from one project to another because of
other differences between projects.

Q-14) Explain over and under estimation problem and basis for successful estimation.

Problems with Over- and Under-Estimates ( 1 mark)

• over-estimate of the effort required, this could lead to more staff being allocated than needed and
managerial overheads, being increased.
• under estimated project might not be completed on time or to cost, danger with the
underestimate is the effect on quality. Staff, particularly those with less experience, could respond to
pressing deadlines by producing work that is substandard,

The Basis for Software Estimating ( 4 marks)

The need for historical data
• Most estimating methods need information about past projects. However, care is needed when
applying past performance to new projects because of possible differences in factors such as
programming languages and the experience of staff.

Parameters to be estimated
• The project manager needs to estimate two project parameters tor carrying out project planning.
These two parameters are effort and duration.
• Duration is usually measured in months. Work-month (wm) is a popular unit for effort
measurement.
Measure of work
• Measure of work involved in completing a project is also called the size o f the project. Work itself
can be characterized by cost in accomplishing the project and the time over which it is to be
completed. Direct calculation of cost or time is difficult at the early stages of planning. The time
taken to write the software may vary according to the competence or experience of the software
developers might not even have been identified.
• standard practice to first estimate the project size: and by using it. the effort and time taken to
develop the software can be computed.

measure of efforts
• Man-month (MM) [also referred to as Person-month (PM)] is a popular unit for effort
measurement.
• It quantifies the effort that can be put in by one person over 1 month. Person-month (PM) is
considered to be an appropriate unit for measuring effort as compared to person-day or person-
year, because developers are typically assigned to a project for a certain number of months.
• It should be noted that an effort estimation of 100 PM does not imply that 100 persons should
work for 1 month. Neither does it imply that one person should be employed for 100 months to
complete the project.

Q-15) Explain different Software effort estimation techniques

5 techniques – 5 marks

Software effort estimation techniques

algorithmic models - which use 'effort drivers’ representing characteristics of the target system
and the implementation environment to predict effort;
• expert judgement - where the advice of knowledgeable staff is solicited;
• analogy - where a similar, completed, project is identified and its actual effort is used as a basis
for the new project;
• Parkinson - which identifies the staff effort available to do a project and uses that as the
‘estimate’;
• price to win - where the ‘estimate’ is a figure that appears to be sufficiently low to win a
contract;
• top-down - where an overall estimate is formulated for the whole project and is then broken
down into the effort required for component tasks;
• bottom-up - where component tasks are identified and sized and these individual estimates
are aggregated.

Q-16) Explain Albrecht function point analysis

5 function points – 5 marks

Albrecht function point analysis

The basis of function point analysis is that computer-based information systems comprise five
major components, or external user types in Albrecht’s terminology, that are of benefit to the
users:
• External input types are input transactions that update internal computer files.
• external output types are transactions where data is output to the user.
• Logical internal tile types are the standing files used by the system. It refers to a group of data
that is usually accessed together. It might be made up of one or more record types.
• external interface file types allow for output and input that might pass to and from other
computer applications.
• external inquiry types - note the US spelling of inquiry - are transactions initiated by the user
that provide information but do not update the internal files.

Q-17) What do you mean by person-month in effort estimation? Explain. Why is it called as
Mythical?

person-month in effort estimation – 3 marks

Mythical explanation – 2 marks

In software development, effort estimation is the process of predicting the amount of time
and resources required to complete a project or specific tasks. One common unit of
measurement used in effort estimation is the "person-month." A person-month represents
the amount of work that one person can complete in one month, typically based on a
standard working hour assumption (e.g., 160 hours per month).

For example, if a project is estimated to require 10 person-months of effort, it means that

one person working full-time would take approximately 10 months to complete the project.
Alternatively, it could mean that a team of 10 people working concurrently would complete
the project in one month.

The term "person-month" is often used in effort estimation to quantify the overall effort
required for a project or specific tasks. However, it's important to note that person-months
are not always directly interchangeable between projects or teams, as factors such as team
composition, skill levels, complexity of the work, and external dependencies can
significantly impact the actual effort required.

Now, regarding the term "Mythical Man-Month": It comes from the title of a book written
by Frederick P. Brooks Jr., titled "The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software
Engineering," published in 1975. In this book, Brooks argues that adding more manpower
to a late software project will only make it later, not faster—a concept known as Brooks'
Law.

The term "Mythical" in "Mythical Man-Month" refers to the misconception that adding
more people to a project will necessarily accelerate its completion. Brooks illustrates
through anecdotes and observations from his experience at IBM that adding more people to
a late project often introduces additional communication overhead, training time, and
coordination efforts, ultimately leading to further delays rather than acceleration.

In essence, "Mythical Man-Month" highlights the fallacy of assuming that effort in

software development can be easily measured and scaled linearly by adding more people—a
concept that still resonates in the industry today. It serves as a cautionary tale against
oversimplifying the complexities of software development and the challenges of managing
large-scale projects.
Q-18) Explain top-down and bottom-up estimation.

Each estimation – 2.5 marks each

Top-down and bottom-up estimation are two approaches used in project management and
software development to estimate the effort, time, and resources required for completing a
project or specific tasks. Let's explore each approach:

1. **Top-Down Estimation:**

Top-down estimation involves deriving estimates for the overall project or larger work
packages based on high-level information, such as historical data, expert judgment, or
analogous projects. This approach starts with an initial estimate for the entire project and
then breaks it down into smaller components.

- **Advantages:**
- Quick and efficient: Top-down estimation allows project managers to quickly generate
high-level estimates based on limited information.
- Useful for early planning: It is particularly useful during the initial planning stages
when detailed requirements are not yet available.
- Provides a big-picture view: Top-down estimation provides stakeholders with an
overview of the overall project scope and expected timelines.

- **Disadvantages:**
- Lack of accuracy: Since top-down estimates are based on high-level information, they
may lack precision and accuracy.
- Limited detail: Top-down estimates may not capture the nuances and complexities of
individual tasks or components.
- Risk of underestimation: There is a risk of underestimating the effort required for
specific tasks, leading to delays or cost overruns.

2. **Bottom-Up Estimation:**

Bottom-up estimation involves estimating the effort required for individual tasks or
components and then aggregating these estimates to determine the overall project estimate.
This approach starts with detailed estimates for small, well-defined tasks and then
combines them to create higher-level estimates.

- **Advantages:**
- Granular and accurate: Bottom-up estimation provides detailed estimates for
individual tasks, resulting in more accurate overall project estimates.
- Consideration of task complexity: By breaking down the project into smaller
components, bottom-up estimation takes into account the complexity and variability of
different tasks.
- Enables resource allocation: Bottom-up estimates help project managers allocate
resources more effectively by identifying the effort required for each task.

- **Disadvantages:**
- Time-consuming: Bottom-up estimation can be time-consuming, especially for large
projects with numerous tasks.
 - Requires detailed information: It relies on detailed knowledge of the project scope,
requirements, and technical complexities, which may not be available early in the project
lifecycle.
- Potential for overestimation: There is a risk of overestimating the effort required for
individual tasks, leading to inflated overall project estimates.

In practice, a combination of top-down and bottom-up estimation approaches is often used

to balance the need for quick estimates with the desire for accuracy and granularity.
Project managers may start with top-down estimates during the early planning stages and
then refine them using bottom-up estimation techniques as more information becomes
available.

Q-19) Short note on Expert judgement.

5 valid points – 5 marks

Expert judgment is a valuable technique used in software effort estimation to leverage the
knowledge and experience of individuals who have expertise in the relevant domain or field.
In this approach, experienced professionals, such as project managers, software developers,
or subject matter experts, provide their opinions, insights, and assessments based on their
past experiences, knowledge of similar projects, and understanding of the specific context.

**Key Points about Expert Judgment in Software Effort Estimation:**

1. **Subject Matter Experts (SMEs):** Expert judgment relies on input from individuals
who possess deep domain knowledge, technical expertise, and a thorough understanding of
the project requirements. These experts may have experience in similar projects,
technologies, or industries, allowing them to provide valuable insights into the effort
required.

2. **Qualitative and Quantitative Assessments:** Experts may offer both qualitative and
quantitative assessments of the effort required for various project tasks. Qualitative
assessments involve subjective judgments based on expert opinion, while quantitative
assessments may involve using historical data, benchmarks, or estimation models to
quantify the effort.

3. **Iterative and Collaborative Approach:** Expert judgment is often obtained through

iterative and collaborative discussions among project stakeholders. Experts may participate
in workshops, brainstorming sessions, or review meetings to share their insights, challenge
assumptions, and refine estimates collaboratively.

4. **Validation and Calibration:** It's important to validate and calibrate expert

judgments against empirical data, historical records, or other estimation techniques to
ensure their accuracy and reliability. Calibration involves comparing expert estimates with
actual project data to identify any biases or discrepancies and adjust future estimates
accordingly.

5. **Risk Management:** Expert judgment can also be valuable in assessing and mitigating
risks associated with software effort estimation. Experts can identify potential risks,
uncertainties, and dependencies that may impact project timelines and provide
recommendations for managing these risks effectively.

6. **Continuous Improvement:** Expert judgment should be viewed as a dynamic and

evolving process, with opportunities for continuous improvement over time. Organizations
can leverage feedback mechanisms, lessons learned, and retrospective analyses to refine
their estimation techniques and enhance the accuracy of future estimates.

In summary, expert judgment plays a critical role in software effort estimation by

harnessing the collective wisdom, insights, and experience of knowledgeable individuals. By
incorporating expert judgment into the estimation process, organizations can make more
informed decisions, improve the accuracy of their estimates, and ultimately increase the
likelihood of project success.

Q-20) Short note on COCOMOII model.

5 valid points – 5 marks

COCOMO II, which stands for Constructive Cost Model II, is an updated version of the
original COCOMO model developed by Barry Boehm in the 1980s. COCOMO II is a
parametric software cost estimation model that helps project managers and software
developers estimate the effort, cost, and duration of software development projects based on
various project attributes and parameters. Here's a brief overview of COCOMO II:

1. **Parametric Model:** COCOMO II is a parametric model, meaning it uses

mathematical equations and empirical data to estimate software development effort. It
considers various project parameters, such as lines of code, team size, complexity, and
experience factors, to calculate effort and cost estimates.

2. **Three Submodels:** COCOMO II consists of three submodels, each tailored to

different levels of project detail and complexity:
- **Basic COCOMO:** Suitable for early-stage estimation of small to medium-sized
projects based solely on lines of code (LOC) or function points.
- **Intermediate COCOMO:** Provides more detailed estimates by considering
additional factors such as project attributes, development environment, and team
experience.
- **Detailed COCOMO:** Offers the most comprehensive estimation by accounting for a
wide range of project characteristics, including product attributes, platform factors,
personnel capabilities, and risk management.

3. **Estimation Process:** The estimation process in COCOMO II involves the following

steps:
- Identification of project characteristics and parameters, such as project size, complexity,
and environment.
- Selection of the appropriate COCOMO II submodel based on project details and
available information.
- Input of project parameters into the selected submodel to generate effort, cost, and
duration estimates.
- Refinement and adjustment of estimates based on expert judgment, historical data, and
project-specific factors.
4. **Advantages:**
- Provides a systematic and structured approach to software cost estimation.
- Offers flexibility to accommodate different project sizes, complexities, and development
environments.
- Incorporates historical data and industry best practices to improve estimation accuracy.
- Helps project managers make informed decisions and allocate resources effectively.

5. **Limitations:**
- Requires detailed information about project characteristics and parameters, which may
not always be available or accurate.
- Relies on historical data and assumptions, which may not fully capture the unique
aspects of every project.
- May require customization and calibration to specific organizational contexts and
development practices.
- Can be complex to use and interpret, especially for users with limited experience in
software estimation.

Overall, COCOMO II is a valuable tool for software cost estimation, providing a structured
framework and mathematical basis for generating reliable estimates. However, it is
important to use COCOMO II in conjunction with expert judgment, historical data, and
other estimation techniques to ensure accurate and realistic project estimates.

Q-21) Short note on COCOMO model with its advantages and disadvantages.

Short Note on COCOMO Model – 2 marks

advantages and disadvantages – 3 marks

The COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model) is a widely used software cost estimation model
developed by Barry Boehm in the 1980s. It provides a structured framework for estimating
the effort, time, and resources required to develop software based on various project
attributes and parameters. Here's a brief overview of the COCOMO model along with its
advantages and disadvantages:

**Short Note on COCOMO Model:**

COCOMO is a parametric model that estimates software development effort based on the
size of the software product and other project characteristics. It consists of three different
submodels:

1. **Basic COCOMO:** Suitable for early-stage estimation of small to medium-sized

projects based solely on lines of code (LOC) or function points.

2. **Intermediate COCOMO:** Provides more detailed estimates by considering additional

factors such as project attributes, development environment, and team experience.

3. **Detailed COCOMO:** Offers the most comprehensive estimation by accounting for a

wide range of project characteristics, including product attributes, platform factors,
personnel capabilities, and risk management.

**Advantages of COCOMO Model:**

1. **Structured Approach:** COCOMO provides a structured and systematic approach to
software cost estimation, guiding project managers through the estimation process and
helping them consider various project parameters.

2. **Flexibility:** COCOMO can be tailored to different project sizes, complexities, and

development environments, making it applicable to a wide range of software development
projects.

3. **Historical Data:** COCOMO incorporates historical data and industry best practices
to improve estimation accuracy. It leverages data from past projects to inform current
estimates and identify patterns and trends.

4. **Informed Decision-Making:** By providing estimates for effort, time, and resources

required, COCOMO helps project managers make informed decisions about project
planning, scheduling, and resource allocation.

**Disadvantages of COCOMO Model:**

1. **Dependency on Inputs:** COCOMO estimates are highly dependent on the accuracy

and completeness of input parameters such as project size, complexity, and team
experience. Inaccurate or incomplete inputs can lead to unreliable estimates.

2. **Complexity:** The detailed COCOMO model, in particular, can be complex to use and
interpret, especially for users with limited experience in software estimation. It requires a
thorough understanding of software development processes and project management
concepts.

3. **Limited Scope:** COCOMO may not capture all the factors that influence software
development effort, such as organizational culture, team dynamics, and external
dependencies. It may not fully account for the unique aspects of every project.

4. **Assumptions and Generalizations:** COCOMO makes certain assumptions and

generalizations about software development practices and environments, which may not
always hold true in real-world scenarios. Users need to exercise caution and validate
estimates based on their specific context.

In summary, while COCOMO provides a valuable framework for software cost estimation,
it is essential to recognize its limitations and use it judiciously in conjunction with expert
judgment, historical data, and other estimation techniques to generate accurate and reliable
estimates.

Q-22) Short note FP model with its advantages over COCOMO.

The Function Point (FP) model is a software sizing technique used for estimating the size
and complexity of a software system based on the functionality it delivers to users.
Developed by Allan Albrecht in the late 1970s, the FP model measures the functionality of a
system by quantifying the number of "function points" it contains, where each function
point represents a specific user interaction or transaction within the software.

**Short Note on Function Point (FP) Model:** (3 marks)

The Function Point model categorizes software functionality into five types of function
points:

1. **External Inputs (EI):** User inputs that result in significant processing by the
software, such as data entry forms.
2. **External Outputs (EO):** User outputs produced by the software, such as reports or
screen displays.
3. **External Inquiries (EQ):** User interactions that involve both input and output, such
as data inquiries or queries.
4. **Internal Logical Files (ILF):** Data maintained by the software that is used internally,
such as databases or data files.
5. **External Interface Files (EIF):** Data shared between the software and external
systems, such as file interfaces or APIs.

Function points are counted based on the complexity and number of each type of function
point, using standardized weighting factors and guidelines. The total function points for a
software system provide a measure of its size and complexity, which can be used for effort
estimation, project planning, and benchmarking.

**Advantages of FP Model over COCOMO:** ( 2 marks)

1. **Size-Based Estimation:** The FP model focuses on measuring the size and complexity
of a software system based on its functionality, rather than relying solely on lines of code or
other input parameters. This makes FP estimates more objective and less dependent on
specific implementation details.

2. **Simpler to Understand:** The FP model provides a relatively simple and intuitive way
to quantify the functionality of a software system, making it easier to communicate with
stakeholders and project teams. This simplicity can lead to greater transparency and
consensus in estimation efforts.

3. **Platform-Independent:** FP estimates are platform-independent, meaning they can be

applied to software projects regardless of the programming language, technology stack, or
development environment used. This makes FP estimates more versatile and adaptable to
different contexts.

4. **Less Susceptible to Variability:** Because FP estimates are based on the functionality

delivered by a software system, they tend to be less susceptible to variability caused by
differences in coding practices, development methodologies, or team experience levels. This
can lead to more consistent and reliable estimates across projects.

5. **Objective Basis for Benchmarking:** Function points provide an objective basis for
benchmarking and comparing the size and complexity of different software projects. This
allows organizations to assess their productivity, quality, and efficiency relative to industry
norms and best practices.

Overall, the Function Point model offers several advantages over COCOMO and other
estimation techniques, particularly in its focus on size-based estimation, simplicity, platform
independence, consistency, and objectivity. However, it's important to note that no
estimation model is perfect, and each has its strengths and limitations depending on the
specific context and requirements of a software project.
Q-23) Explain Capers Jones’ estimated rules of thumb.

Capers Jones’ estimated rules of thumb - 5 marks for all rules

Rule 1: SLOC-function point equivalence:
One function point = 125 SLOC for C programs.
Rule 2: Project duration estimation:
Function points raised to the power 0.4 predicts the approximate development time in calendar
months.
Rule 3: Rate of requirements creep:
User requirements creep in at an average rate of 2% per month from the design through coding
phases.
Rule 4: Defect removal efficiency:
Each software review, inspection, or test step will find and remove 30% of the bugs that are present.
Rule 5: Project manpower estimation:
The size of the software (in function points) divided by 150 predicts the approximate number of
personnel required for developing the application.
Rule 6: Number of personnel for maintenance
Function points divided by 500 predicts the approximate number of personnel required for regular
maintenance activities.
Rule 7: Software development effort estimation:
The approximate number of staff months of effort required to develop a software is given by the
software development time multiplied with the number of personnel required.

Q-24) Explain Putnam’s work in Staffing.

5 valid points – 5 marks

Putnam's work in staffing, particularly in software project management, is primarily

associated with his development of the Putnam Model for software estimation. Larry
Putnam Sr., along with Ware Myers, formulated this model in the late 20th century as a
response to the challenges of accurately predicting effort, schedule, and cost in software
projects. The Putnam Model, also known as the Putnam Resource Allocation Model, is
based on the premise that the effort required to complete a software project is directly
proportional to the size of the project and inversely proportional to the level of resources
allocated to it.

Here's a brief overview of Putnam's work in staffing:

1. **Putnam Model:** The Putnam Model is a mathematical model that quantifies the
relationship between project size, resource allocation, and effort required to complete a
software project. It is based on the assumption that software development effort is
influenced by factors such as project complexity, team experience, and productivity levels.

2. **Resource Allocation:** Putnam's work emphasizes the importance of allocating

adequate resources to software projects to ensure successful outcomes. According to the
Putnam Model, increasing the level of resources, such as skilled personnel, tools, and
infrastructure, can help reduce project duration and mitigate risks associated with schedule
overruns.

3. **Productivity Factors:** Putnam identified various productivity factors that affect

software development effort, including team experience, software reuse, development
environment, and project management practices. By understanding and managing these
factors, organizations can improve productivity and optimize resource allocation.

4. **Empirical Validation:** Putnam's work involved empirical validation of the Putnam

Model using data from a wide range of software projects. Through extensive research and
analysis, Putnam and his colleagues demonstrated the effectiveness of the model in
predicting effort, schedule, and cost outcomes across different project contexts.

5. **Impact on Software Engineering Practice:** Putnam's contributions to staffing and

software estimation have had a significant impact on software engineering practice. The
Putnam Model has been widely adopted by organizations to improve project planning,
resource management, and decision-making processes.

In summary, Putnam's work in staffing and software estimation, particularly through the
development of the Putnam Model, has played a crucial role in advancing our
understanding of the factors influencing software project success. By providing a
quantitative framework for estimating effort and resource requirements, Putnam's
contributions have helped organizations improve their project management practices and
achieve better outcomes in software development initiatives.

Q-25) What do you mean by Development effort multipliers (dem)

5 valid points – 5 marks

Development Effort Multipliers (DEM) are factors used in software cost estimation models, such as
COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model), to adjust the effort estimation based on various project
characteristics. These multipliers are applied to the base effort estimate to account for factors that
influence the complexity and effort required to develop software.

The DEMs in COCOMO typically represent a wide range of project attributes, team capabilities, and
environmental factors that can impact software development effort. These factors may include:

1. **Product Factors:**

- Required software reliability

- Complexity of the product

- Size of the application database

- Required reusability of software components

2. **Platform Factors:**

- Execution time constraint

- Main storage constraint

 - Volatility of the virtual machine environment

3. **Personnel Factors:**

- Analyst capability

- Software engineering capability

- Applications experience

- Virtual machine experience

4. **Project Factors:**

- Use of software tools

- Multisite development

- Required development schedule

Each factor is assigned a numerical value, often ranging from 0.9 to 1.4, which indicates the degree
of influence it has on the effort required for software development. A value greater than 1
indicates an increase in effort, while a value less than 1 indicates a decrease.

For example, if a project has a high degree of required software reliability, the corresponding DEM
for this factor may be greater than 1, indicating that more effort will be needed to ensure the
desired level of reliability.

The DEMs are multiplied together with other factors, such as scale factors and cost drivers, to
compute the overall effort adjustment factor for the project. This adjusted effort is then used to
calculate the final estimate for project effort, schedule, and cost.

Overall, Development Effort Multipliers play a crucial role in software cost estimation by
accounting for the specific characteristics and requirements of individual projects, thereby
improving the accuracy and reliability of effort estimates.
Unit 3 – Ch 5 - Activity Planning
Q-1) State the difference between CPM and PERT.

5 points – 5 marks

CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) are both project
management techniques used to plan, schedule, and control projects. While they share
similarities, there are also key differences between the two:

1. **Focus:**

- CPM: CPM focuses primarily on determining the critical path of a project, which is the longest
sequence of dependent tasks that determines the shortest possible duration for completing the
project.

- PERT: PERT focuses on estimating the duration of each project activity, considering uncertainty
and variability in activity durations, to provide a probabilistic estimate of the project duration.

2. **Deterministic vs. Probabilistic Approach:**

- CPM: CPM uses deterministic estimates for activity durations, assuming that each activity will
take a fixed amount of time to complete.

- PERT: PERT uses probabilistic estimates for activity durations, considering three time estimates
for each activity: optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic (P). These estimates are then
combined using a weighted average to calculate the expected duration for each activity.

3. **Critical Path Calculation:**

- CPM: In CPM, the critical path is determined based on the longest sequence of dependent tasks,
with no consideration for variability in activity durations.

- PERT: In PERT, the critical path is determined based on the expected durations of activities,
taking into account both the mean and variance of activity durations. This allows for greater
flexibility in managing project schedules.

4. **Use of Slack or Float:**

- CPM: CPM uses slack or float to determine the amount of time by which non-critical tasks can
be delayed without delaying the project completion.
 - PERT: PERT does not explicitly use slack or float, as it focuses more on estimating the probability
of completing the project within a specified timeframe based on the variability of activity
durations.

5. **Application:**

- CPM: CPM is commonly used in projects where activity durations are relatively certain and
deterministic, such as construction projects or manufacturing processes.

- PERT: PERT is often used in projects where activity durations are uncertain or variable, such as
research and development projects or projects with high levels of innovation.

In summary, while both CPM and PERT are used for project scheduling and management, they
differ in their approach to estimating activity durations, determining the critical path, and handling
uncertainty in project schedules. CPM is deterministic and focuses on the critical path, while PERT
is probabilistic and focuses on estimating project duration under uncertainty.

Q-2) What are the objectives of activity planning?

5 points – 5 marks

objectives of activity planning

• Feasibility assessment Is the project possible within required timescales and resource constraints?
It is not until we have constructed a detailed plan that we can forecast a completion date with any
reasonable knowledge of its achievability.
• Resource allocation What are the most effective ways of allocating resources to the project and
when should they be available? The project plan allows us to investigate the relationship between
timescales and resource availability (in general, allocating additional resources to a project shortens
its duration) and the efficacy of additional spending on resource procurement.
• Detailed costing How much will the project cost and when is that expenditure likely to take place?
After producing an activity plan and allocating specific resources, we can obtain more detailed
estimates of costs and their timing.
• Motivation Providing targets and being seen to monitor achievement against targets is an effective
way of motivating staff, particularly where they have been involved in setting those targets in the
first place.
• Co-ordination When do the staff in different departments need to be available to work on a
particular project and when do staff need to be transferred between projects? The project plan,
particularly with large projects involving more than a single project team, provides an effective
vehicle for communication and co-ordination among teams.

Q-3) Explain Activity based approach in detail.

5 points – 5 marks

The Activity-Based Approach in activity planning is a method used in project management

to organize and schedule tasks based on specific activities required to achieve project
objectives. This approach emphasizes breaking down a project into individual activities,
defining their dependencies, durations, and resource requirements, and sequencing them in
a logical order to create a comprehensive project plan. Here's a detailed explanation of the
Activity-Based Approach in activity planning:

1. **Identification of Activities:**
- The first step in the Activity-Based Approach is to identify all the activities necessary to
complete the project. Activities are specific tasks or actions that need to be performed to
achieve project deliverables.
- Activities should be clearly defined, measurable, and manageable units of work. They
should represent distinct actions that contribute to the overall project objectives.

2. **Definition of Dependencies:**
- Once activities are identified, the next step is to define the dependencies between them.
Dependencies determine the sequence in which activities must be performed.
- Activities may have different types of dependencies, including finish-to-start (one
activity must finish before the next can start), start-to-start (one activity can start once
another has started), finish-to-finish (one activity must finish before another can finish),
and start-to-finish (one activity must start before another can finish).

3. **Estimation of Durations:**
- After defining dependencies, the next step is to estimate the durations for each activity.
Duration estimation involves assessing the amount of time required to complete each
activity.
- Duration estimates should be realistic and based on factors such as the complexity of the
task, resource availability, and historical data from similar projects.

4. **Resource Allocation:**
- Once durations are estimated, resources needed to complete each activity should be
identified and allocated accordingly. Resources may include personnel, equipment,
materials, and budget.
- Resource allocation ensures that the necessary resources are available when needed and
helps prevent bottlenecks or delays in project execution.

5. **Sequencing of Activities:**
- Activities are then sequenced in a logical order based on their dependencies, durations,
and resource constraints. This sequencing creates a project schedule or timeline that
outlines the start and end dates for each activity.
- Critical Path Method (CPM) or Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
may be used to determine the optimal sequence of activities and identify the critical path,
which represents the longest path through the project network and determines the
minimum project duration.

6. **Monitoring and Control:**

- Throughout the project execution phase, activities are monitored and controlled to
ensure they are progressing according to the planned schedule. Any deviations from the
schedule or unforeseen issues are addressed promptly to prevent delays or disruptions to
the project timeline.
- Regular progress updates, status reports, and performance metrics are used to track
activity progress and make adjustments as necessary.
Overall, the Activity-Based Approach in activity planning provides a structured and
systematic method for organizing, scheduling, and executing project activities. By breaking
down the project into manageable tasks and defining clear dependencies and durations,
project managers can effectively plan and control project execution to achieve desired
outcomes within budget and schedule constraints.

Q-4) Explain Product-based approach in detail.

5 points – 5 marks

**Product-Based Approach:**

In the product-based approach, the planning and scheduling of project activities are driven by the
desired outcomes or deliverables of the project rather than the individual tasks or activities. This
approach focuses on defining the end products or deliverables of the project and then determining
the activities required to produce them.

**Key Components of the Product-Based Approach:**

1. **Definition of Deliverables:** The first step in the product-based approach is to define the
desired outcomes or deliverables of the project. These deliverables should be clearly defined and
agreed upon by all stakeholders, serving as the primary focus of the project.

2. **Work Breakdown Structure (WBS):** Once the deliverables are defined, they are decomposed
into smaller, more manageable components using a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). The WBS
organizes the project work into hierarchical levels, with each level representing increasingly
detailed components of the project deliverables.

3. **Identification of Activities:** With the WBS in place, the next step is to identify the activities
or tasks required to produce each deliverable. This involves breaking down the work packages
from the WBS into specific tasks or activities that must be completed to achieve the desired
outcomes.

4. **Integration with Dependencies:** The activities identified in the product-based approach are
then sequenced and scheduled based on dependencies between deliverables and the overall
project timeline. This ensures that activities are coordinated to produce the desired outcomes in
the most efficient manner.
5. **Monitoring and Control:** Similar to the activity-based approach, progress is monitored
against the planned schedule in the product-based approach, with adjustments made as needed to
keep the project on track. However, the focus is on tracking progress towards producing the
desired deliverables rather than completing individual tasks.

Q-5) Compare Activity based approach & Product based approach.

5 points – 5 marks

Let's compare the activity-based approach and the product-based approach in activity planning:

**Activity-Based Approach:**

1. **Focus:**

- **Activity Orientation:** The primary focus of the activity-based approach is on breaking down
the project into individual tasks or activities.

- **Sequential Hierarchy:** Activities are sequenced in a logical order, and the emphasis is on the
sequence of work required to complete the project.

2. **Planning Perspective:**

- **Task-Oriented:** This approach is more task-oriented, focusing on the specific activities that
need to be carried out to accomplish project objectives.

- **Detailed Planning:** Activities are broken down into granular tasks, and detailed planning is
conducted to estimate durations, resources, and dependencies for each task.

3. **Hierarchical Structure:**

- **Activities:** The project is organized hierarchically based on activities, with each activity
representing a specific task or set of tasks.

- **Work Breakdown:** Work breakdown involves decomposing the project into smaller,
manageable activities, often using techniques like Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).

4. **Flexibility:**

- **Task Sequencing:** Provides flexibility in sequencing individual tasks based on dependencies,

priorities, and resource availability.
 - **Adaptability:** Changes to the project plan can be implemented by adjusting the sequencing
and scheduling of activities.

5. **Monitoring and Control:**

- **Progress Tracking:** Progress is monitored by tracking the completion of individual activities

against the planned schedule.

- **Task-Level Control:** Allows for detailed control and management of tasks, with a focus on
identifying and addressing issues at the activity level.

**Product-Based Approach:**

1. **Focus:**

- **Outcome Orientation:** The primary focus of the product-based approach is on defining the
desired outcomes or deliverables of the project.

- **End Results:** Emphasizes the end products or deliverables that need to be produced to
achieve project objectives.

2. **Planning Perspective:**

- **Outcome-Oriented:** This approach is more outcome-oriented, focusing on defining and

delivering specific products or results.

- **Deliverable Definition:** The project plan is structured around the definition, development,
and delivery of project deliverables.

3. **Hierarchical Structure:**

- **Deliverables:** The project is organized hierarchically based on deliverables, with each

deliverable representing a distinct outcome or result.

- **Work Breakdown:** Work breakdown involves decomposing deliverables into

subcomponents and tasks necessary for their production.

4. **Flexibility:**

- **Outcome Priority:** Provides flexibility in sequencing and scheduling activities based on the
priority of delivering specific deliverables.

- **Product Focus:** Changes to the project plan may involve reordering or reprioritizing
activities to achieve desired deliverables.
5. **Monitoring and Control:**

- **Deliverable Tracking:** Progress is monitored by tracking the completion of deliverables

against the planned schedule.

- **Outcome-Level Control:** Focuses on managing and controlling the production and delivery
of project deliverables, with an emphasis on meeting quality and acceptance criteria.

**Comparison:**

- **Focus:** The activity-based approach focuses on tasks and activities, while the product-based
approach focuses on outcomes and deliverables.

- **Planning Perspective:** Activity-based approach is more detailed and task-oriented, while the
product-based approach is more outcome-oriented and focused on deliverables.

- **Hierarchy:** Activity-based approach organizes the project based on activities, while the
product-based approach organizes it based on deliverables.

- **Flexibility:** Activity-based approach provides flexibility in sequencing tasks, while the

product-based approach provides flexibility in prioritizing deliverables.

- **Monitoring and Control:** Activity-based approach monitors progress at the task level, while
the product-based approach monitors progress at the deliverable level.

In practice, the choice between these approaches depends on factors such as project complexity,
stakeholder preferences, and organizational culture. Some projects may benefit from a
combination of both approaches to develop comprehensive activity plans aligned with project
objectives and constraints.

Q-6) Explain Network planning models & procedure for Formulating a network model

Network planning models - 2 marks

Formulating a network model – 3 marks

Network planning models

These project scheduling techniques model the project’s activities and their relationships as a
network. In the network, time flows from left to right.
two best known being
o CPM (Critical Path Method) and
o PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique).
Formulating a network model
The first stage in creating a network model is to represent the activities and their interrelationships
as a graph. In CPM we do this by representing activities as links (arrowed lines) in the graph - the
nodes (circles) representing the events of activities starting and finishing.

Q-6) Explain procedure of Constructing CPM networks & how to display dummy activity & lagged
activity.

Constructing CPM networks – 3 marks

dummy activities – 1 mark

Representing lagged activities – 1 mark

Constructing CPM networks

• A project network may have only one start node(1)
• A project network may have only one end node(10)

• A link has duration

• Nodes have no duration
• Time moves from left to right
• Nodes are numbered sequentially
• A network may not contain loops
• A network may not contain dangles: all events, except the first and the last, must have at least one
activity entering them and at least one activity leaving them and all activities must start and end with
an event.

• Precedents are the immediate preceding activities: the activity Program test cannot start until both
Code and Data take-on have been completed and activity Install cannot start until Program test has
finished.
Using dummy activities

Representing lagged activities

Q-7) What do you mean by Forward pass? Explain in detail.

5 points – 5 marks

The forward pass

The forward pass is carried out to calculate the earliest date on which each event may be achieved
and the earliest date on which each activity may be started and completed. The earliest date for an
event is the earliest date by which all activities upon which it depends can be completed.
• Activities A. B and F may start immediately, so the earliest date for event 1 is zero and the earliest
start date for these three activities is also zero.
• Activity A will take 6 weeks, so the earliest it can finish is week 6 (recorded in the activity table).
Therefore the earliest we can achieve event 2 is week 6.
• Activity B will take 4 weeks, so the earliest it can finish and the earliest we can achieve event 3 is
week 4.
• Activity f will take 10 weeks, so the earliest it can finish is week 10 - we cannot, however, tell
whether or not this is also the earliest date that we can achieve event 5 since we have not. as yet.
calculated when activity E will finish.
• Activity E can start as early as week 4 (the earliest date for event 3) and, since it is forecasted to
take 3 weeks, will be completed, at the earliest, at the end of week 7.
• Event 5 may be achieved when both E and F have been completed, that is. week 10 (the later of 7
and 10).
• Similarly we can reason that event 4 will have an earliest date of week 9. This is the later of the
earliest finish for activity D (week 8) and the earliest finish for activity C (week 9).

• The earliest date for the completion of the project, event 6. is therefore the end of week 13 - the
later of 11 (the earliest finish for H) and 13 (the earliest finish for G).

Q-8) Explain project scheduling methods.

Valid 3 methods – 5 marks

Project scheduling methods are techniques used to plan, organize, and allocate resources to
project activities within a defined timeline. These methods help project managers and teams
establish a roadmap for completing tasks, manage dependencies, and optimize resource
utilization. Here are some common project scheduling methods:

1. **Gantt Charts:**
- Gantt charts are graphical representations of project schedules that display tasks or
activities along a horizontal timeline.
- Each task is represented as a horizontal bar, with the length of the bar indicating its
duration and the position indicating its start and end dates.
- Gantt charts provide a visual overview of the project schedule, including task durations,
dependencies, and milestones.
- They are useful for communicating project plans to stakeholders and tracking progress
throughout the project lifecycle.

2. **Critical Path Method (CPM):**

- CPM is a network-based scheduling technique used to determine the longest path of
dependent activities, known as the critical path, through the project network.
- The critical path represents the sequence of activities that determines the overall
duration of the project. Any delay in activities along the critical path will delay the project's
completion.
- CPM helps identify the minimum time required to complete the project and allows
project managers to prioritize activities and allocate resources accordingly.
- It is particularly useful for projects with fixed deadlines and limited resources.
3. **Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT):**
- PERT is another network-based scheduling technique that uses three time estimates
(optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely) to estimate the duration of each activity.
- PERT calculates a weighted average of these time estimates to determine the expected
duration of each activity.
- PERT helps account for uncertainty and variability in activity durations and provides a
more probabilistic view of the project schedule compared to CPM.
- It is commonly used for projects with high uncertainty and risk, such as research and
development projects.

4. **Resource Leveling:**
- Resource leveling is a technique used to adjust the project schedule to ensure that
resource usage remains within predefined constraints, such as resource availability or
budget limitations.
- It involves redistributing tasks or adjusting their timing to avoid resource conflicts and
prevent overallocation of resources.
- Resource leveling helps optimize resource utilization, minimize delays, and improve the
overall efficiency of the project.
- It is particularly useful for projects with limited resources or resource dependencies.

5. **Agile Scheduling:**
- Agile scheduling is an iterative approach to project scheduling commonly used in agile
project management methodologies, such as Scrum or Kanban.
- It involves breaking down project requirements into smaller, manageable increments
called user stories or tasks, which are then prioritized and scheduled for implementation in
short iterations or sprints.
- Agile scheduling allows for flexibility and adaptation to changing requirements,
priorities, and stakeholder feedback throughout the project lifecycle.
- It promotes collaboration, transparency, and continuous improvement among project
teams.

6. **Lean Scheduling:**
- Lean scheduling is a methodology focused on eliminating waste and maximizing value in
project scheduling processes.
- It emphasizes the principles of lean manufacturing, such as reducing cycle times,
minimizing inventory, and optimizing workflow efficiency.
- Lean scheduling techniques, such as pull systems, visual management, and continuous
improvement, are used to streamline project workflows, improve productivity, and deliver
customer value more effectively.
- Lean scheduling is often applied in conjunction with lean project management
methodologies, such as Lean Six Sigma or Lean Construction, to optimize project
scheduling and execution.

Each of these project scheduling methods has its advantages and is suited to different
project types, sizes, and contexts. Project managers may use a combination of these
methods or tailor them to fit the specific needs and requirements of their projects. Effective
project scheduling is essential for ensuring project success by delivering results on time,
within budget, and to the desired quality standards.
Q-9) Short note on Critical path with an example.

The Critical Path Method (CPM) is a project management technique used to identify the longest
sequence of dependent activities, known as the critical path, in a project network. The critical path
determines the shortest possible duration for completing the project and helps project managers
prioritize activities, allocate resources, and manage project timelines effectively.

**Key Points about the Critical Path:** (3 marks)

1. **Definition:** The critical path consists of a series of interdependent tasks or activities that
must be completed sequentially without any delays to ensure the project's timely completion. Any
delay in activities along the critical path will directly impact the project's overall duration.

2. **Critical Path Analysis:** Critical path analysis involves identifying all the tasks or activities in
the project, estimating their durations, and establishing dependencies between them. By analyzing
the project network, project managers can determine the critical path and identify activities that
are critical to the project's success.

3. **Longest Duration:** The critical path represents the longest path through the project
network, in terms of cumulative duration. It consists of tasks that have zero slack or float, meaning
that any delay in these tasks will result in a delay in the project's completion.

4. **Project Duration:** The duration of the critical path represents the minimum time required to
complete the project. Therefore, project managers must focus on managing activities along the
critical path to ensure that the project is completed on schedule.

**Example of Critical Path:** (2 marks)

Consider a construction project to build a new house. The project consists of several activities,
each with its own duration and dependencies. Here's a simplified example of the critical path for
this project:

1. **Activity 1: Obtain Building Permits (2 weeks)**

2. **Activity 2: Excavate Foundation (3 weeks)**

3. **Activity 3: Pour Concrete Foundation (2 weeks)**

4. **Activity 4: Frame House (4 weeks)**

5. **Activity 5: Install Plumbing and Electrical (3 weeks)**

6. **Activity 6: Roofing (2 weeks)**

7. **Activity 7: Interior Finishing (4 weeks)**

8. **Activity 8: Landscaping (2 weeks)**

In this example, the critical path consists of the longest sequence of dependent activities, which is
as follows:

- **Activity 1 → Activity 2 → Activity 3 → Activity 4 → Activity 7**

This sequence represents the critical path for the project, with a total duration of 15 weeks. Any
delay in completing activities along this path will directly impact the project's overall duration.
Therefore, project managers must closely monitor and manage activities along the critical path to
ensure that the project is completed within the desired timeframe.

Q-10) Explain different kinds of links in an

activity network.
3 valid links – 5 marks

In an activity network or network diagram used in project management, different kinds of links or
dependencies are used to represent the relationships between project activities. These links help
establish the sequence in which activities should be performed and identify any dependencies or
constraints that may exist between them. Here are the main types of links used in an activity
network:

1. **Finish-to-Start (FS):**

- In a finish-to-start relationship, the successor activity cannot start until the predecessor activity
has been completed.

- This is the most common type of dependency and is used when the completion of one activity is
a prerequisite for starting another.

- Example: Activity B (successor) cannot start until Activity A (predecessor) has finished.
2. **Start-to-Start (SS):**

- In a start-to-start relationship, the successor activity cannot start until the predecessor activity
has started.

- This type of dependency is used when two activities must start simultaneously or when there is
a lag between the start of one activity and the start of another.

- Example: Activity B (successor) cannot start until Activity A (predecessor) has started.

3. **Finish-to-Finish (FF):**

- In a finish-to-finish relationship, the successor activity cannot finish until the predecessor
activity has finished.

- This type of dependency is used when two activities must finish simultaneously or when there
is a lag between the completion of one activity and the completion of another.

- Example: Activity B (successor) cannot finish until Activity A (predecessor) has finished.

4. **Start-to-Finish (SF):**

- In a start-to-finish relationship, the successor activity cannot finish until the predecessor activity
has started.

- This type of dependency is less common and is used when the completion of one activity is a
prerequisite for the start of another, but the two activities must finish at the same time.

- Example: Activity B (successor) cannot finish until Activity A (predecessor) has started.

These types of links help project managers establish the sequence of activities, identify
dependencies between tasks, and determine the critical path of the project. Understanding and
properly defining these relationships is crucial for creating an accurate and effective project
schedule. It's also important to note that dependencies can be further refined with the addition of
lag or lead times, which introduce delays or advancements between linked activities.

Q-11) What is float? Explain Free and interfering float with an example.

Float – 1 mark,
Free float - 1 mark,
interfering float – 1 mark
example – 2 marks
In project management, float, also known as slack, refers to the amount of time an activity can be
delayed without delaying the project's overall completion date. It represents the flexibility or
"buffer" available within the project schedule and allows project managers to identify activities
that can be delayed without impacting critical project milestones.

There are two types of float: free float and interfering float.

1. **Free Float:**

- Free float is the amount of time by which an activity can be delayed without delaying the early
start of any immediately following activities.

- It represents the flexibility available to perform an activity without affecting the start of
subsequent activities.

- Free float is typically associated with non-critical activities, meaning activities that are not on
the critical path.

- Free float can be calculated as the difference between the early start of the following activity
and the early finish of the current activity, minus the duration of the current activity.

- Formula: Free Float = ES (Successor) - EF (Current) - Duration (Current)

2. **Interfering Float:**

- Interfering float is the amount of time by which an activity can be delayed without delaying the
project's overall completion date or any succeeding activities.

- It represents the flexibility available to perform an activity without delaying any succeeding
activities or the project's completion.

- Interfering float is typically associated with activities that have multiple paths leading to
subsequent activities.

- Interfering float can be calculated as the difference between the early start of the following
activity on the longest path and the early finish of the current activity, minus the duration of the
current activity.

- Formula: Interfering Float = ES (Successor, Longest Path) - EF (Current) - Duration (Current)

**Example:**

Consider a construction project to build a house. The project consists of several activities, and the
critical path is determined as follows:

- **Activity A:** Excavate Foundation (Duration: 5 days)

- **Activity B:** Pour Concrete Foundation (Duration: 3 days)

- **Activity C:** Construct Walls (Duration: 7 days)

- **Activity D:** Install Roof (Duration: 4 days)

- **Activity E:** Install Plumbing and Electrical (Duration: 6 days)

Assuming that the project's completion date is fixed and there are no resource constraints, let's
calculate the free and interfering float for Activity B:

- Early Start of Activity B (ES): 0 (assuming project start)

- Early Finish of Activity B (EF): 3 days (EF = ES + Duration)

- Early Start of Activity C (Successor): 3 days (immediately following Activity B)

- Early Start of Activity D (Successor, Longest Path): 10 days (Activity C has 7 days duration)

- Early Start of Activity E (Successor): 10 days (immediately following Activity C)

- Free Float: 3 - 3 - 3 = 0 days

- Interfering Float: 10 - 3 - 3 = 4 days

In this example, Activity B has no free float, meaning any delay in Activity B will impact the start of
Activity C. However, it has interfering float of 4 days, meaning it can be delayed by up to 4 days
without affecting the project's overall completion date or the start of any subsequent activities on
the longest path.

Q-12) Explain Sequencing and scheduling activities in detail with project plan as a bar chart.

sequencing-scheduling- 2 marks

project plan as a bar chart – 3 marks

sequencing-scheduling approach might be quite suitable, particularly where we wish to allocate

individuals to particular tasks at an early planning stage. However, on larger projects it is better to
separate out these two activities: to sequence the task according to their logical relationships and
then to schedule them taking into account resources and other factors.

Approaches to scheduling that achieve this separation between the logical and the physical use
networks to model the project and it is these approaches that we will consider in subsequent
sections

A project plan as a bar chart.

Unit 3 – Ch 6 - Risk Management
Q-13) Define Risk. Explain various categories of risk in detail.

Risk def – 1 mark

4 categories – 4 marks

**Definition of Risk:**
In project management, risk is defined as the possibility of uncertain events or conditions
occurring that could have positive or negative effects on a project's objectives. Risks are
inherent in every project and can arise from various sources, including internal and
external factors, uncertainties, and unforeseen events. Effective risk management involves
identifying, assessing, prioritizing, and mitigating risks to minimize their impact on project
outcomes.

**Categories of Risk:**

1. **Project Management Risks:**

- These risks are related to the planning, execution, and control of the project itself.
- Examples include inadequate project planning, poor resource management, ineffective
communication, and lack of stakeholder engagement.
- Project management risks can impact the project's schedule, budget, scope, and overall
success if not managed effectively.

2. **Technical Risks:**
 - Technical risks arise from uncertainties related to the project's technology, design,
development, and implementation.
- Examples include technological complexity, insufficient technical expertise, changes in
technology, and compatibility issues.
- Technical risks can lead to delays, cost overruns, quality issues, and project failure if not
addressed proactively.

3. **External Risks:**
- External risks originate from factors outside the project team's control and influence.
- Examples include market fluctuations, economic conditions, regulatory changes,
political instability, natural disasters, and supplier/vendor issues.
- External risks can impact project timelines, costs, resources, and deliverables, requiring
contingency plans to mitigate their effects.

4. **Financial Risks:**
- Financial risks involve uncertainties related to the project's budget, funding, financing,
and cost management.
- Examples include budget constraints, funding shortages, cost overruns, inflation,
currency fluctuations, and financial market volatility.
- Financial risks can affect the project's financial viability, profitability, and return on
investment, necessitating financial planning and risk mitigation strategies.

5. **Operational Risks:**
- Operational risks stem from internal processes, procedures, systems, and practices
within the organization.
- Examples include inefficient workflows, inadequate infrastructure, supply chain
disruptions, human error, and security breaches.
- Operational risks can impact project performance, productivity, efficiency, and business
continuity, requiring operational improvements and controls.

6. **Legal and Compliance Risks:**

- Legal and compliance risks arise from non-compliance with laws, regulations, contracts,
agreements, and industry standards.
- Examples include legal disputes, regulatory fines, contractual breaches, intellectual
property infringement, and data privacy violations.
- Legal and compliance risks can result in legal liabilities, reputational damage, financial
penalties, and loss of trust, necessitating legal counsel and compliance measures.

7. **Environmental Risks:**
- Environmental risks pertain to natural or environmental factors that may affect the
project's operations, resources, or outcomes.
- Examples include weather conditions, climate change, environmental regulations,
pollution, natural disasters, and ecological impacts.
- Environmental risks can impact project schedules, costs, safety, and sustainability,
requiring environmental assessments and mitigation measures.

By categorizing risks, project managers can systematically identify, analyze, and address
potential threats and opportunities throughout the project lifecycle. Effective risk
management strategies help mitigate negative impacts, exploit positive opportunities, and
enhance the project's likelihood of success.
Q-14) Explain various risk management approaches.

5 approaches – 5 marks

Risk management approaches are methodologies and strategies used to identify, assess,
prioritize, mitigate, and monitor risks throughout a project's lifecycle. These approaches
help project managers and teams proactively manage uncertainties and potential threats to
achieve project objectives. Here are various risk management approaches:

1. **Traditional/Risk Averse Approach:**

- In the traditional or risk-averse approach, the focus is on avoiding or minimizing risks
to the greatest extent possible.
- Risks are identified, assessed for their likelihood and impact, and prioritized based on
their severity.
- Mitigation strategies typically involve risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk transfer, or
risk acceptance, depending on the nature and severity of the risks.
- This approach is suitable for projects with low tolerance for risk, such as safety-critical
projects or projects in highly regulated industries.

2. **Risk-Taking/Opportunistic Approach:**
- In the risk-taking or opportunistic approach, the focus is on embracing and exploiting
risks to capitalize on potential opportunities.
- Risks are viewed as potential sources of innovation, competitive advantage, and value
creation.
- Mitigation strategies may involve risk sharing, risk enhancement, risk exploitation, or
risk leveraging to maximize potential benefits.
- This approach is suitable for projects where risk-taking is encouraged, such as research
and development projects or projects in dynamic and competitive environments.

3. **Balanced/Pragmatic Approach:**
- The balanced or pragmatic approach seeks to strike a balance between risk aversion and
risk-taking based on the project's objectives, constraints, and stakeholders' risk tolerance.
- Risks are carefully evaluated to determine their potential impact on project goals and
stakeholders' interests.
- Mitigation strategies aim to manage risks effectively while optimizing opportunities for
achieving project success.
- This approach is suitable for projects where a balanced approach to risk management is
required to achieve a favorable outcome.

4. **Preventive Risk Management:**

- Preventive risk management focuses on proactively identifying and addressing risks
before they occur.
- Risks are anticipated based on historical data, expert judgment, and risk analysis
techniques, such as risk registers, risk matrices, and risk workshops.
- Mitigation strategies aim to prevent or minimize the likelihood and impact of identified
risks through risk avoidance, risk reduction, or risk transfer measures.
- This approach is effective for reducing the probability of negative outcomes and
enhancing project resilience.

5. **Reactive Risk Management:**

- Reactive risk management focuses on responding to risks as they occur or after they
have occurred.
 - Risks are addressed as they emerge through contingency plans, crisis management
procedures, and corrective actions.
- Mitigation strategies aim to mitigate the consequences of risks and minimize their
impact on project objectives and stakeholders.
- This approach is suitable for managing unforeseen or unpredictable risks and mitigating
their effects in real-time.

6. **Continuous Risk Management:**

- Continuous risk management involves ongoing monitoring, evaluation, and adjustment
of risks throughout the project lifecycle.
- Risks are regularly reviewed and updated based on changes in project conditions,
assumptions, and external factors.
- Mitigation strategies are dynamic and adaptive, allowing project teams to respond
effectively to evolving risks and uncertainties.
- This approach is suitable for projects with high levels of uncertainty, complexity, or
change, where risks must be managed iteratively and flexibly.

By adopting appropriate risk management approaches, project managers can effectively

navigate uncertainties, optimize opportunities, and enhance the likelihood of project
success. The choice of approach depends on factors such as project objectives, stakeholders'
risk tolerance, project complexity, and organizational culture.

Q-15) Explain any 5 risk from Barry Boehm’s top ten risks.

5 risk names with explanation – 5 marks

Barry Boehm, a renowned software engineer and creator of the COCOMO (Constructive
Cost Model), identified ten top risks commonly encountered in software projects. These
risks, often referred to as Boehm's Top Ten Risks, highlight the most significant challenges
and uncertainties faced by software development teams. Here's a brief overview of each
risk:

1. **Schedule Estimation Risk:**

- Difficulty in accurately estimating project schedules due to factors such as scope
changes, resource constraints, and uncertainty in requirements.

2. **Requirements Risk:**
- Uncertainty or volatility in project requirements, leading to scope creep, changes in
priorities, and difficulties in meeting stakeholder expectations.

3. **Technology Risk:**
- Challenges associated with selecting, adopting, or integrating new or unfamiliar
technologies into the project, including technical complexity, compatibility issues, and
learning curves.

4. **Personnel Risk:**
- Risks related to the availability, competence, and motivation of project team members,
including turnover, skill gaps, and communication breakdowns.

5. **Management Capabilities Risk:**

 - Inadequate or ineffective project management practices, including poor planning,
insufficient resources, weak leadership, and lack of stakeholder involvement.

6. **Organizational Complexity Risk:**

- Challenges stemming from organizational structure, culture, and politics, such as
bureaucracy, conflicting priorities, and resistance to change.

7. **Technical Uncertainty Risk:**

- Uncertainty regarding the feasibility, stability, or performance of technical solutions,
including architectural design decisions, scalability issues, and potential bottlenecks.

8. **Quality and Productivity Risk:**

- Risks associated with maintaining high-quality standards and achieving productivity
targets, including defects, rework, and delays in delivery.

9. **Process Definition Risk:**

- Challenges in establishing and adhering to effective software development processes,
including lack of process maturity, inconsistency in practices, and resistance to process
improvement.

10. **Supplier Risks:**

- Risks related to dependencies on external suppliers, vendors, or subcontractors, such as
delivery delays, quality issues, and contractual disputes.

Boehm's Top Ten Risks serve as a valuable framework for software project managers and
teams to identify, assess, and mitigate potential risks throughout the project lifecycle. By
proactively addressing these risks, teams can enhance project resilience, improve decision-
making, and increase the likelihood of project success.

Q-16) Short note on risk assessment & the steps involved.

**Risk Assessment:** (1 mark)

Risk assessment is a systematic process of identifying, analyzing, and evaluating potential

risks to a project, organization, or system. The goal of risk assessment is to understand the
likelihood and potential impact of risks on objectives and stakeholders, enabling informed
decision-making and effective risk management strategies. The process typically involves
the following steps: (4 marks)

1. **Risk Identification:** Identifying and documenting potential risks, including internal

and external factors, uncertainties, threats, and opportunities.

2. **Risk Analysis:** Analyzing and assessing the likelihood and consequences of identified
risks using qualitative or quantitative methods. This step helps prioritize risks based on
their severity and potential impact.

3. **Risk Evaluation:** Evaluating the significance of risks in terms of their potential to

affect project objectives, stakeholders, resources, and timelines. This involves considering
the likelihood, consequences, and overall risk exposure.
4. **Risk Mitigation:** Developing and implementing risk mitigation strategies to address
high-priority risks and reduce their likelihood or impact. This may include risk avoidance,
risk reduction, risk transfer, or risk acceptance measures.

5. **Risk Monitoring and Review:** Monitoring and tracking identified risks throughout
the project lifecycle, reassessing their likelihood and impact as circumstances change, and
adjusting risk management strategies as needed.

Risk assessment helps organizations and project teams proactively identify and manage
potential threats and opportunities, minimize negative impacts, and maximize positive
outcomes.

Q-17) Explain the use of probability chart and probability impact matrix.

**Probability Chart:** (2 marks)

A probability chart, also known as a risk probability assessment matrix, is a graphical tool
used in risk assessment to evaluate the likelihood or probability of risks occurring. The
chart typically consists of a matrix with two axes: one representing the likelihood or
probability of occurrence (e.g., low, medium, high) and the other representing the
consequence or impact of the risk (e.g., low, medium, high).

The probability chart helps stakeholders visualize and categorize risks based on their
likelihood and impact, allowing for easy identification of high-priority risks that require
attention. By plotting risks on the matrix, organizations can prioritize resources and efforts
on managing risks with the highest likelihood and potential impact.

**Probability Impact Matrix:** (3 marks)

A probability impact matrix is a tool used in risk assessment to assess and prioritize risks
based on their probability of occurrence and potential impact on project objectives. The
matrix typically consists of a grid with probability levels (e.g., low, medium, high) along one
axis and impact levels (e.g., low, medium, high) along the other axis.

Each cell in the matrix represents a combination of probability and impact, with risks
categorized into different risk levels (e.g., low, moderate, high) based on their position in the
matrix. Risks with high probability and high impact are considered high-priority risks that
require immediate attention and mitigation efforts, while risks with low probability and low
impact may be of lower priority.

The probability impact matrix helps project teams assess and prioritize risks systematically,
enabling them to focus on managing the most significant threats and opportunities to
project success. It also facilitates communication and decision-making by providing a
common framework for evaluating risks and determining appropriate risk management
strategies.
Q-18) Short note on risk planning.

5 points – 5 marks

Risk planning is a critical component of the overall risk management process in project
management. It involves developing a proactive strategy and framework to identify, assess,
prioritize, and respond to potential risks that may affect project objectives. The goal of risk
planning is to minimize the impact of uncertainties on project outcomes and increase the
likelihood of project success. Here's a brief overview of key aspects of risk planning:

1. **Risk Identification:**
- Risk planning begins with identifying and documenting potential risks that may impact
the project. This involves gathering input from project stakeholders, team members,
historical data, and external sources to identify both internal and external risks.

2. **Risk Assessment:**
- Once risks are identified, they are analyzed and assessed to determine their likelihood
and potential impact on project objectives. Qualitative and quantitative risk assessment
techniques may be used to prioritize risks based on their severity and likelihood of
occurrence.

3. **Risk Response Planning:**

- Based on the assessment of risks, risk response strategies are developed to address and
mitigate identified risks. This involves determining appropriate actions to reduce, avoid,
transfer, or accept risks, depending on their nature and potential impact.

4. **Contingency Planning:**
- Contingency plans are developed to prepare for and respond to unforeseen risks or
events that may occur during the project. Contingency planning involves identifying
alternative approaches, resources, or courses of action to minimize the impact of
unexpected risks on project objectives.

5. **Risk Budgeting and Resource Allocation:**

- Risk planning also involves allocating resources, time, and budget to implement risk
management activities effectively. This includes setting aside contingency reserves and
establishing a risk management budget to cover the costs associated with risk response
strategies.

6. **Risk Monitoring and Control:**

- Risk planning includes defining processes and procedures for monitoring, tracking, and
controlling risks throughout the project lifecycle. This involves regular risk reviews,
updates to the risk register, and adjustments to risk response plans as needed to address
changing circumstances.

7. **Communication and Stakeholder Engagement:**

- Effective risk planning involves communicating with project stakeholders about
identified risks, their potential impacts, and planned risk response strategies. Stakeholder
engagement helps build awareness, support, and commitment to risk management efforts.

By engaging in comprehensive risk planning, project managers and teams can anticipate
potential challenges, proactively address uncertainties, and increase their ability to achieve
project objectives within the constraints of time, budget, and resources. Effective risk
planning contributes to overall project success by enhancing resilience, minimizing
disruptions, and maximizing opportunities for positive outcomes.

Q-19) Explain any 5 Risk reduction techniques.

5 techniques – 5 marks

Q-20) Explain Risk prioritization & Risk assessment in detail.

Risk prioritization – 2marks
Risk assessment – 3 marks
Risk prioritization
Risk exposure (RE) = (potential damage) x (probability of occurrence)
Ideally
Potential damage: a money value e.g. a flood would cause £0.5 millions of damage
Probability 0.00 (absolutely no chance) to 1.00 (absolutely certain) e.g. 0.01 (one in hundred
chance)
RE = £0.5m x 0.01 = £5,000
Crudely analogous to the amount needed for an insurance premium

Q-21) As per the Risk probability – draw qualitative descriptors table & table of
Qualitative descriptors of impact on cost and associated range values

Risk probability: qualitative descriptors – 2marks

Qualitative descriptors of impact on cost and associated range values

– 3 marks
Q-22) Explain the use of PERT to evaluate the effects of uncertainty.

5 points – 5 marks

PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) is a project management tool used to analyze
and represent the tasks involved in completing a project, along with the time required to complete
each task. PERT is particularly useful when dealing with uncertainty in project timelines because it
incorporates probabilistic estimates for task durations.

Here's how PERT is used to evaluate the effects of uncertainty:

1. **Task Identification:** The first step in using PERT is to identify all the individual tasks required
to complete the project. These tasks should be specific and measurable, forming the building
blocks of the project.

2. **Determining Task Durations:** Rather than providing single-point estimates for task
durations, PERT allows for the estimation of three time estimates for each task:

- **Optimistic time (O):** The shortest possible time required to complete the task, assuming
everything goes perfectly.

- **Most likely time (M):** The best estimate of the time required under normal conditions.

- **Pessimistic time (P):** The longest possible time required, considering potential delays or
setbacks.
3. **Calculating Expected Duration:** PERT then calculates the expected duration (TE) for each
task using a weighted average of the three time estimates:

\[ TE = (O + 4M + P) / 6 \]

This formula places more weight on the most likely time, assuming it's the most realistic
estimate, but still accounts for the uncertainty by considering the optimistic and pessimistic
scenarios.

4. **Identifying Critical Path:** After determining the expected duration for each task, PERT helps
identify the critical path. The critical path is the sequence of tasks that determines the total
duration of the project. Tasks on the critical path have zero slack or float, meaning any delay in
these tasks will directly impact the project's overall timeline.

5. **Assessing Risk and Uncertainty:** PERT provides a probabilistic approach to project

scheduling by acknowledging uncertainty. By using the optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic
estimates for task durations, PERT captures the range of potential outcomes and their associated
probabilities. This allows project managers to assess the level of risk inherent in the project
timeline.

6. **Sensitivity Analysis:** PERT enables sensitivity analysis, which involves examining how
changes in individual task durations or dependencies affect the overall project timeline. By
understanding the critical path and the tasks with the greatest impact on project duration, project
managers can focus their efforts on managing or mitigating risks in those areas.

Overall, PERT helps project managers evaluate the effects of uncertainty by providing a structured
framework for estimating task durations, identifying critical paths, and assessing the probabilistic
nature of project timelines. This allows for better decision-making and risk management
throughout the project lifecycle.

Q-23) Short note on Monte Carlo Simulation with its key components.

Short note on Monte Carlo – 2 marks

Any 3 components – 3 marks

Monte Carlo Simulation is a computational technique used to model the impact of uncertainty and
variability in systems or processes. It generates a large number of random samples or scenarios
based on input parameters that are uncertain or subject to variation. These samples are then
analyzed to estimate the probability distribution of possible outcomes.
Key components of Monte Carlo Simulation include:

1. **Input Parameters:** These are the variables or factors that are uncertain or vary in the system
being modeled. Input parameters are defined along with their probability distributions or ranges
to represent the uncertainty.

2. **Random Sampling:** Monte Carlo Simulation generates random samples from the defined
probability distributions of input parameters. The number of samples generated can vary but
typically ranges from hundreds to thousands, depending on the complexity of the model and the
desired level of accuracy.

3. **Model Evaluation:** Each set of random samples is used as input to the model or simulation
of the system. The model calculates the output or outcomes of interest based on these inputs.

4. **Output Analysis:** The results obtained from running the model with multiple sets of random
samples are analyzed statistically to understand the range of possible outcomes and their
probabilities. This analysis may include generating summary statistics, constructing probability
distributions of outcomes, or identifying key performance indicators.

5. **Decision Making:** Monte Carlo Simulation provides decision-makers with valuable insights
into the likelihood of different outcomes and the associated risks. It helps in making informed
decisions under uncertainty by quantifying the uncertainty and variability inherent in the system.

Monte Carlo Simulation is widely used in various fields such as finance, engineering, project
management, and risk analysis. It allows practitioners to assess the robustness of systems,
evaluate the impact of different scenarios, and optimize decision-making processes in complex and
uncertain environments.

Q-24) Explain Probability impact matrix with diagram.

Diagram – 2 marks

Explanation – 3 marks

Probability impact matrix

 R1, R2 etc refer to particular risks. They
are located on the grid according to the likelihood and impact ratings that have been allocated to
them. A zone around the top right hand corner of the grid can be designated and risks falling
within that zone are treated as requiring urgent action.

Q-25) Explain Project execution & 3 buffer zones used during project execution.

Project execution – 2 marks

& 3 buffer zones – 3 marks

Unit 4 – Ch 7 - Resource Allocation
Q-1) Short note on various kinds of resources.

5 types of resources – 5 marks

Resources can be categorized into various types based on their nature, usage, and
availability. Here's a short note on some common types of resources:

1. **Natural Resources:** These are materials or substances that occur naturally in the
environment and are used by humans for various purposes. Examples include water, air,
minerals, forests, and fossil fuels. Natural resources can be renewable, like sunlight and
wind, or non-renewable, like coal and oil.

2. **Human Resources:** Human resources refer to the individuals who contribute their
skills, knowledge, and labor to organizations or activities. They are essential for the
functioning and success of businesses, institutions, and societies. Human resources
encompass employees, workers, managers, and leaders.

3. **Financial Resources:** Financial resources consist of money or capital that is available

for investment, spending, or financing activities. They include funds obtained from sources
such as savings, investments, loans, grants, and revenues. Financial resources are crucial
for funding operations, projects, and growth initiatives.

4. **Physical Resources:** These are tangible assets or goods used in the production of
goods and services. Physical resources include machinery, equipment, infrastructure,
buildings, land, and raw materials. They are essential for manufacturing, construction,
transportation, and other industrial activities.

5. **Technological Resources:** Technological resources encompass tools, systems,

software, and knowledge that enable the creation, utilization, and advancement of
technology. They include inventions, patents, research and development (R&D) capabilities,
computer software, and hardware. Technological resources drive innovation, efficiency,
and competitiveness in various sectors.

6. **Informational Resources:** Informational resources consist of data, knowledge, and

intellectual property that provide valuable insights, guidance, and competitive advantage.
They include databases, research findings, patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade
secrets. Informational resources support decision-making, problem-solving, and strategic
planning.

7. **Social Resources:** Social resources refer to networks, relationships, and connections

within communities, organizations, and societies. They include social capital, trust,
cooperation, and support networks. Social resources facilitate collaboration,
communication, and collective action for addressing challenges and achieving common
goals.

Understanding and effectively managing these different types of resources are critical for
organizations, governments, and individuals to sustainably meet their needs, achieve their
objectives, and promote well-being.
Q-2) Explain resource allocation using histogram.

5 points – 5 marks

Resource allocation using a histogram involves visualizing and analyzing the distribution of
resources across different categories or activities. A histogram is a graphical representation
of data that organizes values into intervals or bins and displays the frequency or count of
observations within each interval as bars. Here's how resource allocation can be explained
using a histogram:

1. **Identifying Resource Categories:** The first step is to identify the categories or types
of resources that need to be allocated. These could include funds, time, personnel,
equipment, or any other resources relevant to the project or activity.

2. **Defining Allocation Intervals:** Next, determine the intervals or bins into which the
resource allocation will be divided. These intervals could represent time periods, monetary
amounts, quantities, or any other relevant units depending on the nature of the resources
being allocated.

3. **Collecting Allocation Data:** Gather data on the allocation of resources to each

category or activity. This data should include the amount of resources allocated to each
interval or bin within the defined categories.

4. **Creating the Histogram:** Construct a histogram using the collected data. The
horizontal axis of the histogram represents the intervals or bins of resource allocation, while
the vertical axis represents the frequency or count of observations within each interval.

5. **Analyzing Resource Distribution:** Examine the distribution of resource allocation

across different categories or activities by observing the height and shape of the bars in the
histogram. A higher bar indicates a greater allocation of resources to that interval, while a
lower bar indicates a lesser allocation.

6. **Identifying Imbalances or Opportunities:** Analyze the histogram to identify any

imbalances or disparities in resource allocation. Look for categories or activities that
receive disproportionately high or low levels of resources compared to others. Identify areas
where resource allocation may need to be adjusted to optimize efficiency, address priorities,
or mitigate risks.
7. **Making Informed Decisions:** Use the insights gained from the histogram analysis to
make informed decisions about resource allocation. Adjust allocation strategies, reallocate
resources between categories or activities as needed, and prioritize resource allocation
based on organizational objectives, project requirements, and stakeholder needs.

By visualizing resource allocation data using a histogram, stakeholders can gain a clearer
understanding of how resources are distributed and identify opportunities for improvement
or optimization in resource management processes.

Q-3) What are resource clashes? How can it be resolves?

resource clashes – 1 mark &

4 marks for 4 valid points

Resource clashes, also known as resource conflicts or resource constraints, occur when
multiple tasks or activities within a project require the same limited resource
simultaneously. This can lead to inefficiencies, delays, and increased costs if not addressed
promptly. Resource clashes commonly occur in projects where resources such as personnel,
equipment, or funds are shared among multiple tasks or projects.

Here's how resource clashes can be resolved:

1. **Identify Resource Constraints:** The first step is to identify the specific resources that
are in high demand or limited supply and are causing clashes. This may involve reviewing
project plans, schedules, and resource allocation data to pinpoint areas of contention.

2. **Prioritize Tasks:** Evaluate the importance and urgency of each task or activity
affected by resource clashes. Prioritize tasks based on project objectives, deadlines,
dependencies, and stakeholder requirements. Focus on completing critical tasks first to
minimize the impact of resource constraints on project progress.

3. **Adjust Schedules:** Modify project schedules to stagger tasks or activities that require
the same resource at the same time. Reschedule tasks to allocate resources more efficiently,
taking into account resource availability, dependencies, and critical path considerations.
Consider using scheduling techniques such as resource leveling or resource smoothing to
resolve conflicts.

4. **Allocate Additional Resources:** If feasible, allocate additional resources to alleviate

resource constraints and prevent clashes. This may involve hiring additional personnel,
acquiring extra equipment, or securing additional funding to support project activities.
Collaborate with stakeholders and project sponsors to secure necessary resources and
address budgetary constraints.

5. **Optimize Resource Utilization:** Optimize resource utilization by identifying

opportunities to streamline processes, improve efficiency, and eliminate waste. Look for
ways to reduce resource requirements for tasks or activities without compromising quality
or outcomes. Encourage cross-training and skill development to enhance flexibility and
resource versatility.
6. **Communicate and Collaborate:** Foster open communication and collaboration
among project team members, stakeholders, and resource managers to effectively manage
resource clashes. Keep all parties informed about resource constraints, schedule changes,
and mitigation strategies. Encourage proactive problem-solving and teamwork to address
conflicts and find mutually acceptable solutions.

7. **Monitor and Adjust:** Continuously monitor project progress, resource utilization,

and the effectiveness of mitigation efforts. Regularly review project schedules, resource
allocations, and task dependencies to identify new clashes or emerging issues. Be prepared
to adjust plans and strategies as needed to address changing circumstances and optimize
resource management.

By proactively identifying, prioritizing, and addressing resource clashes, project managers

can minimize disruptions, enhance project efficiency, and ensure successful project
outcomes. Effective resolution of resource conflicts requires careful planning,
communication, and collaboration among all stakeholders involved in the project.

Q-4) What are the ways of prioritizing activities? Explain Burman’s priority list.

prioritizing activities – 1 mark

Burman’s priority list – 4 points – 4 marks

Prioritizing activities is essential for effective time management, resource allocation, and
achieving desired outcomes in projects or daily tasks. There are several methods for
prioritizing activities, and one popular approach is Burman's Priority List. Here's an
explanation of Burman's Priority List method:

**Burman's Priority List:**

1. **Identify Activities:** Begin by identifying all the activities or tasks that need to be
prioritized. These could be tasks related to a project, work assignments, personal goals, or
any other responsibilities.

2. **Define Criteria:** Determine the criteria or factors that will be used to prioritize the
activities. Burman's Priority List typically considers three main criteria:
- **Value:** Evaluate the importance or significance of each activity in relation to your
goals, objectives, or desired outcomes.
- **Urgency:** Assess the time sensitivity or deadline associated with each activity. Tasks
with imminent deadlines or time constraints may be prioritized higher.
- **Resources Required:** Consider the resources (such as time, money, manpower)
needed to complete each activity. Activities requiring fewer resources may be prioritized
over resource-intensive tasks.

3. **Assign Scores:** Assign a numerical score to each activity based on its value, urgency,
and resource requirements. You can use a scale, such as 1 to 10, to rate each criterion for
every activity. Higher scores indicate higher priority.

4. **Calculate Total Score:** Calculate the total score for each activity by summing up the
scores assigned to its value, urgency, and resource requirements.
5. **Rank Activities:** Rank the activities in descending order of their total scores. The
activity with the highest total score is given the highest priority, followed by the next
highest-scored activity, and so on.

6. **Focus on High-Priority Activities:** Allocate your time, attention, and resources to the
activities with the highest priority. Begin working on the highest-priority tasks first and
continue down the list in order.

7. **Regular Review:** Regularly review and reassess your priorities as circumstances

change, new tasks arise, or deadlines shift. Update the priority list accordingly to ensure
that you are always focusing on the most important and urgent activities.

Burman's Priority List method provides a systematic approach to prioritizing activities

based on multiple criteria, allowing individuals to make informed decisions about how to
allocate their time and resources effectively. It helps prevent procrastination, ensures that
important tasks are not overlooked, and promotes productivity and goal attainment.

Q-5) Short note on cost schedules (cost profile & accumulative cost diagram).

Cost schedules – 3 marks

Cost schedules can now be produced:
Costs include:

Staff costs – includes not just salary, but also social security contributions by the employer, holiday
pay etc. Timesheets are often used to record actual hours spent on each project by an individual. One
issue can be how time when a staff member is allocated and available to the project, but is not actually
working on the project, is dealt with.
Overheads e.g. space rental, service charges etc. Some overheads might be directly attributable to
the project; in other cases a percentage of departmental overheads may be allocated to project costs.
Usage charges – some charges can be on a ‘pay as you go’ basis e.g. telephone charges, postage,
car mileage – at the planning stage an estimate of these may have to be made

Cost profile – 1 mark

 This
shows how much is going to be spent in each week. This could be important where an organization
allocates project budgets by financial year or quarter and the project straddles more than one of
these financial periods

Accumulative costs – 1 mark

The project manager will also be concerned about planned accumulative costs. This chart can be
compared to the actual accumulative costs when controlling the project to assess whether the project
is likely to meet its cost targets.

Q-6) Short note on scheduling sequence (balancing concern diagram).

2 marks for balancing concern diagram

Scheduling sequences (3 marks)
• Going from an ideal activity plan to a cost schedule can be represented as a sequence of steps,
rather like the classic waterfall life-cycle model.
• In the ideal world, we would start with the activity plan and use this as the basis for our risk
assessment. The activity plan and risk assessment would provide the basis for our resource
allocation and schedule from which we would produce cost schedules.
• successful resource allocation often necessitates revisions to the activity plan,
which, in turn, will affect our risk assessment. Similarly, the cost schedule might indicate the need or
desirability to reallocate resources or revise activity plans - particularly where that schedule
indicates a higher overall project cost than originally anticipated.
• The interplay between the plans and schedules is com plex - any change to any one will affect each
of the others.

Unit 4 – Ch 8 - Monitoring and Control

Q-7) Explain the control cycle with suitable diagram.

Diagram 2 marks
Explanation – 3 marks
Define objectives – at the beginning of the project we decide on what we want to achieve
Making decisions/plans – we decide how we are going to achieve the objectives i.e. we create a
plan
Modelling – as part of the process of creating a plan we will consider different approaches and
attempt to assess the consequences of each of these approaches in terms of how much it will cost
and how long it will take, and so on.
Implementation – the plan is now carried out
Data collection – we gather information at regular intervals about how the project is progressing.
These raw details could be quite numerous and complex on a large project
Data processing – we process the progress data and convert it into ‘information’ which makes it
easier for the project managers and others to understand the overall condition of the project
Making decisions/plans – in the light of the comparison of actual project progress with that
planned, the plans are modified. This may require the modelling of the outcomes of different
possible courses of action
…and so the cycle goes on.
Q-8) Explain the responsibility hierarchy in an organization with suitable diagram.

Diagram 2 marks & Explanation 3 marks

The responsibility hierarchy in an organization refers to the structure or framework that delineates
the distribution of responsibilities and authority among individuals or positions within the
organization. This hierarchy establishes a clear line of command, communication channels, and
accountability mechanisms. Here's a typical responsibility hierarchy in an organization:

1. **Board of Directors (if applicable):** At the top of the organizational hierarchy is the board
of directors, responsible for setting the overall direction, strategy, and policies of the
organization. The board provides oversight and guidance to executive leadership.

2. **Executive Leadership Team:** The executive leadership team comprises top-level

executives such as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), President, Chief Operating Officer (COO),
Chief Financial Officer (CFO), and other senior executives. They are responsible for
implementing the board's directives, managing day-to-day operations, and achieving
organizational goals.

3. **Department Heads or Divisional Leaders:** Reporting to the executive leadership team are
department heads or divisional leaders who oversee specific functional areas or business units
within the organization. Examples include heads of finance, marketing, human resources,
operations, sales, and technology.

4. **Managers and Supervisors:** Managers and supervisors are responsible for overseeing
teams or units within their respective departments or divisions. They provide direction, guidance,
and support to employees, ensure the implementation of organizational policies and procedures,
and monitor performance.

5. **Employees or Staff:** Employees or staff members are responsible for carrying out the day-
to-day tasks and activities necessary to achieve the organization's objectives. They report to
managers or supervisors and contribute their skills, knowledge, and efforts to the success of the
organization.
In addition to this hierarchical structure, responsibility in an organization can also be distributed
horizontally through cross-functional teams, project groups, or committees. These structures
allow for collaboration, knowledge sharing, and problem-solving across different parts of the
organization.

Overall, a well-defined responsibility hierarchy clarifies roles and expectations, promotes

accountability, facilitates decision-making, and ensures efficient coordination and execution of
tasks and projects within the organization.

Q-9) What is monitoring? Explain Red, Amber, Green reporting.

What is monitoring – 2 mark

Red, Amber, Green (RAG) reporting – 3 mark

Monitoring in the context of project management refers to the systematic process of tracking and
evaluating project progress, performance, and outcomes against predefined objectives,
milestones, and metrics. Effective monitoring allows project managers to identify deviations from
the planned course, assess the status of project activities, and take corrective actions as needed to
ensure project success. One common tool used for monitoring and reporting progress is the Red,
Amber, Green (RAG) reporting diagram.

The Red, Amber, Green (RAG) reporting diagram categorizes project status into three color-
coded indicators:

1. **Red:** Indicates areas of concern or significant deviations from the planned objectives,
milestones, or performance standards. Red status suggests that immediate attention and corrective
actions are required to address issues and mitigate risks that could jeopardize project success.

2. **Amber (Yellow):** Indicates areas that are approaching or experiencing minor deviations
from the planned course but are still manageable. Amber status suggests caution and the need for
proactive monitoring and intervention to prevent further escalation of issues and ensure that the
project stays on track.

3. **Green:** Indicates areas where project progress, performance, and outcomes are in line with
the planned objectives, milestones, and standards. Green status signifies that the project is on
track and progressing as expected, with no significant issues or deviations requiring immediate
attention.

Q-10) Explain various ways of collecting data for assessing progress.

5 points – 5 marks

Ways of Collecting Data for Assessing Progress:

1. **Regular Progress Reports:** Establish a schedule for collecting and reviewing progress
reports from project team members, stakeholders, and relevant departments or units. Progress
reports should provide updates on key activities, milestones achieved, challenges encountered,
and planned actions.
2. **Key Performance Indicators (KPIs):** Define and track KPIs that measure project
performance against specific objectives, targets, and benchmarks. KPIs can include metrics such
as cost variance, schedule variance, quality metrics, customer satisfaction scores, and other
relevant indicators.

3. **Status Meetings:** Conduct regular status meetings with project team members,
stakeholders, and sponsors to discuss progress, issues, and priorities. Use these meetings to share
updates, address concerns, and make decisions to keep the project on track.

4. **Project Management Software:** Utilize project management software tools to track and
manage project activities, schedules, resources, and budgets. These tools often include features
for generating reports, dashboards, and visualizations to monitor progress and performance.

5. **Surveys and Feedback:** Collect feedback from project stakeholders, customers, and end-
users through surveys, interviews, focus groups, or feedback forms. This qualitative data can
provide valuable insights into stakeholder satisfaction, preferences, and areas for improvement.

6. **Site Visits and Observations:** Conduct site visits, inspections, or observations to assess
progress firsthand and identify any issues or challenges that may not be captured through other
data collection methods.

By using the Red, Amber, Green (RAG) reporting diagram along with these data collection
methods, project managers can effectively monitor project progress, identify areas requiring
attention, and take timely actions to keep the project on track towards successful completion.

Q-11) Explain review process and give the detail of various roles in review.

5 roles explanations – 5 marks

The review process in a project or organizational context involves systematically examining,

evaluating, and providing feedback on work products, deliverables, processes, or performance to
ensure quality, accuracy, and compliance with requirements or standards. Reviews are typically
conducted at various stages throughout the project lifecycle to identify errors, deficiencies, or
areas for improvement and take corrective actions as needed. Here's an overview of the review
process and the roles involved:

1. **Initiation:**

- **Reviewer(s):** The review process is initiated by designated reviewers, who may be subject
matter experts, stakeholders, or quality assurance personnel responsible for overseeing the
review.

2. **Planning:**
 - **Review Coordinator:** A review coordinator is responsible for planning and organizing the
review process. This role involves determining the scope, objectives, schedule, and participants for
the review, as well as establishing review criteria and protocols.

- **Review Participants:** Review participants are individuals or teams involved in the review
process, including authors or creators of the work product being reviewed, reviewers, and any
other relevant stakeholders or experts.

3. **Preparation:**

- **Author(s) or Creator(s):** The author(s) or creator(s) of the work product being reviewed
prepare the materials for review, ensuring completeness, accuracy, and adherence to relevant
standards or requirements.

- **Reviewers:** Reviewers prepare for the review by familiarizing themselves with the review
objectives, criteria, and protocols, as well as reviewing any relevant documentation or guidelines
provided.

4. **Execution:**

- **Facilitator:** A facilitator may be assigned to lead the review session and guide the
discussion to ensure that objectives are met, and relevant issues are addressed. The facilitator may
also document key findings, decisions, and action items arising from the review.

- **Reviewers:** Reviewers examine the work product or deliverable in detail, comparing it

against established criteria, standards, or requirements. They identify errors, inconsistencies,
omissions, or areas for improvement and document their observations and feedback.

5. **Discussion and Feedback:**

- **Reviewer(s):** Reviewers engage in discussions with the author(s) or creator(s) of the work
product to provide constructive feedback, ask questions, seek clarification, and resolve any
discrepancies or issues identified during the review.

- **Author(s) or Creator(s):** Authors or creators of the work product being reviewed respond to
feedback, address concerns, and provide explanations or revisions as necessary to improve the
quality and completeness of the work.

6. **Documentation and Reporting:**

- **Review Coordinator:** The review coordinator is responsible for documenting the outcomes
of the review, including findings, recommendations, decisions, and any agreed-upon actions or
follow-up steps. A review report or summary may be prepared and distributed to stakeholders for
reference.
 - **Stakeholders:** Relevant stakeholders, including project sponsors, management, and team
members, may be provided with review findings and recommendations to inform decision-making
and support ongoing project activities.

7. **Follow-Up and Closure:**

- **Action Owners:** Individuals responsible for addressing specific issues or action items
identified during the review take appropriate corrective actions, revisions, or improvements as
needed.

- **Review Coordinator:** The review coordinator may follow up on action items to ensure
timely resolution and closure. Once all issues have been addressed satisfactorily, the review
process is formally closed.

By involving various roles in the review process and following established protocols and guidelines,
organizations can effectively identify and address quality issues, ensure compliance with standards
and requirements, and continuously improve their products, processes, and performance.

Q-12) Explain project termination review.

A project termination review, also known as a post-project review or project closure review,
is a systematic evaluation of a project after its completion or premature termination. The
purpose of this review is to assess the project's performance, outcomes, lessons learned, and
overall effectiveness to inform future projects and improve organizational practices. Here's
an overview of project termination review and the various reasons for project termination:

**Project Termination Review:** (5 points – 5 marks)

1. **Objective Setting:** The first step in a project termination review is to define the
objectives and scope of the review. This involves identifying the key areas to be evaluated,
such as project performance, deliverables, stakeholder satisfaction, budget adherence, and
lessons learned.

2. **Data Collection:** Relevant data and information are collected to assess the various
aspects of the project, including project documentation, performance metrics, stakeholder
feedback, team assessments, and any other available sources of information.

3. **Analysis:** The collected data are analyzed to identify strengths, weaknesses,

successes, challenges, and areas for improvement. This analysis may involve comparing
actual project outcomes against planned objectives, assessing project management
practices, identifying root causes of issues or deviations, and examining the effectiveness of
project strategies and processes.

4. **Lessons Learned:** Lessons learned from the project are documented and analyzed to
capture valuable insights, best practices, and recommendations for future projects. This
includes identifying what worked well, what didn't work, and what could be done
differently in similar projects going forward.
5. **Recommendations:** Based on the analysis and lessons learned, recommendations are
developed to improve project management practices, organizational processes, and project
outcomes in the future. These recommendations may address specific areas of
improvement, such as communication, risk management, stakeholder engagement, or
resource allocation.

6. **Reporting:** The findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the project

termination review are documented in a final report or presentation. This report is typically
shared with project stakeholders, management, and other relevant parties to communicate
the results of the review and facilitate organizational learning.

7. **Closure:** Once the project termination review is completed and the findings are
communicated, the project is formally closed. This may involve archiving project
documentation, releasing project resources, updating organizational processes or templates,
and conducting any necessary administrative tasks to close out the project.

Q-13) Explain various reasons for project termination.

**Reasons for Project Termination:** (5 reasons – 5 marks)

1. **Project Completion:** The project has achieved its objectives, delivered the intended
outputs, and met stakeholder requirements, signaling the end of the project lifecycle.

2. **Budget Exhaustion:** The project has consumed all allocated funds or resources
without the possibility of securing additional funding to continue.

3. **Scope Changes:** Significant changes in project scope, objectives, or requirements

may necessitate project termination if the original goals are no longer feasible or relevant.

4. **Technological Obsolescence:** Advances in technology or changes in market

conditions may render the project obsolete or irrelevant, leading to its termination.

5. **Strategic Alignment:** The project no longer aligns with the organization's strategic
priorities, goals, or business objectives, prompting its termination to reallocate resources to
more strategic initiatives.

6. **Legal or Regulatory Issues:** Legal or regulatory constraints, compliance issues, or

changes in legislation may require the termination of the project to avoid legal liabilities or
violations.

7. **Resource Constraints:** Inadequate availability of resources, such as funding,

personnel, or materials, may impede project progress and necessitate its termination.

8. **External Factors:** External factors such as natural disasters, political instability,

economic downturns, or pandemics may disrupt project activities and lead to its premature
termination.
By conducting a thorough project termination review and understanding the various
reasons for project termination, organizations can improve project outcomes, mitigate
risks, and make informed decisions about future projects.

Q-14) Discuss the tools that can be used in visualizing progress being made in project
(Gantt chart, Slip chart, the timeline).

Gantt chart – 2 marks,

Slip chart – 2 marks,
the timeline – 1 mark

Visualizing progress in a project is crucial for stakeholders to understand the status of

tasks, milestones, and overall project trajectory. Several tools are commonly used to
visualize progress effectively. Here are three prominent ones:

1. **Gantt Chart:**
- **Description:** A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart that visually represents project
tasks, their durations, dependencies, and scheduled start and end dates. Each task is
represented by a bar, with the length of the bar indicating the duration of the task, and the
position of the bar indicating its start and end dates.
- **Benefits:**
- Provides a clear overview of project timelines, tasks, and dependencies.
- Helps stakeholders understand the sequencing of tasks and identify critical path
activities.
- Facilitates communication and coordination among project team members by
visualizing task assignments and deadlines.
- **Example Usage:** Project managers often use Gantt charts to create project
schedules, track progress, and monitor task dependencies. Stakeholders can easily visualize
which tasks are on track, behind schedule, or completed.

2. **Slip Chart:**
- **Description:** A slip chart, also known as a variance chart, compares planned versus
actual progress for project tasks over time. It typically consists of two lines: one
representing the planned progress (baseline) and the other representing the actual progress.
The chart visually shows the variance between the planned and actual progress at different
time intervals.
- **Benefits:**
- Highlights deviations from the planned schedule and helps identify areas where tasks
are falling behind or ahead of schedule.
- Enables stakeholders to assess the impact of schedule variances on overall project
timelines and make informed decisions about resource allocation and prioritization.
- Facilitates proactive management of project risks and issues by identifying trends and
patterns in progress deviations.
- **Example Usage:** Project managers use slip charts to track schedule performance,
identify trends in progress deviations, and take corrective actions to keep the project on
track. Stakeholders can quickly assess whether the project is meeting its schedule targets
and where adjustments may be needed.

3. **Timeline:**
 - **Description:** A timeline is a linear representation of project events, milestones, or
deliverables over time. It provides a chronological view of key project activities, milestones,
deadlines, and other significant events.
- **Benefits:**
- Offers a simple and intuitive way to visualize project progress, milestones, and
important dates.
- Helps stakeholders understand the sequencing and timing of project activities and
major milestones.
- Facilitates communication and alignment among project stakeholders by providing a
common reference point for project timelines and deadlines.
- **Example Usage:** Timelines are commonly used in project status reports,
presentations, and communication materials to provide stakeholders with an overview of
project progress and key milestones. They can be used in conjunction with other
visualization tools, such as Gantt charts and slip charts, to provide a comprehensive view of
project progress.

In summary, Gantt charts, slip charts, and timelines are valuable tools for visualizing
progress in a project. Each tool offers unique benefits and can be used in different contexts
to communicate project status, identify deviations from the plan, and facilitate decision-
making and coordination among project stakeholders.

Q-15) Discuss Gantt chart used in visualizing progress being made in project using suitable
diagram.

Diagram – 2 marks

. **Gantt Chart:** (3 marks)

- **Description:** A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart that visually represents project
tasks, their durations, dependencies, and scheduled start and end dates. Each task is
represented by a bar, with the length of the bar indicating the duration of the task, and the
position of the bar indicating its start and end dates.
- **Benefits:**
- Provides a clear overview of project timelines, tasks, and dependencies.
- Helps stakeholders understand the sequencing of tasks and identify critical path
activities.
- Facilitates communication and coordination among project team members by
visualizing task assignments and deadlines.
- **Example Usage:** Project managers often use Gantt charts to create project
schedules, track progress, and monitor task dependencies. Stakeholders can easily visualize
which tasks are on track, behind schedule, or completed.

Q-16) Discuss slip chart used in visualizing progress being made in project using suitable
diagram.

Diagram – 2 marks

. **Slip Chart:** (3 marks)

- **Description:** A slip chart, also known as a variance chart, compares planned versus
actual progress for project tasks over time. It typically consists of two lines: one
representing the planned progress (baseline) and the other representing the actual progress.
The chart visually shows the variance between the planned and actual progress at different
time intervals.
- **Benefits:**
 - Highlights deviations from the planned schedule and helps identify areas where tasks
are falling behind or ahead of schedule.
- Enables stakeholders to assess the impact of schedule variances on overall project
timelines and make informed decisions about resource allocation and prioritization.
- Facilitates proactive management of project risks and issues by identifying trends and
patterns in progress deviations.
- **Example Usage:** Project managers use slip charts to track schedule performance,
identify trends in progress deviations, and take corrective actions to keep the project on
track. Stakeholders can quickly assess whether the project is meeting its schedule targets
and where adjustments may be needed.

Q-17) Discuss The timeline used in visualizing progress being made in project using suitable
diagram.

Diagram – 2 marks
**Timeline:**
- **Description:** A timeline is a linear representation of project events, milestones, or
deliverables over time. It provides a chronological view of key project activities, milestones,
deadlines, and other significant events.
- **Benefits:**
- Offers a simple and intuitive way to visualize project progress, milestones, and
important dates.
- Helps stakeholders understand the sequencing and timing of project activities and
major milestones.
- Facilitates communication and alignment among project stakeholders by providing a
common reference point for project timelines and deadlines.
- **Example Usage:** Timelines are commonly used in project status reports,
presentations, and communication materials to provide stakeholders with an overview of
project progress and key milestones. They can be used in conjunction with other
visualization tools, such as Gantt charts and slip charts, to provide a comprehensive view of
project progress.

Q-18) What is earned value in cost monitoring? Explain with the help of an example and
earned value chart.

What is earned value in cost monitoring – 1 mark

Example – 2 marks
earned value chart - 2marks

Earned value is a project management technique used for cost monitoring and performance
measurement. It provides a way to assess the value of work completed in a project compared to
the planned costs and schedule. Earned value analysis integrates information on project scope,
schedule, and cost to provide insights into project performance and forecasting.

Here's how earned value is calculated and explained using an example:

Let's consider a construction project to build a house. The project has a total budget of $100,000
and is expected to be completed in 6 months. After 3 months, the project manager wants to assess
the progress and performance using earned value analysis.

1. **Planned Value (PV):** Planned value represents the budgeted cost of the work scheduled to
be completed at a specific point in time. For our example, let's assume that after 3 months, the
planned value is $50,000, which is half of the total budget.
2. **Actual Cost (AC):** Actual cost represents the total expenditures incurred for the work
completed up to a specific point in time. Let's say the actual cost after 3 months is $45,000.

3. **Earned Value (EV):** Earned value represents the budgeted cost of the work actually
completed at a specific point in time. In our example, let's assume that after 3 months, the earned
value is $40,000, based on the progress made in completing the house construction.

Now, let's visualize this information using an earned value chart:

| Parameter | Planned Value (PV) | Earned Value (EV) | Actual Cost (AC) |

|-----------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------|-----------------------|

| After 3 Months | $50,000 | $40,000 | $45,000 |

In the earned value chart:

- The planned value (PV) represents the total budget allocated for the project work scheduled to
be completed by a specific point in time. In our example, it is $50,000 after 3 months.

- The earned value (EV) represents the budgeted cost of the work actually completed at the same
point in time. In our example, it is $40,000 after 3 months, indicating the value of work
accomplished.

- The actual cost (AC) represents the total expenditures incurred for the work completed up to the
same point in time. In our example, it is $45,000 after 3 months.

By comparing these values, the project manager can assess the project's performance and cost
efficiency:

- If EV is greater than AC, it indicates that the project is under budget for the work completed.

- If EV is less than AC, it indicates that the project is over budget for the work completed.

- If EV is less than PV, it indicates that the project is behind schedule in terms of value of work
completed.

- If EV is greater than PV, it indicates that the project is ahead of schedule in terms of value of work
completed.

Earned value analysis allows project managers to identify cost and schedule variances, forecast
project outcomes, and take corrective actions as needed to keep the project on track.
Q-19) What are the various ways project manager can take to bring the project back on
track? Explain.

5 ways – 5 marks

Bringing a project back on track requires a combination of proactive measures, effective

communication, and strategic decision-making by the project manager. Here are various ways a
project manager can take to achieve this, including exception planning:

1. **Reassess Project Objectives:**

- Review the project objectives, goals, and scope to ensure alignment with organizational
priorities and stakeholder expectations.

- Clarify project deliverables, milestones, and success criteria to establish a clear direction for the
project team.

2. **Analyze Performance and Identify Deviations:**

- Analyze project performance metrics, including schedule variance, cost variance, and quality
indicators, to identify deviations from the planned course.

- Conduct root cause analysis to understand the underlying reasons for project delays, budget
overruns, or quality issues.

3. **Develop a Recovery Plan:**

- Develop a comprehensive recovery plan that outlines specific actions, timelines, and
responsibilities for addressing project deviations and bringing the project back on track.

- Prioritize recovery efforts based on critical path activities, stakeholder priorities, and risk
exposure.

4. **Adjust Resources and Schedule:**

- Assess resource availability and allocation to ensure that the project has the necessary
manpower, skills, and materials to meet revised project timelines and objectives.

- Adjust the project schedule, including task dependencies and milestones, to reflect changes in
project scope, priorities, or constraints.

5. **Implement Exception Planning:**

- Develop contingency plans and exception management strategies to anticipate and address
potential risks, uncertainties, and disruptions that may impact project execution.
 - Establish trigger points, thresholds, and escalation procedures for identifying and responding to
deviations from the baseline plan.

6. **Enhance Communication and Stakeholder Engagement:**

- Communicate openly and transparently with project stakeholders about project status,
challenges, and recovery efforts.

- Engage stakeholders in problem-solving and decision-making processes to ensure alignment

and support for recovery initiatives.

7. **Empower the Project Team:**

- Empower project team members to take ownership of their tasks, collaborate effectively, and
contribute to problem-solving and innovation.

- Provide resources, training, and support to help the project team overcome obstacles and
achieve project objectives.

8. **Monitor Progress and Take Corrective Actions:**

- Establish robust monitoring and control mechanisms to track project progress, performance,
and risks in real-time.

- Conduct regular project reviews and performance assessments to identify emerging issues,
assess the effectiveness of recovery efforts, and take corrective actions as needed.

9. **Adapt and Learn from Experience:**

- Adapt the recovery plan based on lessons learned from previous experiences, feedback from
stakeholders, and changing project dynamics.

- Continuously improve project management processes, tools, and techniques to enhance

resilience and mitigate future risks.

By implementing these strategies, including exception planning, project managers can effectively
navigate project challenges, mitigate risks, and bring the project back on track to achieve its
objectives within the defined constraints and timelines.

Q-20) Short note on change control.

5 points – 5 marks
Change control is a structured process used in project management to manage and control changes
to project scope, requirements, schedule, budget, or other project components. The purpose of
change control is to ensure that changes are evaluated, approved, implemented, and tracked in a
systematic manner to minimize disruptions, maintain project quality, and prevent scope creep.

Key components of change control include:

1. **Change Request:** A change request is a formal proposal to modify a project component.

Change requests can arise from various sources, such as stakeholders, team members, or external
factors, and may involve changes to scope, requirements, schedule, budget, or other aspects of the
project.

2. **Change Evaluation:** Change requests are evaluated to assess their potential impact on the
project's objectives, scope, schedule, budget, risks, and quality. This evaluation involves analyzing
the proposed change, determining its feasibility, and estimating its implications on project
resources and constraints.

3. **Change Approval:** Once a change request has been evaluated, it is reviewed by the
appropriate stakeholders, such as the project sponsor, steering committee, or change control
board, depending on the project governance structure. Approval is granted based on predefined
criteria, such as alignment with project objectives, feasibility, cost-effectiveness, and potential
risks.

4. **Change Implementation:** Approved changes are implemented according to the project plan
and change management procedures. This may involve updating project documentation,
communicating changes to stakeholders, adjusting project schedules, reallocating resources, or
revising project deliverables.

5. **Change Tracking and Documentation:** Changes are tracked and documented throughout the
change control process to maintain a comprehensive record of all approved changes, their
rationale, and their impact on the project. This documentation provides a historical record for
future reference, audit purposes, and lessons learned.

6. **Change Communication:** Effective communication is essential throughout the change

control process to ensure that stakeholders are informed about proposed changes, their status,
and their impact on the project. Clear and timely communication helps manage expectations, gain
buy-in, and foster stakeholder engagement in the change management process.
7. **Change Control Board (CCB):** A change control board or committee is often established to
oversee the change control process and make decisions regarding change requests. The CCB
typically consists of key stakeholders, project sponsors, subject matter experts, and other relevant
parties responsible for evaluating, approving, and prioritizing changes.

Overall, change control provides a structured framework for managing changes in a project to
minimize risks, maintain project quality, and ensure that project objectives are achieved within the
defined constraints and expectations. By following established change control procedures, project
managers can effectively navigate change management challenges and maintain project success.

Q-21) What in configuration management? Explain SCM in detail.

configuration management – 2 marks

any 3 SCM points – 3 marks

Configuration management (CM) is a discipline within project management that focuses on

identifying, documenting, controlling, and managing changes to the configuration of a system or
product throughout its lifecycle. The goal of configuration management is to ensure that the
product or system meets the desired requirements, specifications, and quality standards while
minimizing risks and maintaining consistency and integrity across different versions or iterations.

Software Configuration Management (SCM) is a specific subset of configuration management that

deals with managing changes to software systems, applications, and related artifacts. SCM
encompasses processes, tools, and techniques for controlling and tracking changes to software
components, source code, documentation, and other deliverables throughout the software
development lifecycle. Here's an overview of SCM in detail:

1. **Version Control:**

- Version control, also known as revision control or source control, is a fundamental aspect of
SCM that involves managing different versions or revisions of software artifacts.

- Version control systems (VCS) such as Git, Subversion (SVN), and Mercurial are used to track
changes to source code, documents, and other files, enabling developers to collaborate, share
code, and manage codebase evolution efficiently.

- Version control provides features such as branching, merging, tagging, and rollback to facilitate
concurrent development, code reviews, and release management.

2. **Configuration Identification:**
 - Configuration identification involves identifying and defining the components, modules, and
configurations of a software system.

- Each software component is uniquely identified, documented, and labeled to ensure

traceability and manageability throughout the development process.

- Configuration identification also includes establishing baselines, which are predefined versions
of the software configuration that serve as reference points for change management and quality
assurance.

3. **Change Control:**

- Change control processes govern how changes to software configurations are proposed,
evaluated, approved, and implemented.

- Change control involves submitting change requests, assessing their impact on the software
system, obtaining approval from stakeholders or a change control board, and implementing
approved changes while maintaining configuration integrity.

- Change control ensures that changes are managed systematically to minimize disruptions,
prevent errors, and maintain consistency and quality across the software product.

4. **Configuration Status Accounting:**

- Configuration status accounting involves maintaining and reporting the status of software
configurations, including their versions, changes, and baselines.

- Configuration management tools and databases are used to track and record configuration
information, such as version history, change history, dependencies, and relationships between
software components.

- Configuration status accounting provides visibility into the current state of the software
configuration, facilitating auditing, compliance, and decision-making processes.

5. **Configuration Auditing and Verification:**

- Configuration audits and verification activities are conducted to ensure that software
configurations conform to predefined requirements, specifications, and quality standards.

- Audits may include formal reviews, inspections, or automated checks to verify compliance with
coding standards, design guidelines, security requirements, and regulatory requirements.

- Configuration audits help identify discrepancies, errors, or inconsistencies in the software

configuration and ensure that corrective actions are taken to address them effectively.

6. **Release Management:**

- Release management involves planning, coordinating, and delivering software releases to end-
users or customers.
 - SCM plays a critical role in release management by facilitating the packaging, labeling, and
distribution of software releases, as well as managing release documentation, release notes, and
deployment procedures.

- Release management ensures that software releases are delivered on schedule, meet quality
expectations, and are properly documented and supported.

Overall, SCM is a vital discipline in software development that enables organizations to manage
software configurations effectively, streamline development processes, enhance collaboration, and
deliver high-quality software products to customers. By implementing SCM practices and tools,
organizations can improve productivity, reduce risks, and achieve greater consistency and
reliability in software development projects.

Q-22) Why do we need SCM?

Any 5 valid points – 5 marks

Software Configuration Management (SCM) is used for several important reasons:

1. **Version Control:** SCM provides version control mechanisms that allow developers to track
changes to source code, documents, and other artifacts over time. This ensures that previous
versions of files can be accessed, compared, and restored if necessary, enabling developers to
work collaboratively without the risk of overwriting or losing code.

2. **Change Management:** SCM facilitates systematic change management processes, allowing

organizations to track, review, and approve changes to software configurations. This helps ensure
that changes are evaluated for their impact on the project and implemented in a controlled
manner to maintain stability and quality.

3. **Configuration Control:** SCM helps maintain configuration integrity by defining and

managing the components, versions, and dependencies of software configurations. This ensures
that the software is built from a consistent and reliable set of components, reducing the risk of
errors, incompatibilities, and conflicts.

4. **Traceability and Auditing:** SCM provides traceability features that enable organizations to
track the history of changes to software configurations and link them to specific requirements,
issues, or tasks. This supports auditing, compliance, and regulatory requirements by providing a
detailed record of changes and their rationale.
5. **Collaboration and Coordination:** SCM facilitates collaboration among development teams
by providing centralized repositories, version control tools, and collaboration platforms. This
allows developers to share code, collaborate on projects, and coordinate their efforts more
effectively, regardless of geographical location or organizational structure.

6. **Risk Management:** SCM helps mitigate risks associated with software development by
providing mechanisms to identify, assess, and manage changes, defects, and dependencies. This
allows organizations to proactively identify potential risks and take corrective actions to prevent or
mitigate their impact on project outcomes.

7. **Quality Assurance:** SCM supports quality assurance efforts by enabling organizations to

establish baselines, conduct reviews, and enforce coding standards, design guidelines, and best
practices. This helps maintain code quality, consistency, and reliability throughout the software
development lifecycle.

8. **Efficiency and Productivity:** SCM improves development efficiency and productivity by

automating repetitive tasks, streamlining workflows, and reducing manual errors. This allows
developers to focus on writing code, testing, and delivering features, rather than managing files,
dependencies, and configurations manually.

Overall, SCM is essential for managing the complexity and variability of software development
projects, ensuring that software configurations are controlled, coordinated, and documented
effectively to deliver high-quality products on time and within budget.

Unit 4 – Ch 9 - Managing Contracts

Q-23) Explain the different types of contract in detail.

Any 3 types – 5 marks

Contracts are legally binding agreements between parties that outline the terms and conditions of
a business relationship or transaction. In project management, contracts are used to establish the
rights, responsibilities, and obligations of the parties involved in a project. There are several types
of contracts, each with its own characteristics, advantages, and considerations. Here are some of
the most common types of contracts:

1. **Fixed-Price (Lump Sum) Contract:**

- In a fixed-price contract, also known as a lump sum contract, the seller agrees to deliver a
product or service for a predetermined fixed price.
- Characteristics:
 - The price is fixed and does not change, regardless of changes in project scope or
requirements.
- The seller assumes the risk of cost overruns and is responsible for delivering the agreed-upon
scope within the specified budget.
- Advantages:
- Provides cost certainty and predictability for both parties.
- Simplifies budgeting and financial planning.
- Encourages sellers to control costs and deliver the project efficiently.
- Considerations:
- May not be suitable for projects with uncertain or evolving requirements.
- Requires a well-defined scope and clear specifications to minimize the risk of disputes.

2. **Cost-Reimbursable Contract:**
- In a cost-reimbursable contract, the buyer agrees to reimburse the seller for the actual costs
incurred in performing the work, plus an additional fee or profit margin.
- Characteristics:
- The seller is reimbursed for allowable costs, such as labor, materials, and overhead, as
incurred.
- The buyer may also pay the seller a fixed fee, a percentage of costs, or an incentive fee based
on predefined performance criteria.
- Advantages:
- Allows flexibility to accommodate changes in project scope or requirements.
- Shifts the risk of cost overruns to the buyer, who reimburses the seller for actual costs.
- Provides incentives for sellers to control costs and deliver value efficiently.
- Considerations:
- Requires close monitoring and oversight to ensure costs are reasonable and justified.
- May lead to disputes over allowable costs, scope changes, or performance criteria.

3. **Time and Material (T&M) Contract:**

- A time and material contract combines elements of both fixed-price and cost-reimbursable
contracts, where the buyer pays the seller for the time and materials expended in performing the
work.
- Characteristics:
- The seller charges the buyer based on the actual hours worked by personnel and the materials
used, plus an agreed-upon markup or hourly rate.
- The contract may include a maximum price or not-to-exceed limit to cap the buyer's liability.
- Advantages:
- Offers flexibility to accommodate changes in project scope or requirements.
- Provides transparency into the actual costs incurred by the seller.
- Allows for rapid project initiation and execution without the need for detailed specifications.
- Considerations:
- Can be more expensive for the buyer if costs exceed the not-to-exceed limit.
- Requires careful monitoring and control to prevent cost overruns and ensure project progress.

4. **Unit Price Contract:**

- A unit price contract is used when the quantity of work to be performed is uncertain, and the
buyer agrees to pay the seller a predetermined price per unit of work delivered.
- Characteristics:
- The seller charges the buyer a fixed price for each unit of work completed or delivered, such
as per hour, per mile, or per unit of output.
- The total price is calculated based on the actual quantity of work performed.
- Advantages:
 - Provides flexibility to accommodate varying quantities of work.
- Simplifies pricing and billing for both parties.
- Encourages efficiency and productivity, as the seller is incentivized to maximize output.
- Considerations:
- Requires accurate measurement and verification of the quantity of work performed.
- May lead to disputes over the definition of units, measurement methods, or quality standards.

5. **Incentive Contracts:**
- Incentive contracts include provisions to motivate sellers to achieve specific performance
targets or goals, such as cost savings, schedule acceleration, or quality improvements.
- Characteristics:
- Incentive contracts may include various incentive mechanisms, such as bonus payments,
penalty clauses, profit-sharing arrangements, or performance-based awards.
- The contract may specify performance targets, metrics, and criteria for determining
incentives or penalties.
- Advantages:
- Aligns the interests of the buyer and seller by incentivizing performance and achieving
project objectives.
- Encourages innovation, collaboration, and continuous improvement.
- Provides flexibility to tailor incentives to specific project goals and priorities.
- Considerations:
- Requires clear and measurable performance metrics to assess achievement and eligibility for
incentives.
- May introduce complexity and administrative overhead in managing incentive structures and
calculations.

Each type of contract has its own advantages, considerations, and suitability for different project
scenarios. When selecting a contract type, project managers should carefully evaluate the project
requirements, risks, constraints, and stakeholder preferences to choose the most appropriate
contract that aligns with project objectives and maximizes value for all parties involved.

Q-24) Explain the various stages in contract placement.

Any 5 valid points – 5 marks

Contract placement, also known as contract procurement or contract acquisition, refers to the
process of procuring goods, services, or works from external suppliers or vendors through the
execution of a contract. The contract placement process typically consists of several stages, each of
which plays a crucial role in ensuring that the contract is effectively negotiated, awarded, and
managed. Here are the various stages in contract placement:

1. **Needs Identification:**

- The contract placement process begins with identifying the organization's needs, requirements,
and objectives that necessitate the procurement of external goods, services, or works.
 - Project managers and stakeholders collaborate to define the scope, specifications, and
performance criteria for the procurement, taking into account factors such as quality standards,
budget constraints, and delivery timelines.

2. **Market Research and Supplier Identification:**

- Market research is conducted to assess the availability, capabilities, and suitability of potential
suppliers or vendors who can meet the organization's requirements.

- Suppliers are evaluated based on factors such as experience, reputation, financial stability,
technical expertise, and compliance with regulatory requirements.

- Requests for information (RFIs) or expressions of interest (EOIs) may be issued to solicit
information from potential suppliers and gauge their interest and capabilities.

3. **Solicitation and Bid Preparation:**

- Based on the requirements and supplier criteria identified during market research, the
organization prepares solicitation documents, such as requests for proposals (RFPs), requests for
quotations (RFQs), or invitations to tender (ITTs).

- Solicitation documents outline the organization's requirements, evaluation criteria, terms and
conditions, and instructions for submitting bids or proposals.

- Suppliers are invited to submit bids or proposals in response to the solicitation documents,
providing details of their proposed solutions, pricing, and terms.

4. **Bid Evaluation and Supplier Selection:**

- Bids or proposals received from suppliers are evaluated based on predefined criteria, such as
price, technical capabilities, quality, delivery schedule, and risk management.

- Evaluation committees or review boards assess the strengths and weaknesses of each bid,
conduct comparative analyses, and identify the most advantageous offer that best meets the
organization's requirements.

- Supplier selection may involve negotiations with shortlisted suppliers to refine terms, resolve
ambiguities, and finalize contract terms and conditions.

5. **Contract Award and Execution:**

- Once the preferred supplier is selected, the contract is awarded through the issuance of a
formal contract document or purchase order.

- The contract document outlines the rights, responsibilities, obligations, and terms of the
agreement between the organization and the supplier, including scope of work, deliverables,
pricing, payment terms, warranties, and dispute resolution mechanisms.
 - Both parties sign the contract to formalize the agreement and commence contract execution,
which may involve fulfilling preconditions, mobilizing resources, and initiating project activities.

6. **Contract Administration and Management:**

- Throughout the contract lifecycle, contract administration and management activities are
performed to ensure compliance with contractual obligations, monitor performance, and manage
changes, risks, and disputes.

- Contract administrators oversee the day-to-day execution of the contract, track deliverables,
review progress reports, and address issues or concerns that arise during contract implementation.

- Regular communication and collaboration between the organization and the supplier are
essential to maintain a positive working relationship, resolve conflicts, and achieve successful
project outcomes.

7. **Contract Closure and Evaluation:**

- At the conclusion of the contract, contract closure activities are performed to finalize
outstanding deliverables, settle financial accounts, and terminate contractual obligations.

- Both parties conduct a post-contract evaluation to assess the performance, outcomes, and
lessons learned from the contract placement process, identifying strengths, weaknesses, and areas
for improvement for future procurements.

By following these stages in contract placement, organizations can effectively procure goods,
services, or works from external suppliers, mitigate risks, achieve value for money, and support the
successful execution of projects and business initiatives.

Q-25) Explain Contract checklist in detail.

Complete checklist – 5 marks

Contract checklist
Definitions – what words mean precisely e.g. ‘supplier’, ‘user’, ‘application’

Form of agreement. For example, is this a contract for a sale or a lease, or a license to use a
software application? Can the license be transferred?

Goods and services to be supplied – this could include lengthy specifications

Timetable of activities

Payment arrangements – payments may be tied to completion of specific tasks

Ownership of software

Can client sell software to others?

Can supplier sell software to others? Could specify that customer has ‘exclusive use’

Does supplier retain the copyright?

Where supplier retains source code, may be a problem if supplier goes out of business; to
circumvent a copy of code could be deposited with an escrow service

Environment – for example, where equipment is to be installed, who is responsible for various
aspects of site preparation e.g. electricity supply?

Customer commitments – for example providing access, supplying information

Standards to be met

Unit 5 – Ch 10 - Managing People in Software

Environments
Q-1) Explain Theory X and Theory Y of Hawthrone Effect.

Hawthrone Effect – description – 1 mark

Theory X – 2 marks
Theory Y – 2marks

Theory X and Theory Y are two contrasting approaches to human motivation and management
proposed by Douglas McGregor, a management theorist, in his book "The Human Side of
Enterprise" published in 1960. These theories represent different assumptions about the nature of
employees and their attitudes towards work.

1. **Theory X:**

- Theory X represents a traditional, authoritarian approach to management, based on negative

assumptions about employees' attitudes and motivations.

- Assumptions of Theory X include:

- Employees inherently dislike work and will avoid it if possible.

 - Employees must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve
organizational goals.

- Employees lack ambition, prefer to be directed, and have little interest in taking on
responsibility.

- Employees are primarily motivated by extrinsic factors such as money, rewards, or

punishment.

- Under Theory X, managers adopt a directive and autocratic leadership style, closely supervising
and micromanaging employees to ensure compliance with organizational rules and procedures.

2. **Theory Y:**

- Theory Y represents a more participative, humanistic approach to management, based on

positive assumptions about employees' attitudes and motivations.

- Assumptions of Theory Y include:

- Employees view work as natural and fulfilling, and will seek out opportunities to contribute to
organizational goals.

- Employees are capable of self-direction, creativity, and innovation when given the freedom
and autonomy to do so.

- Employees possess a desire to learn, grow, and develop their potential, and will take on
responsibility willingly.

- Employees are motivated by intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, and personal
satisfaction.

- Under Theory Y, managers adopt a supportive and participative leadership style, empowering
and involving employees in decision-making, goal-setting, and problem-solving processes.

The Hawthorne Effect, on the other hand, is a phenomenon observed during the Hawthorne
studies conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in the 1920s and 1930s. The
Hawthorne Effect refers to the tendency of individuals to modify their behavior or performance in
response to the awareness of being observed or studied. This effect suggests that the mere act of
paying attention to individuals or providing them with feedback can lead to improvements in
performance, regardless of the specific interventions implemented.

While Theory X and Theory Y represent different perspectives on human motivation and
management, the Hawthorne Effect is a separate concept that highlights the importance of social
and psychological factors in influencing behavior and performance in organizational settings.
However, these concepts are often discussed together in discussions about management theories
and practices, as they all contribute to our understanding of how to effectively motivate and
manage employees in the workplace.
Q-2) How to select the right person for the job? Explain the selection / recruitment process
in projects.

Valid 5 points – 5 marks

Selecting the right person for a job is crucial for the success of any project. It involves identifying
candidates who possess the necessary skills, qualifications, experience, and traits to perform the
job effectively and contribute to the project's objectives. The selection process typically involves
several steps to assess candidates' suitability for the role and organization. Here is an overview of
the selection/recruitment process in projects:

1. **Job Analysis and Role Definition:**

- The process begins with a thorough job analysis to identify the key responsibilities,
requirements, and qualifications for the position.

- Project managers work with stakeholders to define the roles and expectations for the position,
including technical skills, experience, education, and behavioral competencies.

2. **Recruitment Strategy:**

- A recruitment strategy is developed to attract qualified candidates for the position.

- This may involve internal recruitment (promoting from within the organization), external
recruitment (advertising job openings), or a combination of both.

- Recruitment channels such as job boards, professional networks, social media, referrals, and
recruitment agencies may be utilized to reach potential candidates.

3. **Application Screening:**

- Applications and resumes received from candidates are screened to identify those who meet
the minimum qualifications and requirements for the position.

- Screening criteria may include relevant experience, education, certifications, technical skills,
and other job-specific qualifications.

4. **Interviews:**

- Qualified candidates are invited to participate in interviews to further assess their suitability for
the role.

- Interviews may include one-on-one interviews, panel interviews, technical interviews,

behavioral interviews, or competency-based interviews.
 - Interview questions are designed to evaluate candidates' technical skills, problem-solving
abilities, communication skills, teamwork, and cultural fit with the organization.

5. **Assessment and Evaluation:**

- In addition to interviews, candidates may be required to undergo assessments or tests to

evaluate their knowledge, skills, and abilities related to the job.

- Assessment methods may include technical tests, case studies, presentations, personality
assessments, or situational judgment tests.

6. **Reference Checks:**

- References provided by candidates are contacted to verify their employment history,

performance, and character.

- Reference checks provide insights into candidates' past experiences, accomplishments, and
interpersonal skills, helping to validate their suitability for the role.

7. **Offer and Negotiation:**

- The top candidate is selected based on their performance in interviews, assessments, and
reference checks.

- An offer of employment is extended to the selected candidate, including details such as salary,
benefits, start date, and other terms and conditions of employment.

- Negotiations may occur between the employer and the candidate to finalize the offer and
address any concerns or preferences.

8. **Onboarding and Integration:**

- Once the offer is accepted, the selected candidate undergoes an onboarding process to
familiarize them with the organization, team, and project.

- Onboarding may include orientation sessions, training programs, introductions to key

stakeholders, and the provision of resources and tools necessary for success in the role.

9. **Performance Monitoring and Feedback:**

- After the candidate joins the project team, their performance is monitored and evaluated on an
ongoing basis.

- Regular feedback sessions are conducted to provide guidance, support, and coaching to help
the new team member succeed in their role.
By following a structured and comprehensive selection/recruitment process, project managers can
identify and onboard the right candidates for their projects, ensuring that they have the skills,
capabilities, and attributes needed to contribute to project success.

Q-3) What is motivation? Explain any one theory from Maslow, Herzberg and vroom’s
theory in detail.

Motivation – 2 marks
Anyone theory – 3 marks

Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that drive individuals to initiate, sustain, and
direct their behavior towards achieving specific goals or satisfying their needs. Motivation
influences the intensity, persistence, and direction of behavior, guiding individuals' actions and
choices in pursuit of desired outcomes. There are various theories of motivation proposed by
psychologists and management theorists to explain the factors that influence human motivation.
Three prominent theories are Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, and
Vroom's Expectancy Theory.

1. **Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:**

- Abraham Maslow proposed the Hierarchy of Needs theory, which suggests that human needs
can be categorized into a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the bottom and
higher-order needs at the top.

- The hierarchy consists of five levels of needs:

1. **Physiological Needs:** These are the basic biological needs for food, water, shelter, and
other survival essentials.

2. **Safety Needs:** These include the need for security, stability, protection from harm, and a
predictable environment.

3. **Love and Belongingness Needs:** These involve the need for social relationships,
friendship, love, acceptance, and a sense of belonging.

4. **Esteem Needs:** These encompass the need for self-esteem, self-respect, recognition,
achievement, and respect from others.

5. **Self-Actualization Needs:** These are the highest-level needs related to personal growth,
self-fulfillment, creativity, and realizing one's full potential.

- According to Maslow, individuals are motivated to satisfy their needs in a hierarchical order,
starting with lower-level needs before progressing to higher-level needs. Once a need is met, it no
longer serves as a motivator, and individuals strive to fulfill the next higher-level need.

2. **Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Hygiene-Motivation Theory):**

 - Frederick Herzberg proposed the Two-Factor Theory, also known as the Hygiene-Motivation
Theory, which distinguishes between factors that influence job satisfaction (motivators) and
factors that influence job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors).

- Motivators are intrinsic factors related to the nature of the work itself and include factors such
as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and opportunities for personal growth
and development. These factors contribute to job satisfaction and motivation.

- Hygiene factors are extrinsic factors related to the work environment and include factors such
as salary, benefits, job security, working conditions, company policies, and interpersonal
relationships. These factors do not directly lead to satisfaction but can prevent dissatisfaction if
they are adequate.

- According to Herzberg, satisfying hygiene factors can only prevent job dissatisfaction, while
motivators are essential for increasing job satisfaction and motivation.

3. **Vroom's Expectancy Theory:**

- Victor Vroom proposed the Expectancy Theory, which suggests that individuals are motivated to
perform behaviors that they believe will lead to desired outcomes and rewards.

- The theory is based on three key components:

1. **Expectancy:** The belief that effort will lead to performance. Individuals assess their
ability to perform a task and the likelihood of success.

2. **Instrumentality:** The belief that performance will lead to outcomes or rewards.

Individuals evaluate whether achieving performance goals will result in desired outcomes such as
rewards, recognition, or advancement.

3. **Valence:** The value or importance individuals place on the anticipated outcomes or

rewards. Different individuals may have different preferences or priorities regarding the outcomes
they desire.

- According to Expectancy Theory, motivation is influenced by the perceived expectancy,

instrumentality, and valence of the outcomes associated with a particular behavior or
performance.

These theories of motivation provide valuable insights into the factors that drive human behavior
and can help managers understand and address the diverse needs and motivations of individuals
in the workplace. By applying these theories, organizations can design effective motivational
strategies, create supportive work environments, and enhance employee engagement,
satisfaction, and performance.
Q-4)Explain Oldham-Hackman job characteristics with methods to improve job
satisfaction.

Oldham-Hackman job characteristics – 2 marks

Oldham-Hackman Model - methods – 3 marks

The Oldham-Hackman Job Characteristics Model is a framework developed by J. Richard

Hackman and Greg R. Oldham in the 1970s to understand how job design affects employee
motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The model proposes that certain job
characteristics influence psychological states, which in turn affect employee motivation and
job satisfaction. The key components of the model are:

1. **Core Job Characteristics:**

- Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires different skills and activities.
- Task Identity: The extent to which a job involves completing a whole and identifiable
piece of work.
- Task Significance: The impact and importance of the job on others or the organization.
- Autonomy: The level of independence, freedom, and discretion an employee has in
performing the job.
- Feedback: The extent to which employees receive clear, direct, and timely information
about their performance.

2. **Psychological States:**
- Experienced Meaningfulness of Work: The degree to which employees perceive their
work as meaningful, valuable, and important.
- Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes: The sense of ownership and accountability
employees feel for the results of their work.
- Knowledge of Results: The extent to which employees receive feedback on the
effectiveness of their work performance.

3. **Outcomes:**
- High Internal Work Motivation: Employees are intrinsically motivated to perform well
and derive satisfaction from their work.
- High Quality Work Performance: Employees demonstrate high levels of performance,
productivity, and effectiveness.
- High Satisfaction with the Work: Employees experience job satisfaction, fulfillment, and
positive feelings about their work.
- Low Absenteeism and Turnover: Employees are less likely to be absent from work or
leave the organization voluntarily.

Methods to improve job satisfaction based on the Oldham-Hackman Job Characteristics

Model include:

1. **Job Redesign:**
- Redesigning jobs to increase skill variety by incorporating a wider range of tasks and
activities.
- Enhancing task identity by providing employees with whole and meaningful pieces of
work that they can complete from start to finish.
- Increasing task significance by emphasizing the importance and impact of employees'
contributions to the organization or society.
 - Granting autonomy by empowering employees to make decisions, set their own goals,
and control their work processes.
- Providing feedback mechanisms to ensure employees receive timely and relevant
information about their performance and its outcomes.

2. **Job Enrichment:**
- Implementing job enrichment programs that add higher-level responsibilities,
challenges, and opportunities for growth and development.
- Allowing employees to take on additional tasks, projects, or roles that align with their
skills, interests, and career aspirations.
- Providing opportunities for job rotation or cross-training to expose employees to
different aspects of the job and broaden their skills and experiences.
- Encouraging employees to participate in decision-making processes, problem-solving
activities, and innovation initiatives to foster a sense of ownership and engagement.

3. **Recognition and Rewards:**

- Recognizing and rewarding employees for their contributions, achievements, and
performance improvements.
- Offering incentives such as bonuses, promotions, awards, or public recognition for
outstanding performance or innovative ideas.
- Providing opportunities for advancement, career growth, and skill development to
motivate employees to perform at their best and pursue their career goals within the
organization.

By implementing these methods to improve job satisfaction based on the Oldham-Hackman

Job Characteristics Model, organizations can create more fulfilling, engaging, and
motivating work environments that enhance employee well-being, performance, and
retention.

Q-5) What is stress? Explain the reasons for stress.

What is stress – 2 mark

Reasons – 3 marks
role of good management in stress – 2 marks

Stress is a physiological and psychological response to demands, challenges, or pressures that

individuals perceive as exceeding their coping abilities or resources. It is a natural reaction that
prepares the body to deal with perceived threats or challenges, often referred to as the "fight or
flight" response. While some level of stress can be normal and even beneficial in motivating
individuals to perform at their best, prolonged or excessive stress can have negative effects on
physical health, mental well-being, and overall productivity.

There are several reasons for stress, which can vary widely depending on individual circumstances,
personality traits, and environmental factors. Some common reasons for stress include:
1. **Work-related Stress:** Heavy workloads, tight deadlines, long hours, and job insecurity can
all contribute to work-related stress. Factors such as role ambiguity, lack of control, and
interpersonal conflicts in the workplace can also increase stress levels.

2. **Personal Life Challenges:** Personal issues such as financial problems, relationship

difficulties, family conflicts, health concerns, and major life events (e.g., marriage, divorce,
relocation) can cause significant stress.

3. **Environmental Stressors:** Environmental factors such as noise, pollution, traffic congestion,

overcrowding, and other urban stressors can contribute to feelings of stress and overwhelm.

4. **Social Stressors:** Social pressures, peer pressure, social expectations, and social
comparisons can lead to stress, especially in adolescents and young adults.

5. **Technological Stress:** Overuse of technology, constant connectivity, information overload,

and digital distractions can contribute to stress and feelings of being overwhelmed.

6. **Financial Stress:** Financial pressures such as debt, unemployment, job insecurity, and
economic uncertainty can be significant sources of stress for many individuals.

Q-6) How good management within organizations helps in stress management?

Any 5 valid points – 5 marks

Good management plays a crucial role in stress management and mitigation within organizations.
Here are some ways in which good management can help reduce stress:

1. **Clear Communication:** Effective communication from management helps clarify

expectations, provide guidance, and reduce uncertainty, thereby reducing stress related to role
ambiguity and job insecurity.

2. **Supportive Leadership:** Supportive and empathetic leadership fosters trust, respect, and
psychological safety in the workplace, which can buffer the effects of stress and improve employee
well-being.
3. **Workload Management:** Good management involves distributing workloads fairly, setting
realistic goals and deadlines, and providing resources and support to help employees manage their
tasks effectively.

4. **Flexibility and Autonomy:** Offering flexibility in work arrangements, such as flexible hours,
remote work options, and autonomy in decision-making, can empower employees and reduce
stress associated with rigid work schedules and micromanagement.

5. **Conflict Resolution:** Effective conflict resolution strategies, such as mediation, negotiation,

and constructive feedback, help address interpersonal conflicts and reduce workplace stress.

6. **Training and Development:** Providing opportunities for skill development, training, and
career advancement helps employees feel competent, confident, and valued, reducing stress
related to job insecurity and lack of growth opportunities.

7. **Wellness Programs:** Implementing wellness programs and initiatives, such as stress

management workshops, mindfulness training, and employee assistance programs, promotes
mental and physical well-being and helps employees cope with stress more effectively.

Overall, good management practices that prioritize clear communication, supportive leadership,
workload management, flexibility, conflict resolution, training, and wellness can create a positive
work environment that reduces stress and fosters employee engagement, satisfaction, and
productivity.

Q-7) Short note on stress management.

5 points – 5 marks

Stress management refers to the process of identifying, understanding, and effectively coping with
stressors to reduce their negative impact on physical health, mental well-being, and overall quality of
life. It involves adopting strategies and techniques to manage stress proactively, enhance resilience,
and promote a sense of balance and well-being. Here's a short note on stress management:

Stress management encompasses a variety of approaches aimed at addressing the causes and
symptoms of stress, as well as promoting healthy coping mechanisms and lifestyle habits. These
approaches may include:
1. **Identification of Stressors:** The first step in stress management is recognizing the sources of
stress in one's life. This may involve identifying specific stressors related to work, relationships,
finances, health, or other areas of life.

2. **Stress Reduction Techniques:** Various techniques can help reduce stress levels and promote
relaxation, such as deep breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation, mindfulness,
yoga, and tai chi.

3. **Time Management:** Effective time management strategies, such as prioritizing tasks, setting
realistic goals, and managing distractions, can help individuals better manage their workload and
reduce feelings of overwhelm.

4. **Healthy Lifestyle Choices:** Adopting a healthy lifestyle is essential for managing stress. This
includes eating a balanced diet, getting regular exercise, prioritizing sleep, avoiding excessive caffeine
and alcohol, and practicing self-care activities.

5. **Social Support:** Maintaining strong social connections and seeking support from friends,
family, or support groups can provide emotional support and help individuals cope with stress more
effectively.

6. **Cognitive Behavioral Techniques:** Cognitive-behavioral techniques, such as cognitive

restructuring and problem-solving skills training, can help individuals challenge negative thought
patterns, reframe stressors, and develop more adaptive coping strategies.

7. **Relaxation and Stress Reduction Activities:** Engaging in hobbies, recreational activities, and
relaxation techniques can provide a much-needed break from stress and promote feelings of calm
and well-being.

8. **Seeking Professional Help:** In some cases, stress may become overwhelming or chronic,
requiring professional intervention. Mental health professionals, such as therapists or counselors,
can provide guidance, support, and therapeutic interventions to help individuals manage stress more
effectively.

Overall, stress management is an ongoing process that requires self-awareness, commitment, and
practice. By adopting healthy coping strategies, seeking support when needed, and making positive
lifestyle choices, individuals can effectively manage stress and improve their overall well-being.
Q-8) Short note on Health and safety.

5 points – 5 marks

Health and safety refer to the measures and practices implemented to protect the well-being and
physical integrity of individuals in various environments, including workplaces, public spaces, and
homes. Ensuring health and safety is paramount for preventing accidents, injuries, illnesses, and
fatalities, as well as promoting overall well-being and productivity. Here's a short note on health
and safety:

1. **Workplace Health and Safety:** In the workplace, health and safety measures aim to create a
safe and healthy working environment for employees, contractors, and visitors. This involves
identifying and mitigating hazards, providing adequate training and supervision, implementing
safety protocols and procedures, and complying with relevant health and safety regulations and
standards.

2. **Risk Assessment and Management:** Risk assessment is an essential component of health

and safety management, involving the identification, evaluation, and control of potential hazards
and risks. Risk management strategies may include engineering controls, administrative controls,
personal protective equipment (PPE), and emergency response plans.

3. **Occupational Health and Wellness:** Occupational health programs focus on promoting

employee health and wellness, preventing work-related illnesses and injuries, and addressing
occupational health hazards such as chemical exposures, ergonomic risks, and psychological
stressors. These programs may include health screenings, wellness initiatives, ergonomic
assessments, and counseling services.

4. **Emergency Preparedness and Response:** Health and safety plans should include provisions
for emergency preparedness and response, including evacuation procedures, first aid training, fire
safety protocols, and disaster recovery plans. Regular drills and training exercises help ensure that
individuals know how to respond effectively in emergency situations.

5. **Regulatory Compliance:** Organizations are required to comply with relevant health and
safety laws, regulations, and standards established by governmental agencies and industry bodies.
Compliance ensures that workplaces adhere to minimum safety requirements and provide a safe
working environment for employees.

6. **Promotion of Safety Culture:** Promoting a safety culture within an organization involves

fostering a collective commitment to health and safety among all stakeholders, including
management, employees, contractors, and visitors. This includes promoting safety awareness,
encouraging reporting of hazards and near misses, and recognizing and rewarding safe behaviors.

7. **Community Health and Safety:** Beyond the workplace, health and safety initiatives extend
to the broader community, encompassing measures to protect public health, prevent accidents
and injuries, and address environmental hazards. Community health and safety efforts may include
public education campaigns, vaccination programs, sanitation initiatives, and disaster
preparedness efforts.

Overall, health and safety are fundamental principles that underpin the well-being and
productivity of individuals and communities. By implementing comprehensive health and safety
measures, organizations and societies can create environments that prioritize the protection and
promotion of human health and safety.

Q-9)Explain Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs with suitable diagram.

Diagram – 1 marks

All stages short explanation as per diagram– 4 marks

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943,

which suggests that human motivation is based on fulfilling a hierarchical sequence of needs.
Maslow organized these needs into a pyramid with five levels, arranged in order of priority from
basic physiological needs at the bottom to higher-order psychological needs at the top. Here's a
brief overview of each level:
1. **Physiological Needs:**

- At the base of the hierarchy are physiological needs, which are essential for survival and include
air, water, food, shelter, sleep, and clothing.

- These needs must be satisfied first, as they are fundamental to maintaining homeostasis and
ensuring biological functioning.

2. **Safety Needs:**

- Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek safety and security, including protection
from physical harm, danger, threats, and deprivation.

- Safety needs encompass aspects such as stable employment, financial security, health,
property, and personal safety.

3. **Love and Belongingness Needs:**

- The third level involves social needs, such as the need for love, affection, friendship, intimacy,
and a sense of belonging.

- Humans have an inherent desire to form meaningful relationships, connect with others, and
feel accepted and valued by their social groups.

4. **Esteem Needs:**

- Esteem needs encompass both internal and external factors related to self-esteem and
recognition from others.

- Internal esteem needs include self-confidence, self-respect, autonomy, and a sense of

competence and achievement.

- External esteem needs involve receiving respect, recognition, appreciation, and validation from
others, such as peers, colleagues, and society.

5. **Self-Actualization Needs:**

- At the top of the hierarchy is self-actualization, which represents the realization of one's full
potential, personal growth, and fulfillment of intrinsic goals and aspirations.

- Self-actualization involves pursuing meaningful activities, expressing creativity, seeking personal

development, and experiencing peak moments of flow and fulfillment.

According to Maslow, individuals progress through these levels of needs sequentially, with lower-
order needs taking precedence over higher-order needs. Once a need at a lower level is satisfied,
individuals are motivated to seek fulfillment of needs at the next higher level. However, Maslow
acknowledged that not all individuals follow this exact progression, as external circumstances,
cultural factors, and individual differences can influence the prioritization of needs.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs has had a significant impact on psychology, human behavior, and
various fields such as management, education, and healthcare. It provides a framework for
understanding human motivation, personal development, and well-being, and has practical
implications for designing interventions, programs, and policies aimed at promoting individual
growth and satisfaction.

Unit 5 – Ch 11 - Working in Teams

Q-10) Explain the meaning of Team & State its characteristics.

Meaning 2 marks & characteristics – 3 marks

A team is a group of individuals who come together to achieve a common goal or objective. Teams
typically consist of members with complementary skills, knowledge, and expertise, who
collaborate and coordinate their efforts to accomplish tasks, solve problems, make decisions, and
deliver results. Teams can vary in size, composition, structure, and purpose, and may exist within
organizations, businesses, communities, or other social contexts.

Characteristics of a Team:

1. **Shared Goal:** Teams have a common purpose or objective that unifies members and
provides direction for their collective efforts.

2. **Clear Roles and Responsibilities:** Each team member has specific roles, responsibilities, and
tasks that contribute to the achievement of the team's goals.

3. **Effective Communication:** Teams promote open, honest, and transparent communication

among members, enabling information sharing, idea exchange, and collaboration.
4. **Mutual Accountability:** Team members hold themselves and each other accountable for
their actions, commitments, and performance, fostering a sense of responsibility and ownership.

5. **Collaborative Decision Making:** Teams engage in collaborative decision-making processes,

where input and perspectives from all members are considered and consensus is reached.

6. **Diversity and Inclusion:** Teams benefit from diversity in perspectives, backgrounds,

experiences, and skills, which enriches discussions, fosters creativity, and enhances problem-
solving.

7. **Support and Trust:** Teams cultivate an environment of trust, respect, and support, where
members feel comfortable sharing ideas, expressing opinions, and taking risks.

Q-11) Describe the benefits of working as a team.

Any 5 – 5 marks

Benefits of Working as a Team:

1. **Synergy:** Teamwork enables individuals to combine their strengths, talents, and expertise to
achieve outcomes that are greater than what each member could accomplish individually.

2. **Increased Efficiency and Productivity:** Teams can distribute tasks, share workload, and
leverage collective resources, resulting in faster and more efficient completion of projects and
tasks.

3. **Enhanced Creativity and Innovation:** Collaboration within teams stimulates creativity,

generates new ideas, and encourages innovative solutions to complex problems.

4. **Improved Problem Solving:** By bringing together diverse perspectives and knowledge,

teams are better equipped to identify issues, analyze problems, and develop effective solutions.

5. **Better Decision Making:** Teams can make more informed and well-rounded decisions by
considering multiple viewpoints, weighing alternatives, and evaluating risks collectively.

6. **Higher Employee Engagement and Satisfaction:** Working in a supportive and collaborative

team environment fosters a sense of belonging, camaraderie, and fulfillment among members,
leading to higher job satisfaction and morale.
7. **Professional Development:** Teams provide opportunities for learning, skill development,
and career growth through collaboration, mentorship, and exposure to new experiences.

8. **Resilience and Adaptability:** Teams are better equipped to adapt to changes, overcome
challenges, and navigate uncertainties by leveraging the collective strengths and resources of their
members.

Overall, teams play a crucial role in organizations and society by harnessing the power of
collaboration, diversity, and shared goals to achieve success, drive innovation, and promote
individual and collective well-being.

Q-12) Explain the stages of development of a team.

All 4 stages – 5 marks

The stages of team development, often referred to as Tuckman's stages or Tuckman's model, were
proposed by psychologist Bruce Tuckman in 1965. This model describes the typical phases that
teams go through as they form, mature, and become effective in achieving their goals. The stages
are sequential and iterative, meaning that teams may cycle through them multiple times as they
face new challenges or changes. Here are the four stages of team development:

1. **Forming:**

- In the forming stage, team members come together for the first time, and the focus is on
orientation and getting to know one another.

- Members may be polite and cautious as they establish ground rules, clarify goals, and define
roles and responsibilities.

- There is often a sense of excitement and anticipation, as well as some anxiety or uncertainty
about what to expect.

- Leadership is critical during this stage to provide direction, set expectations, and facilitate
introductions and team cohesion.

2. **Storming:**

- The storming stage is characterized by conflict, disagreement, and the emergence of

interpersonal dynamics within the team.
 - As members start to express their opinions, preferences, and ideas, differences in perspectives,
communication styles, and personalities may lead to tensions and power struggles.

- Conflict can be both productive and destructive during this stage, serving as a catalyst for
creativity, innovation, and problem-solving, but also potentially undermining trust and cohesion.

- Effective communication, active listening, and conflict resolution skills are essential for
navigating the storming stage and resolving conflicts constructively.

3. **Norming:**

- In the norming stage, the team begins to establish norms, values, and standards of behavior
that promote collaboration, cooperation, and mutual respect.

- Members develop a greater sense of cohesion, trust, and camaraderie as they work through
differences and find common ground.

- Roles and responsibilities become more defined, and processes for decision-making, problem-
solving, and communication become more structured and efficient.

- Team members start to align their efforts toward achieving shared goals and objectives,
leveraging their individual strengths and contributions.

4. **Performing:**

- The performing stage is characterized by high levels of collaboration, productivity, and

effectiveness as the team works together seamlessly to achieve its goals.

- Members have developed strong relationships, trust, and mutual respect, enabling them to
communicate openly, take risks, and support one another.

- The focus shifts from internal dynamics and conflict resolution to external tasks and projects,
with the team demonstrating high levels of autonomy, self-management, and achievement.

- Leadership in the performing stage is more about facilitation, empowerment, and removing
barriers to success, rather than direct supervision or control.

It's important to note that not all teams progress through the stages of development at the same
pace or in a linear fashion. Some teams may experience setbacks or challenges that cause them to
regress to earlier stages, while others may skip certain stages altogether. Additionally, team
composition, context, and external factors can influence the dynamics of team development.
Effective team leadership, communication, and collaboration are essential for guiding teams
through the stages of development and maximizing their potential for success.
Q-13) What is group performance? Explain barriers to good team decisions and Delphi
approach.

group performance – 2 marks

Barriers to Good Team Decisions - 3 marks

Group performance refers to the collective effectiveness and productivity of a team or group in
achieving its goals, objectives, and desired outcomes. It involves assessing the overall performance
of the group as a whole, including the quality of work produced, the ability to meet deadlines, the
level of collaboration and communication, and the attainment of desired results. Group
performance is influenced by various factors, including team dynamics, leadership,
communication, coordination, individual contributions, and external influences.

Barriers to Good Team Decisions:

1. **Groupthink:** Groupthink occurs when team members prioritize consensus and harmony
over critical thinking and independent evaluation of ideas. It can lead to the suppression of
dissenting viewpoints, conformity to group norms, and the adoption of flawed or irrational
decisions.

2. **Dominance of Individual Voices:** In some cases, certain individuals within the team may
dominate discussions or decision-making processes, preventing others from contributing their
ideas or perspectives. This can lead to a lack of diversity in thinking and limited consideration of
alternative viewpoints.

3. **Confirmation Bias:** Confirmation bias occurs when team members selectively seek,
interpret, or favor information that confirms their existing beliefs or preferences, while ignoring or
discounting conflicting evidence. This can result in flawed decision-making and a failure to consider
all relevant information objectively.

4. **Poor Communication:** Communication breakdowns, misunderstandings, or

misinterpretations can hinder effective collaboration and decision-making within teams.
Inadequate sharing of information, unclear instructions, and communication barriers such as
language differences or cultural differences can impede the flow of ideas and coordination of
efforts.

5. **Time Pressure:** Tight deadlines or time constraints can create pressure on teams to make
quick decisions without fully evaluating all available options or considering potential
consequences. This can lead to rushed or suboptimal decisions that may be poorly thought out or
inadequately analyzed.

6. **Group Polarization:** Group polarization occurs when team members' initial tendencies
toward a particular decision or viewpoint are reinforced and amplified through group discussion,
leading to more extreme positions or decisions than those initially held by individual members.

Q-14) Explain The Delphi Approach in detail.

5 points – 5 marks

The Delphi approach is a structured, iterative method for consensus-building and decision-making
in group settings, particularly when dealing with complex or uncertain issues. It involves a series of
rounds of anonymous surveys or questionnaires administered to a panel of experts or
stakeholders. Here's how the Delphi approach works:

1. **Identification of Experts:** A panel of experts or stakeholders with relevant knowledge and

expertise in the subject matter is selected to participate in the Delphi process.

2. **Round 1 - Initial Survey:** In the first round, participants respond to open-ended questions or
prompts related to the topic under consideration. They provide their opinions, insights, and
predictions anonymously.

3. **Round 2 - Feedback and Iteration:** The responses from the first round are compiled,
summarized, and fed back to the participants in the second round. Participants are asked to review
the feedback, reconsider their initial responses, and provide revised input or feedback based on
the collective insights of the group.

4. **Subsequent Rounds:** The process may involve multiple rounds of iteration, with participants
providing feedback and revising their responses based on the feedback received from previous
rounds. The goal is to converge toward a consensus or convergence of opinions among the
participants.

5. **Consensus and Recommendations:** Once consensus is reached or the opinions stabilize, the
final results are analyzed, and recommendations or conclusions are drawn based on the collective
input of the participants.
The Delphi approach helps mitigate some of the barriers to good team decisions by promoting
anonymity, encouraging diverse perspectives, and facilitating systematic exploration of complex
issues. It allows for the aggregation of expert opinions, the identification of areas of agreement or
divergence, and the synthesis of consensus-based recommendations or decisions. Additionally, the
Delphi approach can be conducted remotely, allowing for participation from geographically
dispersed experts and stakeholders.

Q-15) Discuss the decision making process (team heedfulness – egoless programming, XP,
Scrum & chief programmer teams).

All 5 answered – 5 marks

The decision-making process in various team-based approaches, such as team heedfulness, egoless
programming, Extreme Programming (XP), Scrum, and Chief Programmer Teams, involves a
combination of collaboration, communication, and structured methodologies to make informed
and effective decisions. Here's how decision making is approached in each of these methods:

1. **Team Heedfulness:**

- Team heedfulness emphasizes mindfulness and collective awareness among team members to
make decisions that prioritize safety, quality, and continuous improvement.

- Decision making in a heedful team involves open dialogue, active listening, and a shared
commitment to achieving common goals.

- Team members are encouraged to voice their concerns, share insights, and challenge
assumptions, fostering a culture of transparency and psychological safety.

- Decisions are made collaboratively, with input from all team members, and are guided by the
principles of risk management, value delivery, and customer satisfaction.

2. **Egoless Programming:**

- Egoless programming, as advocated by Gerald Weinberg, emphasizes the separation of personal

ego from code ownership and decision making.

- In egoless programming, team members focus on the quality of the code and the effectiveness
of solutions, rather than individual pride or attachment to specific ideas.

- Decision making is based on meritocracy, where ideas are evaluated based on their technical
merit, feasibility, and alignment with project goals, rather than the authority or status of the
individual proposing them.

- Feedback and peer review are integral to the decision-making process, with team members
providing constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement in a respectful and ego-free
manner.
3. **Extreme Programming (XP):**

- Extreme Programming (XP) is an agile software development methodology that emphasizes

collaboration, simplicity, feedback, and continuous improvement.

- In XP, decisions are made collaboratively by the whole team, including developers, customers,
and other stakeholders, through practices such as pair programming, collective code ownership,
and customer involvement.

- The team follows principles such as "embrace change," "quality first," and "deliver early and
often," which guide decision making in prioritizing features, adapting to changing requirements,
and maintaining a sustainable pace of work.

- Decision making in XP is supported by practices such as test-driven development (TDD),

continuous integration (CI), and frequent retrospectives, which provide feedback loops for
validating decisions and adjusting course as needed.

4. **Scrum:**

- Scrum is a framework for agile project management that emphasizes iterative development,
self-organization, and cross-functional teamwork.

- In Scrum, decision making is decentralized, with self-organizing teams responsible for planning,
executing, and delivering work increments in short iterations called sprints.

- The Product Owner is responsible for prioritizing the product backlog and making decisions
about what features to include in each sprint based on customer feedback, market analysis, and
business value.

- The Scrum Master facilitates decision making by removing impediments, facilitating meetings,
and coaching the team on Scrum practices and principles.

- Team members collaborate closely, communicate openly, and make collective decisions about
how to implement user stories, resolve technical challenges, and meet sprint goals.

5. **Chief Programmer Teams:**

- Chief Programmer Teams, proposed by Fred Brooks in "The Mythical Man-Month," involve a
hierarchical structure with a chief programmer or architect leading a team of developers.

- In Chief Programmer Teams, the chief programmer assumes responsibility for making key
technical decisions, defining the overall architecture, and guiding the team in implementing the
design.

- Decision making is centralized around the chief programmer, who has the authority and
expertise to make critical technical choices, resolve conflicts, and ensure consistency and
coherence in the software design.

- While the chief programmer provides leadership and direction, input from other team members
is valued, and decisions are made collaboratively whenever possible.
In summary, decision making in team-based approaches such as team heedfulness, egoless
programming, XP, Scrum, and Chief Programmer Teams involves a combination of collaboration,
transparency, feedback, and structured methodologies to ensure that decisions are informed,
effective, and aligned with project goals and values. Each approach has its own unique principles,
practices, and roles that influence how decisions are made and executed within the team context.

Q-16) Short note on organization with Types of Organization Structures.

Organization – 2 marks
Types of Organization Structures – 3 marks

Organization and team structures refer to the way in which individuals are grouped and organized
within an organization to achieve common goals and objectives. These structures define the
relationships, roles, responsibilities, and communication channels among members of the
organization or team. Here's a short note on organization and team structures, along with their
types:

1. **Organization Structure:**

- Organization structure refers to the framework or hierarchy that defines how activities are
coordinated, resources are allocated, and authority is distributed within an organization.

- The organization structure defines the reporting relationships, decision-making processes, and
workflow patterns that govern how work is performed and how information flows within the
organization.

- Common types of organization structures include functional, divisional, matrix, and flat
structures, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

Types of Organization Structures:

- **Functional Structure:** Organizes employees based on their specialized functions or areas of

expertise, such as marketing, finance, operations, and human resources.

- **Divisional Structure:** Groups employees into separate divisions or units based on products,
services, geographic regions, or customer segments, each with its own functions and resources.

- **Matrix Structure:** Combines elements of both functional and divisional structures, where
employees report to both functional managers and project or product managers, allowing for
greater flexibility and cross-functional collaboration.
 - **Flat Structure:** Has few or no levels of hierarchy, with decentralized decision making and a
focus on empowerment and autonomy among employees. Flat structures are common in startups
and small organizations.

Q-17) Write a Short note on team structures with their types.

1. **Team Structure:** (2 marks)

- Team structure refers to how individuals are organized and coordinated within a team to
achieve specific goals, projects, or tasks.

- The team structure defines the roles, responsibilities, and relationships among team members,
as well as the communication and decision-making processes within the team.

- Effective team structures promote collaboration, efficiency, and accountability, allowing

members to leverage their diverse skills and expertise to achieve shared objectives.

Types of Team Structures: (3 marks for 3 valid points

- **Functional Team:** Comprises members with similar skills or expertise who work together on
tasks or projects related to a specific function or discipline, such as marketing, engineering, or
finance.

- **Cross-Functional Team:** Includes members from different functional areas or departments

who collaborate on a common project or initiative, bringing together diverse perspectives and
expertise.

- **Project Team:** Formed to work on a specific project or initiative with a defined scope,
timeline, and deliverables. Project teams are temporary and disband once the project is
completed.

- **Virtual Team:** Consists of geographically dispersed members who collaborate remotely

using technology and virtual communication tools. Virtual teams allow for flexibility and access to
diverse talent but require effective communication and coordination.

- **Self-Managed Team:** Empowered to make decisions and manage their own work processes
without direct supervision. Self-managed teams are responsible for setting goals, solving
problems, and holding themselves accountable for results.

In summary, organization and team structures play a crucial role in defining how work is organized,
coordinated, and performed within an organization or team. The choice of structure depends on
factors such as organizational goals, size, complexity, culture, and industry context, with each type
of structure offering its own advantages and challenges. Effective implementation of organization
and team structures is essential for optimizing performance, fostering collaboration, and achieving
strategic objectives.
Q-18) Explain the coordination dependencies that exist in an organization.

Def – 1 mark

4 points – 4 marks

Coordination dependencies refer to the interdependencies and relationships between different

parts or units of an organization that require coordination and integration to achieve common
goals and objectives. These dependencies arise from the need for collaboration, communication,
and alignment of activities across various functions, departments, teams, or individuals within the
organization. Coordination dependencies can manifest in several ways:

1. **Sequential Dependencies:**

- Sequential dependencies occur when the output or completion of one task or activity is
dependent on the completion of another task in a specific sequence.

- For example, in a manufacturing process, assembling a product may depend on the completion
of component manufacturing and quality inspection processes.

2. **Resource Dependencies:**

- Resource dependencies occur when multiple parts of the organization require access to the
same resources, such as equipment, materials, or personnel, to complete their tasks.

- Competing demands for limited resources can lead to coordination challenges and conflicts,
requiring prioritization, scheduling, and allocation decisions.

3. **Information Dependencies:**

- Information dependencies arise when different parts of the organization rely on timely and
accurate information to make decisions, perform tasks, or coordinate activities.

- Lack of access to relevant information, miscommunication, or incomplete information can

hinder coordination efforts and result in errors, delays, or misunderstandings.

4. **Functional Dependencies:**

- Functional dependencies occur when activities or tasks performed by one function or

department affect or are affected by the activities of another function or department.

- For example, sales activities depend on product availability from the production department,
while production scheduling depends on sales forecasts and customer orders.
5. **Temporal Dependencies:**

- Temporal dependencies involve coordination of activities that need to be performed at specific

times or within certain timeframes to achieve synchronization and alignment.

- For instance, scheduling meetings, deadlines, or project milestones requires coordination to

ensure that all relevant parties are available and prepared.

6. **Policy and Procedural Dependencies:**

- Policy and procedural dependencies arise from the need to adhere to organizational policies,
guidelines, and procedures that govern how tasks are performed, decisions are made, and
resources are allocated.

- Compliance with policies and procedures requires coordination and alignment across different
parts of the organization to ensure consistency and adherence to standards.

7. **Interpersonal Dependencies:**

- Interpersonal dependencies involve relationships and interactions between individuals or

groups within the organization that require coordination, collaboration, and effective
communication.

- Building trust, resolving conflicts, and fostering positive relationships are essential for managing
interpersonal dependencies and promoting teamwork and cooperation.

Effective management of coordination dependencies is crucial for optimizing organizational

performance, minimizing delays and errors, and fostering collaboration and alignment across the
organization. This often involves clear communication, efficient processes, flexible systems, and
strong leadership to facilitate coordination and integration of activities towards achieving common
goals.

Q-19) Explain time and place communication constraints and other factors affecting
communication genres

5 valid points – 5 marks

Communication genres are specific forms or styles of communication that are shaped by various
factors, including time and place constraints, as well as other contextual elements. Let's explore
each of these factors:

1. **Time Constraints:**
 - Time constraints refer to limitations on the amount of time available for communication to
occur. This can include deadlines, scheduling conflicts, or the need for timely responses.

- In time-constrained situations, communication may need to be concise, focused, and efficient to

convey key information effectively within the available time frame.

- Examples of time-constrained communication genres include quick status updates, time-

sensitive emails, or brief phone calls.

2. **Place Constraints:**

- Place constraints refer to limitations imposed by the physical location or setting in which
communication takes place. This can include factors such as noise, distance, privacy, and access to
technology.

- In environments with place constraints, communication may need to adapt to overcome

challenges such as background noise, poor connectivity, or limited space for interaction.

- Examples of place-constrained communication genres include face-to-face meetings in noisy

environments, remote conference calls with poor internet connection, or written communication
in crowded public spaces.

3. **Other Factors Affecting Communication Genres:**

- **Audience Characteristics:** The characteristics of the audience, such as their knowledge,

preferences, cultural background, and communication styles, can influence the choice of
communication genre. Tailoring communication to the audience's needs and expectations
enhances understanding and engagement.

- **Purpose of Communication:** The purpose or goal of communication also shapes the choice
of communication genre. Whether the objective is to inform, persuade, instruct, collaborate, or
entertain, different genres may be more suitable for achieving the desired outcome.

- **Medium or Channel:** The medium or channel used for communication (e.g., face-to-face,
email, phone, video conferencing, social media) affects the choice of genre and the manner in
which information is conveyed. Each medium has its own strengths, limitations, and conventions
that influence communication genres.

- **Organizational Culture:** Organizational culture and norms influence communication

practices and preferences within an organization. Certain genres may be favored or expected in
specific organizational contexts, reflecting cultural norms, values, and communication channels.

- **Technological Advancements:** Technological advancements, such as digital communication

tools and social media platforms, have expanded the range of communication genres available and
transformed the way communication occurs. New genres emerge as technology evolves, providing
opportunities for innovative and interactive communication.

- **Regulatory or Legal Requirements:** Regulatory or legal requirements may dictate the use of
specific communication genres, formats, or protocols in certain contexts, such as compliance
reporting, contractual agreements, or data privacy regulations.
Overall, communication genres are shaped by a complex interplay of factors, including time and
place constraints, audience characteristics, communication purposes, medium or channel,
organizational culture, technological advancements, and regulatory requirements. Understanding
these factors helps individuals and organizations select the most appropriate communication
genres to effectively convey messages and achieve communication goals in diverse contexts.

Q-20)Explain communication plans with their contents.

Any 5 points – 5 marks

A communication plan is a structured document that outlines how communication will be

managed and executed within a project, initiative, or organization. It serves as a roadmap for
ensuring that key messages are effectively conveyed to stakeholders, team members, and other
relevant parties. Here's an explanation of the components typically included in a communication
plan:

1. **Purpose and Objectives:**

- The communication plan begins with a statement of its purpose and objectives. This section
outlines why communication is important for the project or initiative and what specific outcomes
the plan aims to achieve.

2. **Stakeholder Analysis:**

- A stakeholder analysis identifies the individuals, groups, or organizations that have an interest
in or are impacted by the project. It categorizes stakeholders based on their level of influence,
interest, and importance, informing the communication strategy for each stakeholder group.

3. **Key Messages:**

- Key messages articulate the core information or themes that need to be communicated to
stakeholders. These messages should be clear, concise, and aligned with the project's objectives
and values, addressing stakeholders' needs and concerns.

4. **Communication Channels:**

- Communication channels are the mediums or methods used to convey messages to

stakeholders. This section identifies the various channels available, such as emails, meetings,
newsletters, websites, social media, or press releases, and specifies when and how each channel
will be utilized.
5. **Communication Frequency:**

- The communication plan defines the frequency and timing of communication activities,
including regular updates, milestone announcements, progress reports, and feedback sessions.
This ensures that stakeholders receive timely and relevant information throughout the project
lifecycle.

6. **Roles and Responsibilities:**

- Roles and responsibilities outline who is responsible for managing and executing
communication activities within the project team. This includes designating a communication lead
or team responsible for coordinating communication efforts, as well as defining the roles of
individual team members in contributing to communication tasks.

7. **Communication Risks and Mitigation Strategies:**

- This section identifies potential risks or challenges that may impact communication
effectiveness, such as misinterpretation of messages, stakeholder resistance, or technical issues
with communication channels. It also outlines mitigation strategies and contingency plans to
address these risks proactively.

8. **Feedback Mechanisms:**

- Feedback mechanisms provide stakeholders with opportunities to provide input, ask questions,
and share concerns or feedback about the communication process. This may include surveys,
feedback forms, suggestion boxes, or scheduled meetings for open discussion.

9. **Evaluation and Measurement:**

- The communication plan includes metrics and criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of
communication activities. This may involve tracking metrics such as audience reach, engagement
levels, feedback response rates, and stakeholder satisfaction to assess the impact of
communication efforts and make adjustments as needed.

10. **Timeline and Milestones:**

- A timeline or schedule outlines the sequence of communication activities and milestones over
the project's duration. It helps ensure that communication activities are aligned with project
timelines and deliverables, providing a clear roadmap for implementation.

11. **Budget and Resources:**

 - This section identifies the resources, budget, and infrastructure required to execute the
communication plan effectively. It includes considerations such as staffing, training, technology
tools, and any associated costs or investments.

12. **Approval and Sign-off:**

- The communication plan concludes with a section for obtaining approval and sign-off from key
stakeholders or project sponsors. This ensures that stakeholders are aligned with the
communication strategy and committed to supporting its implementation.

By addressing these components, a communication plan provides a comprehensive framework for

managing communication effectively throughout the project lifecycle, promoting transparency,
alignment, and engagement among stakeholders, and ultimately contributing to the project's
success.

Q-21) What is leadership? Explain any 3 leadership styles.

Leadership – 2 marks
3 styles – 3 marks

Leadership is the process of influencing and inspiring others to achieve a common goal or
objective. A leader guides, motivates, and empowers individuals or groups to work collaboratively
towards a shared vision, fostering innovation, growth, and positive change within an organization
or community. Leadership involves a combination of interpersonal skills, strategic thinking, and
emotional intelligence to effectively lead and manage people.

Various leadership styles exist, each characterized by different approaches to decision-making,

communication, delegation, and relationship-building. Here's an explanation of some common
leadership styles:

1. **Autocratic Leadership:**

- In autocratic leadership, the leader holds all authority and makes decisions unilaterally without
input from subordinates.

- The leader dictates tasks, sets goals, and controls all aspects of work, often using a top-down
approach.

- Autocratic leaders may be effective in situations requiring quick decisions or clear direction, but
they can stifle creativity, limit employee autonomy, and result in low morale.
2. **Democratic Leadership:**

- Democratic leadership involves shared decision-making and collaboration between the leader
and team members.

- The leader seeks input, feedback, and ideas from subordinates, empowering them to
participate in decision-making processes.

- Democratic leaders foster a sense of ownership, engagement, and commitment among team
members, leading to higher morale and productivity.

3. **Laissez-Faire Leadership:**

- Laissez-faire leadership, also known as hands-off leadership, involves minimal direction or

control from the leader.

- The leader delegates authority and responsibility to team members, allowing them to make
decisions and manage their own work independently.

- While laissez-faire leadership can promote creativity, autonomy, and innovation, it may lead to
ambiguity, lack of accountability, and inefficiency if not implemented effectively.

4. **Transactional Leadership:**

- Transactional leadership focuses on contingent rewards and punishments to motivate and

influence subordinates.

- The leader sets clear goals, establishes performance expectations, and rewards or disciplines
individuals based on their performance.

- Transactional leaders use incentives such as bonuses, promotions, or recognition to encourage

desired behaviors and achieve specific outcomes.

5. **Transformational Leadership:**

- Transformational leadership inspires and motivates followers to achieve higher levels of

performance by appealing to their values, aspirations, and ideals.

- The leader articulates a compelling vision, communicates a sense of purpose, and empowers
individuals to contribute to organizational goals.

- Transformational leaders foster trust, collaboration, and innovation, creating a supportive

environment where individuals can grow and develop personally and professionally.

6. **Servant Leadership:**

- Servant leadership emphasizes serving the needs of others and prioritizing the well-being and
development of followers.
 - The leader focuses on building relationships, listening attentively, and facilitating the growth
and success of team members.

- Servant leaders lead by example, demonstrate empathy and humility, and empower others to
reach their full potential, fostering a culture of trust, respect, and collaboration.

7. **Charismatic Leadership:**

- Charismatic leadership involves inspiring and influencing others through the force of the
leader's personality, vision, and persuasive communication.

- The leader possesses charisma, charm, and charisma, which attract followers and motivate
them to rally behind a shared vision or cause.

- Charismatic leaders inspire enthusiasm, confidence, and loyalty among followers, but they may
also face challenges in sustaining long-term success if charisma is not accompanied by substance or
effective leadership skills.

Each leadership style has its own strengths, weaknesses, and suitability for different situations.
Effective leaders often adapt their leadership style based on the needs of the organization, the
characteristics of their team members, and the demands of the situation, demonstrating flexibility,
resilience, and emotional intelligence in their leadership approach.

Unit 5 – Ch 12 - Project Closeout

Q-22) What is project closeout? Explain types of project closures.

Project Closeout : (2 marks)

• Every project must come to an end sometimeor other. It is the responsibility of the project
manager to decide the appropriate time to close a project Once it is decided to dose a project, the
project manager needs to ensure that the project is properly closed by carrying out the project
closure activities and this forms the last phase of the project management life cycle. Project closeout
activities can broadly be classified into administrative closure and contract closure activities.
• The contract closure activities involve verifying that all the terms of the contract with the customer
as well as various subcontracts are met and are satisfactorily closed. On the other hand,
administrative closure activities consist of ensuring that all of the project deliverables are archived
and the project know-how are transferred to other personnel and are properly documented

Types of Project Closure –(3 marks)

Two main types:
Normal termination: All the project goals have been successfully accomplished.

Premature termination: the project is unlikely to achieve its stated objectives --- This is the case
for about a third of all projects
Premature Termination
There are many reasons as to why a project may have to be prematurely terminated:
Lack of resources

Changed business need of the customer

perceived benefits accruing from the project no longer remain valid

Changes to the regulatory policies

Key technologies used in the project becoming obsolete during project execution

Risks have become unacceptably high:

Q-23)What are the problems related to improper project closures?

Any 5 points – 5 marks

Improper project closures can lead to various problems and negative consequences for
organizations, project teams, stakeholders, and project outcomes. Some common problems
related to improper project closures include:

1. **Incomplete Deliverables:** Failing to properly close out a project may result in

incomplete or unresolved deliverables. This can lead to dissatisfaction among stakeholders
and users who were expecting fully functional and complete products, services, or results.

2. **Unresolved Issues:** Projects that are closed improperly may leave behind unresolved
issues or outstanding tasks. These unresolved issues can linger and potentially escalate into
larger problems if not addressed promptly, leading to delays, additional costs, or
reputational damage.

3. **Financial Losses:** Improper project closures can result in financial losses due to
unmet contractual obligations, outstanding payments, or budget overruns. Failure to close
out project accounts and reconcile financial records may lead to discrepancies, errors, or
unauthorized expenses, impacting the organization's financial health.

4. **Legal and Contractual Risks:** Projects that are closed improperly may expose
organizations to legal and contractual risks. Failure to fulfill contractual obligations, obtain
necessary approvals, or address legal requirements can result in disputes, litigation, or
contractual penalties, damaging the organization's reputation and financial standing.
5. **Loss of Organizational Knowledge:** Projects that are not closed properly may result
in the loss of valuable organizational knowledge and insights. Failure to document lessons
learned, capture best practices, or disseminate project information can hinder
organizational learning and impede future project success.

6. **Reputation Damage:** Improper project closures can damage the organization's

reputation and erode stakeholder trust. Stakeholders may perceive the organization as
unreliable, unprofessional, or incompetent if projects are not closed out effectively, leading
to diminished credibility and potential loss of business opportunities.

7. **Resource Misallocation:** Projects that are not closed properly may tie up resources
that could be allocated to other projects or initiatives. This can result in inefficiencies,
missed opportunities, and decreased organizational agility, as resources remain committed
to projects that should have been completed and closed.

8. **Lack of Closure and Celebration:** Proper project closure provides an opportunity

for teams to celebrate successes, recognize achievements, and acknowledge contributions.
Failure to close out projects properly deprives teams of closure and recognition, impacting
morale, motivation, and team cohesion.

Overall, improper project closures can have far-reaching consequences, affecting project
outcomes, organizational performance, and stakeholder relationships. It is essential for
organizations to prioritize effective project closure practices to mitigate risks, capture
value, and ensure the successful completion and transition of projects.

Q-24) What are the issues associated with project termination?

Any 5 points – 5 marks

Project termination, whether planned or premature, can present several issues and
challenges for organizations, project teams, stakeholders, and project outcomes. Some
common issues associated with project termination include:

1. **Incomplete Deliverables:** Project termination may result in incomplete or partially

delivered project deliverables. This can lead to dissatisfaction among stakeholders and
users who were expecting fully functional and complete products, services, or results.
2. **Unmet Objectives:** Terminating a project prematurely may result in unmet project
objectives or failure to achieve planned outcomes. This can occur due to factors such as
changing priorities, budget constraints, resource limitations, or unforeseen obstacles that
prevent the project from reaching its intended goals.

3. **Wasted Resources:** Project termination often involves the loss of resources invested
in planning, development, and execution. This includes financial resources, human
resources, time, and effort expended on the project, which may be considered wasted if the
project is terminated before its completion.

4. **Reputation Damage:** Project termination, especially if it is perceived as a failure or

abandonment, can damage the organization's reputation and credibility. Stakeholders may
view the organization as unreliable, incompetent, or unable to deliver on its commitments,
leading to diminished trust and confidence in future projects.

5. **Legal and Contractual Obligations:** Terminating a project prematurely may result

in legal and contractual obligations that must be addressed. This includes fulfilling
contractual agreements with vendors, suppliers, or subcontractors, resolving disputes, and
mitigating potential legal risks or liabilities associated with project termination.

6. **Employee Morale and Engagement:** Project termination can negatively impact

employee morale and engagement, especially if team members feel demotivated,
disappointed, or uncertain about their roles and future prospects. This can lead to
decreased productivity, increased turnover, and challenges in retaining talent within the
organization.

7. **Lost Opportunities:** Project termination may result in missed opportunities for

innovation, growth, or competitive advantage. Projects often represent strategic
investments aimed at achieving specific business objectives or addressing market needs.
Premature project termination may prevent organizations from realizing these
opportunities and gaining a competitive edge.

8. **Organizational Learning:** Terminating a project prematurely may hinder

organizational learning and knowledge sharing. Lessons learned from project successes and
failures may go undocumented or unacknowledged, limiting the organization's ability to
learn from past experiences and improve future project outcomes.

9. **Stakeholder Disappointment:** Project termination can disappoint stakeholders who

have invested time, resources, or support in the project. This includes internal stakeholders
such as executives, managers, and employees, as well as external stakeholders such as
customers, partners, and investors. Managing stakeholder expectations and communication
is essential to mitigate disappointment and maintain trust.

10. **Strategic Alignment:** Project termination may raise questions about the
organization's strategic priorities, decision-making processes, and resource allocation. It is
important for organizations to align project termination decisions with overall strategic
goals and objectives to ensure that resources are allocated effectively and in line with the
organization's priorities.

Overall, project termination poses significant challenges and implications for organizations,
requiring careful planning, communication, and mitigation strategies to address potential
issues and minimize negative impacts on stakeholders, resources, and organizational
performance.

Q-25) Explain the project closure process.

5 to 6 steps – 5 marks

The project closure process is the final phase of the project lifecycle, where the project is
formally completed, delivered, and closed. It involves wrapping up all project activities,
documenting lessons learned, and transitioning deliverables to the appropriate
stakeholders. Here's an explanation of the project closure process:

1. **Review Project Objectives and Deliverables:**

- The project closure process begins with a review of the project objectives and
deliverables to ensure that all goals have been achieved and all deliverables have been
completed according to specifications.

2. **Conduct Final Deliverable Acceptance:**

- The project team and relevant stakeholders conduct a final review and acceptance of
project deliverables to verify that they meet quality standards and satisfy stakeholder
requirements.

3. **Obtain Stakeholder Sign-Off:**

- Once project deliverables have been accepted, the project manager obtains formal sign-
off from stakeholders, indicating their approval and satisfaction with the project outcomes.
4. **Complete Administrative Tasks:**
- The project team completes all administrative tasks necessary to close out the project
officially. This may include finalizing contracts, obtaining necessary approvals, and
archiving project documentation.

5. **Release Project Resources:**

- Resources allocated to the project, including human resources, financial resources, and
physical assets, are released and reallocated to other projects or initiatives within the
organization.

6. **Conduct Project Reviews and Lessons Learned:**

- The project team conducts project reviews or post-mortems to reflect on project
successes, challenges, and lessons learned. This involves identifying what went well, what
could have been improved, and key insights for future projects.

7. **Document Lessons Learned:**

- Lessons learned from the project are documented and captured in a lessons learned
report or database. This includes best practices, recommendations, and insights that can
inform and improve future project management practices.

8. **Close Out Contracts and Financial Accounts:**

- Any outstanding contracts or financial accounts related to the project are closed out,
including final payments to vendors, suppliers, or subcontractors, and reconciliation of
project budgets.

9. **Communicate Project Closure:**

- The project manager communicates the closure of the project to all relevant
stakeholders, including team members, sponsors, clients, and other key stakeholders. This
includes sharing final project reports, deliverables, and lessons learned.

10. **Celebrate Successes and Achievements:**

- The project team celebrates project successes and achievements, recognizing the
contributions of team members and stakeholders. This may involve holding a project
closure meeting or celebration to acknowledge the team's efforts and accomplishments.

11. **Archive Project Documentation:**

 - All project documentation, including project plans, reports, meeting minutes, and other
relevant documents, are archived and stored in a central repository for future reference
and audit purposes.

12. **Formally Close the Project:**

- Once all project closure activities have been completed, the project is formally closed,
and the project manager notifies relevant stakeholders and updates project records
accordingly.

By following the project closure process, organizations ensure that projects are formally
concluded, resources are released, and project outcomes are effectively transitioned to
stakeholders, while also capturing valuable lessons learned and insights for future projects.

Ch – 11)
"How does effective management of people contribute to success in a software development
environment? Discuss with examples."