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It supports multiple programming paradigms, including procedural, object-oriented, and functional programming. Python is widely used in various fields such as web development, data analysis, artificial intelligence, scientific computing, and more. The language’s design and module architecture encourage code reuse and modularity. 1.2 Setting Up Your Python Environment To start programming in Python, you need to set up your development environment. Here’s how to install Python and set up a basic development environment: Windows: 1. Download the Python installer from the official Python website . 2. Run the installer. Ensure to check the box that says “Add Python 3.x to PATH” before clicking “Install Now”. 3. After installation, open Command Prompt and type to check if it’s installed correctly. macOS: 1. You can install Python using Homebrew (a package manager for macOS). First, install Homebrew by running the following in the Terminal:bin/bash -c "$(curl -fsSi. -com/Homebrew/instal1/HEAD/insta https: //raw.githubuserconte: 1l.sh)" 2. Then, install Python by typing: brew install python Linux: 1. Most Linux distributions come with Python pre-installed. You can check the version by typing in the terminal. 2. If it’s not installed, you can install it using your package manager. For Ubuntu, you would use: sudo apt-get sude apt-get in Integrated Development Environment (IDE): For beginners, it’s helpful to use an IDE such as PyCharm, VS Code, or Jupyter Notebook. These tools provide features like code completion, syntax highlighting, and debugging that help you write code more efficiently. 1.3 Your First Python ProgramLet’s write your first Python program. Python programs are often simple to write and understand. Here's a classic “Hello, World!” example: 1. Open your text editor or IDE. 2. Type the following code: print ("Hello, World!") 1. Save the file as . 2. Run the script from your command line or terminal by typing: python hel You should see printed to the console. This example demonstrates how to print text in Python. 1.4 Understanding Python Syntax and Basics Python syntax is known for being clean and readable. Here are some basics: « Indentation: Python uses indentation to define blocks of code. The standard practice is to use 4 spaces per indentation level.f name: "+ name + print ("Hello, else: print ("Hello, World!") * Variables and Types: Python is dynamically typed, so you don’t need to declare variables before using them. Here’s how you can use variables: x # An integer assignment y = 3.14 # A floating-point number @ = "Alice" # A string + Comments: Use the hash mark for comments, which explain what the code does. # This is a comment print("Hello, World!") # This prints a message * Basic Operators: Python supports various operators, such as arithmetic, comparison, and logical operators. # Arithmetic Operators print(S + 3) # Addition print(5 - 3) # Subtraction print(S * 3) 4 Multiplicationprint(S / 3) # Division on Operators print(S > 3) # Greater than print(S <3) # Less than al Operat print (True and False) # Logical AND print (True or Fals # Logical oR By understanding these basics, you'll be well on your way to writing effective Python programs. The subsequent chapters will delve deeper into Python’s features and libraries, allowing you to explore more complex projects and applications.Chapter 2: Variables and Data Types 2.1 Working with Numbers Python supports several types of numbers, primarily integers and floating-point numbers. Here’s how you can work with these: + Integers: These are whole numbers which can be positive or negative. ¢ Floating-point numbers: These represent real numbers and are written with a decimal point. Example: tions print(x + y) # Addition; outputs 13.14 print(x - y) # Subtraction; outputs 6.86 print(x / y) # Division; outpu t print(x * y) # Multiplicat t print (x % 3) lus; outputs x by 3) + Complex numbers: These are of the form , where is the real part and is the imaginary part.z= 2435 print(z.real) # Outputs 2.0 print (z.imag) # Outputs 3.0 2.2 Managing Text with Strings Strings in Python are sequences of characters used for storing and manipulating text. They can be enclosed in single quotes (’’) or double quotes (” “). Example: 5 = "Hello, World!" # Accessing characters print(s{0]) # Outputs 'H! # Slicing strings print(s{1:5]) # Outputs ‘ello! # String methods print(s.lower()) # Outputs ‘hello, world! print (s.upper()) # Outpu 10, WORLD! print (s.replace('World', 'Python')) # Outputs ‘Hello, Python!' * String Concatenation and Formatting: first_name = "John" last_name = "Doe"full_name = first_name +" " # Concatenation print (full_name) # Outp print (info) # Outputs ' 2.3 Using Lists to Store Data Lists are ordered collections that are mutable and can contain mixed data types. Example: [1, 2, 3, "Python", 3.14 # Access elements print (my_list[3]) # Outputs ‘Python’ # Add elements nd ("new item") list) Outputs [1, 2, 3, 'Python', 3.14, ‘new item'] nt (my_list[1:4]) # Outputs [2, 3, 'Python’ comprehensions [aren or x in range (10)) print (squares) # Outputs [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 2.4 Exploring Tuples and Sets+ Tuples: These are similar to lists but are immutable. They are created by placing comma-separated values inside parentheses. Example: my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, "eython") print (my_tuple(1]) # Outputs 2 # Trying to modify a tuple will result # my_tuple[1] = 10 # This would raise a + Sets: Sets are unordered collections of unique elements. They are defined by values separated by commas inside curly braces. Example: my_set = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5} print(my_set) # Outputs (1, 2, 3, 4, 5} (duplicates are removed) # Adding and removing elements my_set.add(6) my_set remove (1 print (my_set) # Outputs {2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ‘This chapter has introduced you to the fundamental data types in Python and how to manipulate them. These basics form the building biocks for more complex programming tasks that you'll encounter in later chapters.Chapter 3: Control Structures 3-1 Making Decisions with If-Statements If-statements are essential for decision-making in Python. They allow you to execute certain pieces of code based on whether a condition is true or not. Example: if age >= 18: print ("You are eligible to vote.") print ("You are not ¢ gible to vot! + Using multiple conditions : ‘int ("You can vote and are a member.") elif age >= 18: print ("You can vote but are not a member.") else: print ("You are neither eligible to vote nor a member ")« Nested if-statements : print ("Exe elif score >= 75 print ("Very good!") else print ("Good, but try to do better.") else: print ("Sorry, you failed.") 3-2 Looping with For and While Loops Loops in Python are used to repeatedly execute a block of statements as long as a condition is met. + For Loops :For loops are typically used for iterating over a sequence (like a list, tuple, dictionary, or string). Example: # Iterating over a fruit wapp for fruit in fruits: print (£"I like (fruit}")* While Loops :While loops continue to execute as long as a certain condition holds true. Example: + Using loops with :An block after a loop executes after the loop finishes normally (i.e., without hitting a statement). £ U1, 2, am in numbe print (num) els. print ("No more numbers." 3-3 Comprehensions for Efficient Data Handling Comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists, dictionaries, and sets from sequences or other iterable objects.+ List Comprehensions :These are used for creating new lists from existing iterables. A list comprehension consists of brackets containing an expression followed by a clause. Exampl # Squaring numbers in a range squares = [x**2 for x in range (10) print (squares) « Dictionary Comprehensions :Similar to list comprehensions but for dictionaries. It uses curly braces . Exampl # Create a dictionary with number and its square squar; print (square_dict) dict : x**2 for x in range(5)} « Set Comprehensions :These are similar to list comprehensions, but they produce sets, which are collections of unique elements. Example: § Creating a set of even numbers evens = {x for x in range(10) if x $2 oF print (evens)Control structures such as if-statements, loops, and comprehensions are fundamental to programming in Python, enabling you to write flexible and efficient code. As you progress, these tools will be indispensable for handling more complex logic and data operations.Chapter 4: Functions and Modules 4.1 Defining and Calling Functions Functions in Python are defined using the keyword and are used to encapsulate code into reusable blocks. They can take inputs, perform actions, and return outputs. Example: def greet (): print ("Hello, World!") ling the func’ greet () * Function with parameters : def greet (name): print (f"Hello, (name}!") # Calling the function with a parameter greet ("Alice") Functions can also be defined with default parameter values, making some arguments optional during the function call.def greet (name="World") : print (f"Hello, (name}!") greet () uts "Hello, World!" greet ("Everyone") # Outputs "Hello, 4.2 Parameters, Arguments, and Return Values Parameters are variables that are defined in the function signature and receive values when the function is called. Arguments are the actual values passed to the function. + Positional and Keyword Arguments : def describe_pet (animal_type, pet_name): have a (animal_type} named (pet_name}.") onal argum ibe_pet ("hamster', 'Harry') # Keywo: guments de: ibe_pet (pet_name='Willow', animal_type="cat') « Returning Values : Functions can return values using the statement, which exits the function and optionally passes back an expression to the caller.def square (number) return number result = square (4) print(result) # Outputs 16 4.3 Organizing Code with Modules and Packages Modules in Python are simply Python files with the extension containing Python code. Packages are a way of structuring Python’s module namespace by using “dotted module names”. * Creating and Using a Module : Suppose you have a file named with the following code: 4 my_module.py def make pizza (t print(f"Making a pizza with {topping)") You can import and use this module in another file: import my_module my_module.make_pizza('pepperoni') + Using from...import Statement :You can also import specific attributes from a module using the keyword: from my_module import make_pizza make_pizza ("mushrooms") + Packages : A package is a directory containing Python modules and a file named . It can be nested to create subpackages. Suppose you have the following directory structure: init__.py dough.py toppings .py You can import modules from the package: from pizza import dough fron pizza.toppings import add topping dough .make_dough () add_topping (*tomato")Understanding how to define and use functions, as well as organize larger code bases with modules and packages, is crucial for writing clean, maintainable, and reusable Python code. This organization helps in managing larger projects efficiently and keeps the code logically separated based on functionality.Chapter 5: Exception Handling 5.1 Understanding Exceptions Exceptions in Python are errors detected during execution that disrupt the normal flow of a program. Python provides various built- in exceptions such as , , , and many others. Understanding these exceptions is crucial for debugging and for writing robust programs. Example of encountering an exception: numbers = [1, 2, 3] print (numbers[3]) # IndexError: list index out of range This example tries to access an element that is not present in the list, causing an . 5.2 Handling Exceptions with Try-Except To handle exceptions and to prevent them from crashing your program, Python uses the try-except block. You can catch specific exceptions and respond appropriately. Basic usage: try: # Code that mi print (numbers [3]) except IndexError as # Code that ru: £ an exception oc}print ("Rrror:", e) This block will catch the and print an error message, preventing the program from crashing. Handling multiple exceptions: You can also handle multiple exceptions, which allows you to respond to different exception types differently. # Code that might throw different except x = int(input ("Enter a number: ")) result = numbers [x except Valuer: (MP a valid integer.") pri "That index is out of range.) ption as e: print("An unexpected error occurred:", e) 5.3 Raising Custom Exceptions Sometimes, you might need to create and raise your own exceptions. This is usually done to enforce certain conditions within your code. Defining and raising a custom exception: 4 Define a custom exception by subclassing Exception class class ValueToo#ighError (Exception): def init f, me# Use © of the custom exception def check ue (x) if > raise ValueTooHigh! or ("Value too high.") else: print ("Value is within the limit.") try: _value (200) ueTooighErrer as e: except V print (2.message) In this example, is a custom exception that is raised when a value exceeds a predetermined limit. This allows the programmer to provide meaningful error messages and to control the flow of the program more effectively. Exception handling is a fundamental part of developing reliable Python applications. It not only helps in managing errors and preventing program crashes but also allows developers to implement robust error-checking mechanisms that can anticipate and manage operational anomalies in the code.Chapter 6: Working with Files 6.1 Reading from and Writing to Files Python provides built-in functions for reading from and writing to files on your system. This is essential for programs that need to save user daia, configurations, results, and more. Example of writing to a file: # Writing to a file with open('example.txt', 'w') as file: file.write("Kello, World!\n") file.write("This is another line.") Example of reading from a file: # Reading from a file with open('example.txt', 'r') as file: content = file.read() nt) print ( To read the file line by line: with open(‘e: for line in file: # strip() removes the newlinecharacter at the end of each line 6.2 Handling Different File Formats (Text, CSV, JSON) Different types of data require different formats for efficient storage and retrieval. Python handles various file formats through standard libraries such as and . Working with CSV files: g to a CSV file with open('example.csv', 'w', newline='') as file: writ r (file) writs writer.writerow(["Bob", 25]) Working with JSON files: import json data ="name": "John Doe", # Writing e with open('d tw!) as file: -dump (data, file) # Reading with open('d data_loa print (data_loaded) 6.3 Managing File Contexts with With- Statement The statement in Python is used for exception handling and proper cleanup when working with resources like file streams. Using ensures that the file is properly closed after its suite finishes, even if an exception is raised on the way. It’s much cleaner and more readable than using try-finally blocks. Example: # Correct way to handle file opening and closing with open('example.txt', 'r') alThis practice not only prevents file corruption or leaks but also simplifies the code by abstracting away the details of file management. Working with files is a fundamental aspect of programming that allows data to be saved and retrieved across sessions. Python’s built- in support for handling various file formats and its context- management features enable developers to work with files efficiently and safely.Chapter 7: Object-Oriented Programming 7.1 Understanding Classes and Objects Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of “objects”, which can contain data, in the form of fields (often known as attributes or properties), and code, in the form of methods. In Python, classes provide a means of bundling data and functionality together. Basic Class Definition: class Dog: det def ba. my_dog my_dog.ba Outputs: Rex says woof In this example, is a class, and is an object or instance of this class. The method acts as a constructor to initialize the object’s state.7.2 Building Custom Classes Custom classes are user-defined blueprints from which objects are created. These often include a mix of methods and attributes. Example of a more complex class: class Car: def init__(self, make, model, year): self.make = make self.model = model self.year = year sel£.odome eading = 0 def get_descriptive name(sel£): long_name = £"{self.year) (self.make} {self.model}" xn long_name odometer (self): print (£"Phis car has {self.odome| eading} miles on def update_odometer (self, mileage): if mileage >= self.odometer_reading: self. odomet; reading = mileage print ("You can't roll back an odometer!™) Using the class: my_new_car = Car(‘audi', 'a4", 2021) print (my_new_car.get_descriptive_name())my_new_car ,update_odometer (23) my_new_car.read odometer () 7.3 Special Methods and Inheritance Special methods allow you to define certain operations that are built into Python’s syntax. These are also called magic or dunder methods. Example of special methods: self. title self.pages = pages (self): "ise: tle} by {sel£.author}" Using special methods: my_book = Book ("George 11", "1984", 328) print (my book) # Outputs: 1984 by George Orwell print (len(my_pbook)) # 91 s: 328 Inheritance: Inheritance allows one class to inherit the attributes and methods of another class. This helps to reuse code.Example of inheritance: class BlectricCar(Car): # Inherits from Car def model, yea! t__(sel£, mal ex().__init__(make, model, year) self.battery size ribe_battery (self): nt(£"This car has a (self.battery_size}-kwh battery.") Using the inherited class: my_tesla = Ele Car('tesia', ‘model s', 2019) print (my_tesla.get_descriptive_name()) my_tesla.deseribe battery () Understanding classes and objects is fundamental to mastering Python’s capabilities in object-oriented programming. With custom classes, special methods, and inheritance, you can write more organized and powerful Python code that better models real-world data and behaviors.Chapter 8: Advanced Python Concepts 8.1 Iterators and Generators Tterators and generators are advanced tools in Python that allow you to manage sequences of data more efficiently than by using lists. Iterators: Iterators are objects that can be iterated upon. An iterator retrieves its elements by calling the function until no items are left. Example of creating an iterator: s= (1, 2, 3,4 bj = iter (numbers) print (next (iter_obj)) # Outputs 1 print (next (iter_obj)) # Outputs 2 Generators: Generators are a simple way to create iterators using functions. Instead of returning a value, a generator yields a series of values. Example of a generator: def countdown (num): print "Starting countdown") while num > 0: yield num num -= 1for number in countdown (5): print (number) This generator yields numbers from 5 down to 1, one at a time, pausing at each until the next value is requested. 8.2 Decorators and Context Managers Decorators and context managers are powerful features in Python for modifying and managing the behavior of functions and code blocks. Decorators: A decorator is a function that takes another function and extends its behavior without explicitly modifying it. Example of a decorator: def debug (func) : apper (*a une (*args, **kwargs) Function: (fu: return wrapper @debug def add(x, y): return x + y print (add(5, 3)) -__name_}, Argumen: ‘The decorator enhances any function with debug output about its arguments and the result.Context Managers: Context managers allow you to allocate and release resources precisely when you want. The most common way to create a context manager is by using the statement. Example of a context manager: from contextlib import contextmanager @contextmanager def managed_file (name) : try: file = open(name, 'w') yield file finally: file.close() with man: File (‘hell £.write (‘hello, This context manager handles opening and closing a file. 8.3 Lambda Functions and Functional Programming Lambda functions are small anonymous functions defined with the lambda keyword. They can have any number of arguments but only one expression. Example of a lambda function: multiply = lambda x, y: x * y print (multiply(2, 3)) # OutpFunctional programming concepts in Python also include functions like , , and for processing sequences. Using and: numbers (1, 2, 3, 4 8 ¥ Double h number using map() doubled = list (map(lambda x: x * 2, numbers)) print (doubled) f Outputs [2, 4, 6 8, 20 # Filter to get only even numbers (2ilter (lambda x: x $ 2 == 0, numbers)) print (evens) # Outputs (2, 4 This chapter covers some of the more complex but incredibly powerful aspects of Python, including iterators, generators, decorators, context managers, and lambda functions. These features enable more efficient data handling, elegant code modification, resource management, and use of functional programming techniques.Chapter 9: Data Handling with Pandas 9.1 Introduction to Pandas Pandas is a powerful Python library for data manipulation and analysis, providing data structures and operations for manipulating numerical tables and time series. It’s built on top of the NumPy library and is crucial in data analysis and machine learning tasks. Installation of Pandas: To get started with Pandas, you need to install it using pip: pip install pandas 9.2 DataFrames and Series The two primary data structures of Pandas are Series and DataFrames. Series: A Series is a one-dimensional array-like object containing a sequence of values (similar to a NumPy array) and an associated array of data labels, called its index. Example of creating a Series: import pandas as pd data = p es({1, 3, 5, 7, 91) print (dataDataFrames: A DataFrame is a two-dimensional, size-mutable, potentially heterogeneous tabular data structure with labeled axes (rows and columns). It’s generally the most commonly used pandas object. Example of creating a DataFrame: anada', ‘Germany’, 'UK', 'France'], ngton, D 'Population': (328, 37, 83, 66, 67] df = pa caFrame (data) print (df) 9.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis Pandas provides numerous functions for data manipulation and analysis. These include operations for indexing, deleting, and filtering data, as well as performing statistical analysis and handling missing data. Indexing and Selecting Data: # Selecting a column print (af ["Capital']) Selecting a row by index print (af.iloc[2]) # Selects the row of# Selecting a specific value print (df.at(2, 'Capital']) # Outputs ‘Berlin! Filtering Dat # Filtering rows where Population is greater than 50 million filtered _df = df[df{'Population'] > 50] print (filtered df) Handling Missing Data: Pandas makes it simple to handle missing data and replace it with some default value or a computed value. # Assuming ‘data’ contains missing values data = pd.Series([1, None, 3, None, 5]) # Filling missing data filled_data = data.filina(0) print (filled_data) Statistical Analysis: Pandas also provides ways to do a quick statistical analysis of your data. # Describe gives a quick statistical summary of your DataFrame print (df.describe()) # Mean of a particular column print (af [*Population"].mean()}Pandas is an indispensable tool in the Python data science toolkit. It excels in performance and productivity for users working with data and has become a pivotal feature of financial, social sciences, and engineering analytics workflows. This chapter provides a foundation for starting with basic data handling tasks in Pandas and prepares you for more complex data manipulation and analysis techniques.Chapter 10: Data Visualization 10.1 Visualizing Data with Matplotlib Matplotlib is a comprehensive library for creating static, animated, and interactive visualizations in Python. It is especially useful for making 2D plots from data in arrays. Installation of Matplotlib: pip install natp Basic Plotting: Here's how to create a simple line chart with Matplotlib: import matplotlib.pyplot as plt # Data x= (1, 2, 3, 4 5) y= (2, 3, 5, 7, 11 # Plot plt.plot (x, y) plt.title('Simple Line Plot') plt-xlabel('X Axis Label") abel ¥ Axis Label')10.2 Plotting with Seaborn Seaborn is a Python data visualization library based on Matplotlib. It provides a high-level interface for drawing attractive and informative statistical graphics. Installation of Seaborn: pip install seaborn Example of a Scatter Plot: Seaborn makes it easy to create beautiful plots with minimal code: import seaborn as sns # Data tips ) + er plot atterplot (x="total_bill", y="tip", plt.ti plt. ("Tip by Total Bill") ow () 10.3 Advanced Visualization Techniques Advanced techniques in data visualization include creating complex multi-plot grids, interactive plots, and using geographical mapping data. Subplots: Creating multiple plots in the same figure with Matplotlib:# Create a figure with 2x2 grid of Axes fig, ax = plt.subplots(2, 2, figsize=(10, 10)) ax(0, 0] -plot(x, y) ax[0, O].set_title(*First Plot") ax[0, 1]-plot(x, y, 'tab:orange') ax[0, 1].set_title('Second Plot’) ax[1, O].plot(x, yy ‘tal ax(1, 0].set_title ("Third Plot") rgreen") ax[1, 1].plot(x, y, 'tab:red") ax(1, 1].set_title(*Fourth Plot") plt.show() Interactive Plots with Plotly: Plotly is another library that allows for interactive plots which are especially useful for web applications. Installation of Plotly: pip install plotly Example of an interactive plot: import plotly.express as px df = px.data.iris() # Use Plotly's bu fig = px.scatter (df, sepal_width"fig. show() Geographical Data Visualization: Visualizing data on maps can be achieved using libraries such as and . Example with GeoPandas: import geopandas as gpd # Load a GeoDataFrame containing regions (e.g., countries or states) gat = gpd.read_file (gpd.datasets.get_path ('naturalearth_low # Plot gaf-plot () plt.show() This chapter introduces basic and advanced techniques for visualizing data in Python. Visualization is crucial for interpreting data and making decisions based on analysis. Tools like Matplotlib, Seaborn, and Plotly provide powerful ways to present data clearly and effectively, from simple charts to complex interactive plots and geographical mapping.Chapter 11: Python for Web Development 11.1 Exploring Web Frameworks: Flask and Django Python offers several powerful frameworks for web development, with Flask and Django being the most popular. Flask provides a lightweight and flexible approach, making it suitable for small to. medium applications, while Django offers a more feature-complete environment, which is ideal for larger projects. Flask: Flask is a micro web framework that is easy to get started with and is suitable for small projects and microservices. Installation of Flask: pip install Flask Django: Django is a high-level Python web framework that encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design. It includes an ORM, routing, authentication, and more out-of-the-box. Installation of Django: pip install Django 11.2 Building a Simple Web ApplicationCreating a Basic Flask App: Here’s how to create a basic web application that displays “Hello, World!” on your browser. from £ sk import Flask app = Flask(_name_) @app.route('/") rn "Hello, World!' app. run (debug=True) Run this script, and visit in your browser to see the greeting. Creating a Basic Django App: Setting up a simple Django application involves more steps, reflecting its “batteries-included” approach. 1. Create a project: ‘tproject myproject 2. Navigate into the project directory: cd myproject 3. Start an app:python manage.py startapp myapp 4. Create a view in: from django. http import HttpResponse def hello (request! return BttpResponse("Hello, World! 5. Map the view to a URL in (create the file if it doesn’t exist): from django.urls import path from .views import hello urlpatterns = [ path('', hello), 6. Include the app’s URLconf in the project’s : from django.contrib import admin from django.urls import include, path urlpatterns = [ path(‘admin/', admin.site.urls), path("", include('myapp.urls")),7. Run the server: python manage.py runserver Visit in your browser. 11.3 Working with APIs Using Flask to Create a Simple API: Flask can be used to build RESTful APIs. Here’s an example of a simple API that returns JSON data. @app. route ('/api/data') OF rn jsonify({'key': 'value', app. run (debug=True) When you visit , you will see the JSON response. Interacting with External APIs Using Library: To work with external APIs, you can use Python’s library. Installation:pip install requ Example of making a GET request: import requests response = requests.get ("https://api.example.com/data') data print (¢ This fetches data from an external API and prints the JSON response. This chapter provides an overview of developing web applications and APIs using Python. Whether you choose Flask for simplicity and control or Django for its extensive features, Python’s frameworks support robust web development practices. Moreover, interacting with APIs using Python is straightforward, thanks to libraries like .