Introduction to Communication systems (ECEg-3152)

Chapter One
Introduction to Electronic communication
A communication system can be broadly defined as the transfer of information signals from a
source, located at one point in space, to a user destination, located at another point. It could be
over short or long distances, out of which communication at a distance is known as tele-
communication. In today’s world, there are number of modern communication systems in use,
which may include radio telephony and telegraph, broadcasting (both radio and television), point
to point and mobile communication, radio telemetry, internet and so on. In order to become
familiar with these communication systems, it is necessary to understand the basic building blocks
of communication systems, the concept of noise, modulation, multiplexing, and various other
systems. The following section introduces the basic building blocks of a communication system
and important concepts related to the communication system.
1.1.Elements of Communication Systems
As shown in Fig. 1.1 below, any communication system consists of basic elements such as,
information source, input transducer, transmitter block, communication channel/medium, receiver
block, output transducer and information sink/destination.
The source originates a message, such as a human voice, a television picture, a computer text
message, or data. If the data is non-electrical (human voice, teletype message, television picture),
it must be converted by an input transducer into an electrical waveform referred to as the
baseband signal or message signal. For example, a microphone is used to translate the sound into
an electronic audio signal. For TV, a camera converts the light information in the scene to a video
signal. In computer systems, the message is typed on a keyboard and converted to binary codes
that can be stored in memory or transmitted serially. In general, input transducers convert physical
characteristics (temperature, pressure, light intensity, and so on) into electrical signals.

Fig.1.1: Basic parts of communication system

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Transmitter: -The main purpose of the transmitter is to modify the message signal into a form
suitable for transmission over the channel. It may involve signal processing techniques such as,
multiplexing, modulation, encoding and amplification. Modulation is a process of mixing the
message signal with a very high frequency carrier, which is suitable for propagation. Multiplexing
is also another process that allows two or more signals to share the same medium or channel.
Communication Channel: - is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place
to another. Many different types of media are used in communication systems, including wire
conductors, fiber-optic cable, and free space.
 Electrical Conductors: - In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of wires
that carry a voice signal from a microphone to a headset. It may be a coaxial cable such as
the one used to carry cable TV signals. Or it may also be a twisted-pair cable used in a
local-area network (LAN).
 Optical Media: - The communication medium may also be a fiber-optic cable or “light
pipe” that carries the message on a light wave. These are widely used today for long
distance communications due to their high bandwidth and relatively small signal loss
(0.2dB/km).
 Free Space: - When free space is the medium, the resulting system is known as radio. Also
known as wireless, radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless
communication from one point to another. Radio makes use of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Information signals are converted to electric and magnetic fields that propagate
nearly instantaneously through space over long distances. Communication by visible or
infrared light also occurs in free space.
Various unwanted and undesirable effects crop up in the course of signal transmission.
Attenuation is undesirable since it reduces signal strength at the receiver. More serious, however,
are distortion, interference, and noise, which appear as alterations of the signal shape. Although
such contaminations may occur at any point, the standard convention is to blame them entirely on
the channel, treating the transmitter and receiver as being ideal.
 Noise refers to random and unpredictable electrical signals produced by natural processes
both internal and external to the system. When such random variations are superimposed
on an information-bearing signal, the message may be partially corrupted or totally
obliterated. Filtering reduces noise contamination, but there inevitably remains some

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amount of noise that cannot be eliminated. This noise constitutes one of the fundamental
system limitations.
 Interference is contamination by extraneous signals from human sources, other
transmitters, power lines and machinery, switching circuits, and so on. Interference occurs
most often in radio systems whose receiving antennas usually intercept several signals at
the same time. Appropriate filtering removes interference to the extent that the interfering
signals occupy different frequency bands than the desired signal.
 Distortion is waveform perturbation caused by imperfect response of the system to the
desired signal itself. Unlike noise and interference, distortion disappears when the signal is
turned off. If the channel has a linear but distorting response, then distortion may be
corrected, or at least reduced, with the help of special filters called equalizers.
Receiver: - The main purpose of the receiver is to reproduce the original message signal from the
degraded version of the transmitted signal after propagation through the channel. This is
accomplished by using a process of demodulation and amplification. Demodulation is a reverse of
modulation. It is a process of extracting the original message from the received signal.
Output Transducer. This device converts the electric signal at its input into the form desired by
the system user. Perhaps the most common output transducers may include a loudspeaker or ear
phone, monitor, etc.
The destination is the unit to which the message is communicated.
1.2.Classification of Communication Systems
There are three ways in which communication systems are classified: analog or digital systems,
one-way (simplex) or two-way (half & full duplex) systems, and base band or modulated systems.
According to the message signal communicated, communication systems can be classified in to
two types: Analog and Digital. Analog communication system is the one in which message signal
is transmitted and received in analog form. Digital communication systems are systems in which
message signal is transmitted and received in digital form. Analog systems were the first to be
developed, however in recent years digital systems have become more popular due to its superior
performance.
There are also two basic types of communication systems. The simplest is one-way
communication, normally referred to as simplex where information travels in one direction only.
For example radio and TV broadcasting are simplex. The bulk of communication systems,

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however, are two way communication systems which are referred as duplex. We could have two
types of duplex communication systems. The first one is known as half duplex communication in
which only one party is able to transmit at a time. The communication is two-way, but the direction
alternates: the communicating parties take turns transmitting and receiving. Most radio
transmissions, such as those used in the military, police, aircraft, marine, and other services, are
examples of half duplex communication. The second one is known as full duplex communication
in which both parties are able to transmit and receive at a time. For example, people
communicating with one another over the telephone can talk and listen simultaneously.
In a communication system, the information signal may be transmitted by itself over the medium
or may be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over a long distance. The former is a base
band communication while the later is a band pass (modulated signal) communication.
1.3.Typical Communication Systems
Analog Communication System
The block diagram of a typical analog communication system is shown in Fig 1.2 below. The
analog signal to be transmitted can be a voice waveform, television signal, or any other
information-bearing signal. Typically, this message signal must first be filtered to eliminate
undesired components and amplified to a suitable level, depending on the source.

Analog Modulation Power Amp

Message IN

Carrier Osc. Channel

Analog Filter Demodulation LNA

Message Out

Fig. 1.2: Typical Block diagram of Analog communication Systems

The message signal often modulated onto a carrier, which can be a sinusoidal signal, pulse train,
or a light wave. In the modulation process, the signal affects some parameter of the carrier in a
predetermined way. The modulated signal is then amplified and radiated from an antenna. Various
things may happen to the signal in transmission through the channel.
The corrupted signal received from the channel are amplified to a suitable level and filter to
eliminate noise and interfering signals that are all outside the frequency range of the desired signal.

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The amplified signal is then demodulated to recover the original message. After it is filtered the
original signal will be reproduced.
Digital Communication System
Nowadays digital communication systems are found better in performance than analog
communication systems, and therefore communication systems are becoming fully digital. Digital
systems demand efficient and reliable digital data transmission and storage systems. This demand
has been accelerated by the emergence of large scale, high speed data networks for the exchange,
processing and storage of digital information in military, government and private spheres. A
merging of communication and computer technology is also required in the design and
implementations of these systems.
A major concern of the designer in digital systems is the control of error so that reliable
reproduction of data can be obtained. From Shannon's theory, it is known that by proper encoding
of the information, errors induced by a noisy channel or storage medium can be reduced to any
desired level without sacrificing the rate of information transmission and storage. Thus the use of
coding for error control has become an integral part in the design of modern digital communication
systems and digital computers. A typical digital communication system is shown in Fig 1.3.

Fig. 1.3: Typical Block diagram of digital Communication Systems

The analog to digital converter (ADC) converts the source information in to digital form if it has
been analog. Then the source encoder further compresses the incoming digital signal for efficient
transmission over the channel. The channel encoder further encodes the source coded information
using a certain coding technique so that errors can be detected and corrected at the receiver. The
coded digital signal is then sent to the digital modulator and it would be modulated using a certain

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type of digital modulator. The amplifier will amplify and send the modulated signal through the
communication channel.
In the receiver side, the first stage receives a very weak signal and amplifies it. Then the
demodulator section separates the coded digital information from the carrier. The channel decoder
decodes the coded digital signal in its un-coded form and detects and corrects errors found in the
signal. The source decoder finally converts the digital information back to the original form.
Comparison of Digital and Analog communication Systems
Digital communication has a number of advantages
 Relatively inexpensive digital circuits can be used
 Privacy is preserved by using data encryption
 Greater dynamic range is possible
 Data from voice, video, and data sources can be merged and transmitted over a common
digital transmission system.
 In long distance systems, noise does not accumulate from repeater to repeater.
 Errors in detected data are small, even when there is a large amount of noise on the received
signal.
 Errors can often be corrected by the use of coding
Digital communication also has disadvantages
 Generally more bandwidth is required than that for analog systems.
 Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver is required.
1.4 Base Band Transmission
In a communication system, the original information signal (baseband signals) could be
transmitted over the medium. Putting the original signal directly into the medium is referred to as
baseband transmission. A common example is telephony, especially for local calls. Here the
voice signal converted into electrical form, is placed on the wires and transmitted over some
distance to the receiver. Also in some computer networks, digital signals could be applied directly
to coaxial cables for transmission to another computer, making it another example of baseband
transmission.
Limitations of Baseband Transmission
There are many instances when the baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over
the communication medium. Although it is theoretically possible to transmit voice signals directly

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by radio, realistically it is impractical. For example, voice signals can’t travel longer distances in
air as they get attenuated rapidly. Hence to overcome the limitations of baseband transmission,
modulation techniques has to be used.
1.5 Modulation Techniques
In modulation process, the baseband signal (such as voice, video, etc.) modifies another higher-
frequency signal called carrier which is usally a sinusoidal wave that is higher in frequency than
the highest baseband signal frequency. The baseband signal modifies the amplitude or frequency
or phase of the carrier in the modulation process.
1.5.1 Need for Modulation
We have seen that baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium and
therfore we have to use modulation techniques for the communication of baseband signal. The
advantages of using modulation technique are as given below;
 Reduce the height of antenna
 Avoids mixing of signals
 Increase the range of communication
 Allows multiplexing of signals
 Allows adjustments in the bandwidth
1. Reduces the height of antenna
The height of the antenna required for transmission and reception of radio waves in wireless
transmission is proportional to one-forth of its wavelength, where the wavelength is itself gives as;
𝑐
𝜆=
𝑓
Where c is the speed of light and f is the frequency of the information signal
From the above equation it can be easily noticed that at low frequencies wavelength is very high
and hence the antenna height. For example, consider the baseband signal with 𝑓 = 15𝑘𝐻𝑧.
𝜆 𝑐 3 × 108 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 = = = = 5000 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
4 4 × 𝑓 15 × 103 × 4
This height of vertical antenna is unthinkable. On the other hand, if we consider a modulated signal
with 100 MHz frequency, the height of the antenna could become;
𝜆 𝑐 3 × 108 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 = = = = 0.75 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
4 4 × 𝑓 1 × 108 × 4 1⁄𝑠

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This height of antenna is practical and can easily be installed.

2. Avoids mixing of signals
All sound signals are concentrated within the range from 20Hz to 20KHz. The transmission of
baseband signals from various sources causes the mixing of signal and then it is difficult to separate
at the receiver end.
In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to translate them to different portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum (channel); each must be given its own bandwidth commonly known as
channel bandwidth. This can be achieved by taking different carrier frequency for different signal
source as shown in Fig.1.4. Once the signals have been transmitted, a tuned circuit at the receiver
end selects the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum it is tuned for. Therefore modulating
different signal sources by different carrier frequencies avoid mixing of signals.

Fig. 1.4: Illustration of frequency translation to avoid mixing of sinal

3. Increases the range of communication
At low frequencies, radiation is poor and signal gets highly attenuated. Therefore besaband sinals
can’t be transmitted directly over long distance. Modulation effectively increase the frequency of
the signal to be radiated and thus increase the distance over which signals can be transmitted
faithfully.
4. Allows multiplexing of signals
Modulation permits multiplexing to be used. Multiplexing means transmission of two or more
signals simultaneously over the same channel. The common examples of multiplexing are the
number of Television channels operating simultanously or number of radio stations broadecasting
the signal in MW and SW band, simultaneously.

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The different signals from different stations can be separated in the receiver since the carrier
frequencies for these signals are different. It is commonly known as tuning the same the receiver
to the desired station. By tuning process, the desired signal is selected and at the same time, other
unwanted signals are rejected.
5. Allows adjustments in the bandwidth
Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the origional signal. Signal
to noise ratio in the reciever which is a function of the signal bandwidth can thus be improved by
proper control of the bandwidth at the modulating stage.
6. Improve quality of reception
The signal communication using modulation techniques such as frequency modulation and pulse
code modulation reduce the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves the quality
of reception.
Modulation Types
There are many modulation and demodulation techniques;
 Continuous wave modulation- DSB, DSB-SC, SSB, VSB, FM, PM
 Pulse modulation- PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM, DPCM, DM
 Digital modulation- ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM
1.6.Frequency Allocations
The frequency spectrum is divided into segments for the purpose of classifying the various portions
the frequency band. This allocation helps to provide some semblance of order and to minimize
interference, specify the modulation types, bandwidth, power, and type of information that a user
can transmit over designated frequency bands. These frequency assignments and technical
standards are set internationally by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which is
a specialized agency of the United Nations.
The following table gives a general listing of frequency bands, their common designations, and
typical services assigned to these bands.
Band Name Frequency Wavelength Applications
Extremely Low frequency 30-300Hz 107-106m Ac line frequency, low end of human
(ELF) hearing
Voice frequency (VF) 300-3000Hz 106-105m Normal range of human speech.
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3-30KHz 105-104m Higher end of human hearing, sounds
from musical instruments

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Low frequency (VF) 30-300KHz 104-103m Used as sub carrier, and also in marine
navigation.
Medium frequency (MF) 300- 103-102m MW AM radio broadcasting
3000KHz
High frequency (HF) 3-30MHz 102-101m SW AM radio, Two way
communications
Very High frequency (VHF) 30-300MHz 101-1m FM radio, VHF TV channels, marine
and aeronautical Communication,
Mobile
Ultra High frequency (UHF) 300-3GHz 1-10-1m UHF TV channels, Cellular Mobile,
Super High frequency (SHF) 3-30GHz 10-1-10-2m Microwave frequency used in satellite,
radar and long distance communication.
Extremely High frequency 30-300GHz 10-2-10-3m Limited activities so far
(EHF)
Infrared 43-430TH z 0.7 – 10 m In astronomy to detect stars, TV remote
control, To guide weapons
The Visible Spectrum 430-750THz 0.4 –0.8 m Optical communication

1.7.Fundamental Limitations of Communication Systems

The goal of a communication system engineer is to design systems that provide high quality service
for the maximum number of user with the smallest cost and least usage of limited resources. The
resources to be conserved include hardware for generating, transmitting, and receiving information
signal, the channel bandwidth, and the transmitter power. In other words, engineers attempt to
design communication systems that transmit information at a high rate, with high performance,
using the minimum amount of transmitted power and bandwidth.

Given these requirements, communication systems face fundamental limitations such as noise,
distortion and bandwidth which determine the performance each system. Usually, the transmitter
and the receiver are carefully designed so as to minimize the effects of these limitations on the
quality of reception.

Bandwidth of a communication system is the range of frequencies that the signal can pass through.
On the other hand, information capacity of a communication system is a measure of how much
information can be carried through the system in a given period of time. It is a function of system
bandwidth.

The main question related to information capacity and system limitations could be, is it possible
to invent a system with no bit error at the output even when we have noise introduced in to the
channel? The answer to this question is stated by Shannon-Hartely capacity theorem, according

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to which communication systems that attain as close to zero error probability as described are
theoretically possible, provided that the rate of information transmitted is less than the capacity of
the channel C. In other words, Shannon showed that if the rate of information R (in b/s) is less
than C, the probability of error would approach zero. The channel capacity C (in b/s) could be
calculated by using the equation given below which is referred to as Shannon equation. Here, B is
bandwidth in Hz, SNR is signal- to-noise power ratio at the receiver input and as already mentioned
C is the channel capacity. Signal-to-noise power ratio indicates the measure of noise power relative
to information signal power.
𝐶 = 𝐵 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)
In analog systems the optimum system might be defined as the one that achieves the largest signal
to noise ratio at the receiver output subject to design constraints such as channel bandwidth and
transmitted power. Another question could be, is it possible to design a system with infinite signal
to noise ratio at the output when noise is introduced by the channel? The answer is of course no.
1.8. Signal Distortion in Transmission
A signal transmission medium is the electrical channel between an information source and
destination. These systems range in complexity from a simple pair of wires to a sophisticated laser-
optics links. But all transmission systems have two physical attributes of particular concern in
communication: internal power dissipation that reduces the size of the output signal, and energy
storage that alters the shape of the output (distortion). This section deals with signal distortion in
transmission.
Distortion-less Transmission
Distortion-less transmission means that the output signal has the same shape as the input. More
precisely, given an input signal 𝑥(𝑡), we say that the output is undistorted if it differs from the
input by a multiplying constant and a finite time delay.
Analytically, we have distortion-less transmission if its output is related to its input as;
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑑 )
Where K and td are constants.
The properties of a distortion-less system are easily found by examining the output spectrum.
𝑌(𝑓) = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡𝑑 𝑋(𝑓)
Now by definition of transfer function, 𝑌(𝑓) = 𝐻(𝑓)𝑋(𝑓), so
𝐻(𝑓) = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡𝑑

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In word, a system giving distortion-less transmission must have constant amplitude response and
negative linear phase shift, so
|𝐻(𝑓)| = |𝐾| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 arg 𝐻(𝑓) = −2𝜋𝑡𝑑 𝑓 ± 𝑚 × 180𝑜
The stringent demands of distortion-less transmission can only be satisfied approximately in
practice, so transmission systems always produce some amount of signal distortion. For the
purpose of studying distortion effects on various signals, we'll define three major types of
distortion:
1. Amplitude distortion, which occurs when
|𝐻(𝑓)| ≠ |𝐾|
2. Delay distortion, which occurs when
arg 𝐻(𝑓) ≠ −2𝜋𝑡𝑑 𝑓 ± 𝑚 × 180𝑜
3. Nonlinear distortion, which occurs when the system includes nonlinear elements.
The first two types can be grouped under the general designation of linear distortion, described in
terms of the transfer function of a linear system. For the third type, the nonlinearity prevents the
existence of a transfer function.
Linear Distortion
Linear distortion includes any amplitude or delay distortion associated with a linear transmission
system. Amplitude distortion is easily described in the frequency domain; it means simply that the
output frequency components are not in correct proportion. Since this is caused by |𝑯(𝒇)| not
being constant with frequency, amplitude distortion is sometimes called frequency distortion.
The most common forms of amplitude distortion are excess attenuation or enhancement of extreme
high or low frequencies in the signal spectrum. Less common but equally bothersome is
disproportionate response to a band of frequencies within the spectrum. For illustration, a suitably
1 1
simple test signal is 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤0 𝑡) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑤0 𝑡) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑤0 𝑡), a rough approximation
3 5

to a square wave sketched in Fig. 1.6. If the low-frequency or high-frequency component is

attenuated by one-half, the resulting outputs are as shown in Fig. 1.7. As expected, loss of the high-
frequency term reduces the "sharpness" of the waveform.

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1 1
Fig. 1.6: Test signal 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤0 𝑡) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑤0 𝑡) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑤0 𝑡)
3 5

Fig. 1.7: (a) Low frequency attenuated; (b) high Frequency attenuated
A common area of confusion is constant time delay versus constant phase shift. The former is desirable
and is required for distortion-less transmission. The latter, in general, causes distortion. Suppose a
system has the constant phase shift not equal to 0° or + m180°. Then each signal frequency component

will be delayed by 𝜃⁄2𝜋 cycles of its own frequency; this is the meaning of constant phase shift. But
the time delays will be different, the frequency components will be scrambled in time, and distortion
will result.
The constant phase shift that gives distortion could be simply illustrated by returning to the test signal
of Fig. 1.6 and shifting each component by one-fourth cycle  = −90°. Whereas the input was roughly
a square wave, the output will look like the triangular wave in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Test signal with constant phase shift  = −90°.

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Nonlinear Distortion
A system having nonlinear elements cannot be described by a transfer function. Instead, the
instantaneous values of input and output are related by a curve or function 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑡)], commonly
called the transfer characteristic. Fig. 1.9 shows a representative transfer characteristic; the
flattening out of the output for large input excursions is the familiar saturation-and cut-off effect of
transistor amplifiers. We'll consider only memory-less devices, for which the transfer characteristic is
a complete description.
Under small-signal input conditions, it may be possible to linearize the transfer characteristic in a
piecewise fashion, as shown by the thin lines in the figure. The more general approach is a
polynomial approximation to the curve, of the form.
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎1 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 (𝑡) + 𝑎4 𝑥 4 (𝑡) + ⋯
And the higher powers of 𝑥(𝑡) in this equation give rise to the nonlinear distortion. Even though
we have no transfer function, the output spectrum can be found, at least in a formal way, by
transforming the above equation. Specifically, invoking the convolution theorem,
𝑌(𝑓) = 𝑎1 𝑋(𝑓) + 𝑎2 𝑋 ∗ 𝑋(𝑓) + 𝑎3 𝑋 ∗ 𝑋 ∗ 𝑋(𝑓) + 𝑎4 𝑋 ∗ 𝑋 ∗ 𝑋 ∗ 𝑋(𝑓) + ⋯

Fig. 1.9: Transfer characteristic of a nonlinear device

Equalization
Linear distortion-both amplitude and delay-is theoretically curable through the use of equalization
networks.
Channel Equalizer

𝑥(𝑡) 𝐻𝐶 (𝑓) 𝐻𝑒𝑞 (𝑓) 𝑦(𝑡)

Fig. 1.10 Channel with equalization for linear distortion

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Fig. 1.10 shows an equalizer 𝐻𝑒𝑞 (𝑓) in cascade with a distorting transmission channel 𝐻𝐶 (𝑓).
Since the overall transfer function is 𝐻(𝑓) = 𝐻𝑒𝑞 (𝑓)𝐻𝐶 (𝑓), the final output will be distortion-less
if 𝐻𝑒𝑞 (𝑓)𝐻𝐶 (𝑓) = 𝐾𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡𝑑 , where K and td are more or less arbitrary constants.
Companding
Although nonlinear distortion has no perfect cure, it can be minimized by careful design. The basic
idea is to make sure that the signal does not exceed the linear operating range of the channel's
transfer characteristic. Ironically, one strategy along this line utilizes two nonlinear signal
processors, a compressor at the input and an expander at the output, as shown in Fig. 1.9.

𝑥(𝑡) Compressor Channel Expander 𝑦(𝑡)

Fig.1.11: Companding System

A compressor has greater amplification at low signal levels than at high signal levels, and thereby
compresses the range of the input signal. Ideally, then, the expander has a characteristic that
perfectly complements the compressor so the expanded output is proportional to the input, as
desired. The joint use of compressing and expanding is called companding.
1.9 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Models
Radio communication involves transmission, emission, or reception of signs, signals, writing,
images, sounds or intelligence of any nature by means of EM waves of frequencies lower than 300
GHz propagated in space without artificial guide.
The propagation of EM waves between a transmitting and a receiving antenna is usually influenced
by many different phenomena as the transmission paths between them may vary from simple line-
of-sight to severely obstructed (buildings, mountains, foliage, etc.). The “propagation channel”
places fundamental limitations on the performance of wireless communication systems. Its
modeling is a very complex task. The analysis is typically based on a combination of simplified
(statistical) physical models and empirical knowledge. Depending on the distance involved and
the frequency of the radiated waveform, a terrestrial communication link may depend on line-of-
sight, ground-wave, or sky-wave propagation. The next section deals with the introduction of these
three dominant propagation characteristics.
Ground wave propagation (illustrated in Fig. 1.11) is the dominant mode of propagation for
frequencies below 2 MHz. Here, the electromagnetic wave tends to follow the contour of the Earth.

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That is, diffraction of the wave causes it to propagate along the surface of the Earth. This is the
propagation mode used in AM broadcasting, where the local coverage follows the Earth’s contour
and the signal propagates over the visual horizon.

Fig. 1.12 Ground-Wave Propagation (Below 2 MHz)

Sky-wave propagation is illustrated in Fig. 1.13. It is the dominant mode of propagation in 2- 30
MHz frequency range. Here, long-distance coverage is obtained by reflecting the wave at the
ionosphere, and at the Earth’s boundaries. Actually, in the ionosphere the waves are refracted (i.e.,
bent) gradually, because the index of refraction varies with altitude as the ionization density
changes.

Fig. 1.13: Sky-Wave Propagation (2 to 30 MHz)

LOS propagation (illustrated in Fig. 1.14) is the dominant mode for frequencies above 30 MHz.
Here, the electromagnetic wave propagates in a straight line and there is very little refraction by
the ionosphere. In fact, the signal will propagate through the ionosphere. This propagation
mechanism is used for satellite communications.

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Fig. 1.14: Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation (Above 30 MHz)

The LOS mode has the disadvantage that, for communication between two terrestrial (Earth)
stations, the signal path has to be above the horizon. Otherwise, the Earth will block the LOS path.
Thus, antennas need to be placed on tall towers so that the receiver antenna can “see” the
transmitting antenna.

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