Cla 312

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
Distance Learning Centre
CLA 312
Interpersonal Communication
By
Ayobami Ojebode, Ph.D
Femi Ayandele
Department of Communication and Language Arts

University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Table of Contents
LECTURE ONE: THE MEANING OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
LECTURE TWO: THE PROCESS OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
LECTURE THREE: THE SKILLS OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
LECTURE FOUR: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS:
MEANING, IMORTANCE AND STAGES
LECTURE FIVE: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
LECTURE SIX: MODELS OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
LECTURE SEVEN: SOCIAL PERCEPTION
LECTURE EIGHT: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
LECTURE NINE: ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION
LECTURE TEN: STYLES AND PRINCIPLES OF
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
LECTURE ELEVEN: NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION THEORY
LECTURE TWELVE: COMPUTER-MEDIATED INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
LECTURE THIRTEEN: CONFLICT AND INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
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LECTURE ONE
The Meaning of Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
Communication professionals have defined interpersonal
communication by the context, or the situation. In other words, they viewed
interpersonal communication as communication that occurred between, or
among, a small group of communicators in a face-to-face setting, with the
opportunity for immediate feedback (Miller, 1978). In this lecture, we shall
attempt the meaning of interpersonal communication. Some of its
characteristics shall also be discussed.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. define interpersonal communication.
2. discuss some characteristics of interpersonal communication.
3. explain the difference between a process and an event.
Pre-Test
1. What are the ways in which scholars have defined interpersonal
communication?
2. Discuss the characteristics of interpersonal communication.
3. “Interpersonal communication is rooted on the exchange of
meaning.” Explain
CONTENT
Anything we do with other people must involve communication. A
writer once said that: “all social interaction is necessarily communicative
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and any social process presumes communication process.” Some people
seem to regard the essence of communication as being able to speak and
write proper English whereas others would argue that good communicators
are effective listeners.
Interpersonal communication does not simply involve the exchange of
messages. It essentially involves the creation and exchange of meaning. One
vital implication of the linear model of communication follows from its
concern with “the message.” This implies that we can arrive at a faultless
and unambiguous statement of whatever was communicated. Interpersonal
communication involves the transmission of a message between two or more
people. It is a process consisting of the sender, the message, a channel of
communication, the receiver and feedback. In this form of communication,
an individual sends and receives messages from another mostly in a face-to-
face interaction. Such information-exchange cuts across verbal and non-
verbal modes of communication. Interpersonal communication usually
occurs within interpersonal relationships. This suggests a developmental
perspective. Interpersonal communication is restricted to those situations in
which we have knowledge of the personal characteristics, qualities, or
behaviours of the other person. It entails an exchange of information with
others based on some knowledge of their uniqueness as a person and a
shared history. DeVito defines interpersonal communication as
“communication that takes place between two persons who have an
established relationship; the people are in some ways connected.” Indeed, it
is a form of communication that permeates our lives. Hence, as interpersonal
communication can occur between romantic partners, business associates
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and doctors, it can also occur between patients. Often, your interpersonal
interactions are devoted to attempts at influencing the other individual in
some ways. Interpersonal communication can, therefore, be seen as the
process involving the sending and receiving of information within a very
small group, usually in a face-to-face situation where feedback is immediate
and spontaneous. To Obilade (1989:74), interpersonal communication is the
end of a process which begins with impersonal communication where our
knowledge of the person with whom we are communicating is partial, and
relationship formal.
Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication

From the various definitions of interpersonal communication above,
the following characteristics can be inferred:
Interpersonal communication is highly ubiquitous. This makes it a form of
communication that takes place everywhere on a daily basis between friends,
workers, lovers, leaders and families. Also, feedback in interpersonal
communication is spontaneous especially in face-to-face interaction unlike
mass communication where it is delayed or mediated by technology.
It uses a multi-channel experience because its face-to-face variant
allows individuals to use both verbal and non-verbal mode of
communication. The five senses of sound, found, smell, taste and touch can
be employed to send and receive messages.
Interpersonal communication does feature prominently in other forms
of communication like mass communication, traditional communication and
group communication. Research, for instance, has established that media
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effects are mediated by interpersonal communication while there are also
friendship networks within groups.
Interpersonal communication does not require a large bureaucratic set-
up and sophisticated gadgets for information exchange unlike mass
communication. It is not expensive.
Furthermore, it places great emphasis on the listening behaviour of
participants. Poor listening habit can cause interpersonal communication to
meet its waterloo.
Interpersonal communication is rooted on the creation and exchange
of meaning. One important implication of the linear model of
communication follows from its concern with “the message.” This implies
that we can arrive at an accurate and unambiguous statement of whatever
was communicated.
Another characteristic of this form of communication is that it is an
ongoing process rather than an event or series of events. An event is always
something very definite which happens, and which has a definite start and a
definite finish. It can, therefore, be misleading to think of interpersonal
communication in this way.
Interpersonal communication is also cumulative over time. For
instance, whatever Femi says to Ayo today will be interpreted on the basis of
what others have said to the latter in the past and also what you expect them
to say. If you wish to understand communication between people who have
communicated before, then you need to take into account the history of their
relationship as this might well affect how they interpret each other‟s remarks
at the moment.
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Summary
This lecture should have explained the meaning and characteristics of
interpersonal communication. Undoubtedly, it should also have informed
you that this form of communication is not as simple or straight forward as
many people seem to believe. For instance, we often act as if communication
was linear- as if there was an unambiguous definition of the message and
that feedback was unimportant. We do so at our peril, as the process of
interpersonal communication will be discussed in the following lecture.
Post-Test
1. Attempt the pre-test questions again.
2. What is your own definition of interpersonal communication?
3. Examine other characteristics of interpersonal communication not
discussed in this lecture.
References
Thomson, P. (1996). The Secrets of Communication. London: Simon and
Schuster
Burton, G. and Dimbleby, R. (1995). Between Ourselves. London: Arnold
Judy, C; Paul, E. Scott, T and Lynn, H. (2003). Human Communication.
New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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LECTURE TWO
The Process of Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
Your understanding of interpersonal communication will depend on
how much you know, based on what you have observed and the wealth of
your experience. Interpersonal communication is an ongoing process rather
than an event or series of events. The aim of this lecture is to provide
understanding of how interpersonal communication works by exploring the
mechanics of the process, looking at its various components and how they
relate to one another.
Objectives
1. discuss the process of interpersonal communication
2. explain interpersonal communication as a two-way flow of
communication.
Pre-Test
1. Examine the process of interpersonal communication.
2. Why is interpersonal communication described as a two-way flow
of communication?
3. Discuss the importance of noise in interpersonal communication.
CONTENT
Much research has been done to try to breakdown interpersonal
communication into a number of elements in order that it can be more easily
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understood. It is obvious that interpersonal communication is a process of
exchange.
The elements involved include the communicators, the message,
noise, feedback, context and channel. Let us examine the process step by
step.
The Communicators
The involvement of at least two people is indispensable for a face-to-
face communication to take place. It is easy to think about communication
involving a sender and a receiver of a message. However, the problem with
this way of seeing a relationship is that it presents communication as a one-
way process where one person sends the message and the other receives it.
That is, while one person is talking, another person is listening. In
interpersonal situations, there is always a two-way flow of communication.
For example, imagine a conversation where Ade is telling Akin about the
good time he had on holiday. Ade does most if not all of the talking. Does
that make him the sender? He is also able to observe Akin‟s reactions to
what he is saying-receiving information from the way Akin is acting as an
audience. In this sense, Ade is also both receiver and sender. Interpersonal
communication is ALWAYS two way. In composing the message, a sender
takes into account such things as the preoccupation of the message, such as
to inform or persuade. Encoding is the transferring of your mental thoughts
for the message into words.
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The Message
Message does not only mean the speech used or information conveyed
but also the non-verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions,
gestures, tone of voice and body language. Non-verbal behaviour can
convey additional information about the spoken message. In particular, it
can reveal more about emotional attitudes which may underlie the content of
speech.
Noise
This has a special meaning in communication theory. It refers to
anything that distorts the message so that what is received is different from
what is intended by the speaker. Hence, the use of complicated jargon,
inappropriate body language, inattention, disinterest and cultural differences
can be considered noise in the context of interpersonal communication. In
other words, noise is any inconsistency that occurs during an attempt to
communicate.
Noise is a major concern in interpersonal communication. It is
basically anything that interferes with the transmission and interpretation of
the message from its sender to its receiver. There are different types of noise.
Physical noise is the type of which you are most familiar; it is sound.
Semantic noise occurs due to confusion caused by ambiguity in words and
sentence structure. You are enjoined to consult CLA 304 for detailed
information on other types of noise.
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Feedback
Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns which allows the
sender to know how accurately the message has been received as well as the
receiver‟s reaction. The receiver may also respond to the unintentional
message as well as the intentional message. Types of feedback range from
direct statements such as “I don‟t understand” to subtle facial expressions or
changes in posture that might indicate to the sender that the receiver feels
uncomfortable with the message. Feedback allows the sender to regulate,
adopt or respect the message in order to improve communication.
Context
All communication is influenced by the context in which it takes
place. However, apart from looking at the situational context of where the
interaction takes place, for example, in a room, an office or perhaps
outdoors, the social context also needs to be considered. For example, the
roles, responsibilities and relative status of the participants; the emotional
climate and participants‟ expectations of the interaction will also affect the
communication.
Channel
A channel is just a fancy word for the manner in which the message is
sent. Channels include speaking, writing, video transmission, audio
transmission, electronic transmission through an email, text, instant message
or even non-verbal communication through body language and signals. The
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channel refers to the physical means by which the message is transferred
from one person to another.
Summary
Interpersonal communication is a process of exchange. In this lecture,
we have discussed the components of the process which include the
communicators, the message, noise, feedback, context and channel.
Post-Test
2. Assess the context of interpersonal communication.
References
Stewart, J. and D‟Angel, G. (1975). Together: Communicating
Interpersonally. Harlow: Addison-Wesley
Price, S. (1996) Communication Studies. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman
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LECTURE THREE
The Skills of Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
The term „skill‟ is normally used to refer to physical behaviours
(what psychologists call motor skills). One difficulty when you are first
learning any skill is the feeling of being overwhelmed by the number of
different things you have to pay attention to. In this lecture, we shall discuss
the components of interpersonal skills and the ways of improving your soft
skills.
Objectives
1. explain the components of interpersonal skills.
2. discuss how to improve your interpersonal skills.
3. define interpersonal skills.
Pre-Test
1. Discuss the components of interpersonal communication skills.
2. How would you explain the social skills?
3. Explain the relevance of Johari‟s window to understanding the
process of self-disclosure.
CONTENT
Interpersonal skills are life skills we used daily to communicate and
interact with other people, both individually and in groups. People who have
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worked on developing strong interpersonal skills are usually more
successfully in both their professional and personal lives. Employers often
seek to appoint staff who will work well in a team and able to communicate
effectively with colleagues, customers and clients. Interpersonal skills are
not just important in the workplace, our personal and social lives can also
benefit from better interpersonal skills. People with good interpersonal skills
are usually perceived as calm, confident and charismatic. These are qualities
that are often endearing or appealing to others.
Interpersonal skills are sometimes referred to as social skills, people
skills, soft skills, communication skills or life skills. The components of
interpersonal skills include the following:
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication or bodily communication usually means a
range of non-verbal signals which can include the following:
 Facial expression
 Gaze
 Gestures
 Posture
 Bodily contact
 Spatial behaviour
 Clothes and appearance
 Non-verbal vocalization
 Smell
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As these comprise some of the most significant codes we employ,
they shall be discussed in some detail in lecture eight.
Reinforcement
This refers to behaviours which encourage the other person to carry
on or repeat whatever they happen to be doing. Various experiments have
shown the reinforcing influence of expressions of praise, encouragement and
support, even down to the use of head nods and the „uh-huh.‟
Questioning
A series of job interviews attended attested to the fact that some
professional interviewers are much better than others at extracting
information from the interviewees. This will be due in part to their question
technique. For instance, while experienced interviewers are used to asking
open-ended questions that encourage people to talk and expand thereby
making the interviewers to get the elaborated answers which they really
want, inexperienced interviewers are used to asking too many closed
questions that provoke short and specific information.
Reflecting
This skill is often used by counsellors and other people who have to
conduct very personal interviews and who want the other person to talk in
some detail about their own attitudes and feelings. As questions can often
direct the conversation in ways which reflect the interviewer‟s assumptions,
it can be more revealing to use reflections which feedback to the speaker
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some aspects of what they have just said. This acts as a cue for them to
elaborate or extend what they have been saying. It is possible to reflect in
different ways and achieve different results.
Opening and Closing

This refers to the ways in which we establish the beginning and
ending of a particular interaction. For example, the choice of opening can be
very important in more formal situations such as an interview where the
opening can create a positive or negative atmosphere. Possible opening
techniques include social opening, factual opening and motivational
opening. While the interviewer makes sure to give the interviewee a positive
welcome and spend some time in social conversation, factual opening allows
the interviewer to start with a clear description of important facts, perhaps by
explaining how they see the goals of the interview. Motivational opening
ensures that the interviewer starts with an attempt to encourage and motivate
the interviewee, perhaps by introducing some visual aids or gadgets to
stimulate interest.
Listening
It may seem odd to regard listening as a skill but that is because we
tend to think of it as a passive activity rather than being an activity we have
to concentrate on and work at. Good listening has been described as active
listening. You do not only have to absorb and process internally the
information you receive but you also have to encourage the other person to
talk and demonstrate clearly that you are paying attention. No wonder some
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authors have subdivided listening into more specific clusters such as
attending skills following skills and reflecting skills.
The behaviours which seem to be associated with effective listening
involve both bodily communication and internal thinking. Typical
recommendations include being receptive to the other person, maintaining
attention, removing distractions and the need to delay evaluation of what
you have heard until you fully understand it.
A good listener detaches himself from typical listening barriers such
as verbal battle and fact hunting. Verbal battle is the situation where, instead
of listening and absorb what the other person has to say, the listener starts to
debate the ideas in his own head and came up with criticisms or counter-
arguments. Fact hunting, on the other hand, involves concentrating on the
detailed facts and losing sight of the overall message instead of listening for
the main theme or general points.
Self-Disclosure
Sidney Jourard coined the term „self-disclosure‟ to refer to the process of
sharing information about ourselves other people. So when you self-disclose,
your reveal to the other person some aspects of how you feel. Jourard was
interested in how people came to reveal aspects of themselves to others and
how this process influenced the development of good personal relationship.
The Johari window of Joe Luft and Herry Ingham is the best way of
visualizing the process. The window categorizes information that you and
others have about yourself into four segments.
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What you know about yourself What you don’t know about
yourself
What others know about you Open Blind
What others don‟t know about you Hidden Unknown
The Johari Window
Open
This contains information about myself which I know and which others
know about me. For example, the fact that I am married with children.
Hidden
This is information which I know about myself and which I am not prepared
to reveal to other people.
Blind
This is information which others know about me and which I am not aware
of. For example, annoying habits which I do not notice in myself.
Unknown
This information is not known to me or others at present but may surface at
some future points. For instance, I may have some very deep-noted
unconscious anxieties which are currently controllable.
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To improve your interpersonal skills, the following may be considered:
1. Take time to listen painstakingly to what others are saying verbally
and non-verbally.
2. Be conscious of your diction.
3. Encourage others to engage in communication and use appropriate
questioning to develop your understanding.
4. Through awareness of how you interact with others.
5. Through constant practice.
6. By developing oneself through an extensive library of quality
content.
Summary
In this lecture, we have been able to account for the different
behaviours which can contribute to skilled interpersonal performance. Of
course, all of these behaviours are not appropriate in every situation. For
example, in a job interview, the interviewer is likely to concentrate on
questioning; in a counseling interview, the interviewer is likely to do more
reflecting and reinforcing.
Post-Test
1. In what ways can you improve your interpersonal communication
skills?
2. Explain the nucleus of active listening
3. Discuss other components of interpersonal skills not mentioned in
this lecture.
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References
Hartley, P. (1999) Interpersonal Communication. New York: Routledge
Willcocks, G. and Morris, S. (1996) Putting Assertiveness to Work. London:
Pitman
Peel, M. (1990) Improving your Communication Skills. London: Kogan Page
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LECTURE FOUR
Interpersonal Relationships: Meaning, Importance and Stages
Introduction
Interpersonal relationship can be complicated, and they sometimes
require a lot of work. But by expanding your knowledge and learning new
skills, you can ensure the creation of utility within interpersonal relationship.
In this lecture, you will not only learn about its concept but also about the
importance and stages of interpersonal relationship.
Objectives
1. define interpersonal relationships
2. explain the importance of interpersonal relationship
3. explain the stages in interpersonal relationship
Pre-Test
1. What is interpersonal relationship?
2. Assess the stages in interpersonal relationships
3. The importance of interpersonal relationships cannot be under
estimated. Elucidate
CONTENT
In our last lecture, we x-rayed the skills of interpersonal
communication. In lectures one and two, we had discussed the meaning and
process of interpersonal communication. In this lecture, we look at the
nature of communication in interpersonal relationships. To do this, we
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examine the meaning of interpersonal relationships, discuss its importance
and end the discussion on the stages in interpersonal relationships.
What is Interpersonal Relationship?

On the simplest level, relationships are associations or connections.
Interpersonal relationships, however, are far more complex. Interpersonal
relationships may be defined as associations between two people who are
interdependent, who use some consistent patterns of interaction, and who
have interacted for an extended period of time. The different elements of this
definition uncover the following:
First, interpersonal relationships comprise two or more people. For
instance, two close friends or a dating couple. Often, interpersonal
relationships consist of just two people.
Also, interpersonal relationship involve people who are
interdependent. Friendship usually exemplifies this concept. For instance,
your associate may be dependent on you for acceptance and guidance. On
the other hand, you might require support and admiration. When individuals
are independent of each other, or when dependence is unidirectional or
parasitic in nature, we hardly define the resulting association as an
interpersonal relationship. Therefore, interdependence refers to people‟s
being mutually dependent on each other and having an impact on each other.
This symbiotic relationship is what the educationists usually refer to as a
resolution of dualism. Third, individuals in interpersonal relationships use
some consistent pattern of interaction. A husband, for example, may always
greet his wife with a kiss while the wife may have unique nicknames for her
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husband that are not understood without the relationship. Lastly, individuals
in interpersonal relationships generally have interacted for some time. For
example, you do not have an interpersonal relationship when you meet a
girlfriend‟s siblings for the first time. Although interpersonal communication
is used to achieve your goals, one-time interactions do not mirror
interpersonal relationships. It should be noted, however, that interpersonal
relationship might last for varying lengths of time. While some continue for
a lifetime, others are relatively short.
The importance of Interpersonal Relationships

Although we may be able to realize some of our physical, security and
safety needs through interactions with relative strangers, we can fulfill the
other needs only through our interpersonal relationships. The
interdependence nature of interpersonal relationships suggests that people
mutually satisfy their needs in this type of association. Interdependence
means that one person is dependent on another to have some needs fulfilled
and the other person is dependent on the first to have the same on other
needs fulfilled. William Schutz (1976) says there are three basic
interpersonal needs that are satisfied through interaction with others. These
are:
1. The need for inclusion or becoming involved with others.
2. The need for affection or holding fond or tender feeling toward
another person.
3. The need for control or the ability to influence others, our
environment, and ourselves.
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Also, the relevance of both the complementary relationships and
symmetrical relationships has made interpersonal relationship much to be
desired. Complementary relationships encourage each person to supply
something the other person lacks while symmetrical relationships encourage
the participants that are bird of a feather to mirror each other. This type of
relationship is said to be horizontal in nature. For example, two people of
similar background might take each other to the altar in order to preserve
their heritage.
The stages in Interpersonal Relationships

According to Miller (1976), communication and relationship
development are symbiotic. As communication affects the growth of
relationships, the growth of relationships affects communicative behaviour.
Current theories on the growth of relationships rest on the original work of
Altman and Taylor (1973). These authors‟ social penetration theory explains
the development and depenetration of interpersonal relationships through the
exchange of intimate information. The theory states that interpersonal
exchanges move from superficial, non-intimate information transfers to
more intimate information exchanges through the process of revealing
personal information. The amount of interaction increases as the relationship
develops. Dissolution or depenetration, is the reverse process of
development, or penetration.
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Relational Development
These stages deal with the process by which relationships grow. The
stages comprise the following:
1. Initiating: This first stage is the short beginning period of an
interaction. It involves first impressions, the sizing up of the other
person, and attempting to find commonality.
2. Experimenting: This arises when two people have clearly decided
to find out more about each other, to quit scouting, and to start
getting serious about each other. This stage involves sharing
personal information at a safe level.
3. Intensifying: It entails active participation, mutual concern, and an
awareness that the relationship is developing because neither party
has withdrawn and both people are facilitating its development.
The information exchanges become more personal and intimate.
4. Integrating: Here, the duo start mirroring each other‟s behaviour
in manner, dress and language. Interests and values are shared
between each other.
5. Bonding: The people in the relationship are committed to each
other. They may participate in a public ritual that bonds them, as in
the case of marriage.
Relationship Deterioration
The last five stages identified by Knapp and Vangelisti (2000) occur
during relational deterioration, the process by which relationship
disintegrates:
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1. Differentiating: This takes place when the two partners start
emphasizing their individual differences instead of their
similarities.
2. Circumscribing: This stage is characterized by decreased
interaction, shorter times together, and less depth to sharing. The
two people might go to public events together but do little together
in private.
3. Stagnating: This stage suggests a lack of activity, especially
activity together. Interactions are minimal, functional and only for
convenience.
4. Avoiding: A stage that provokes reluctance to interact, active
avoidance, and even hostility. The two well-known partners are
now getting in each other‟s way, each seeing the other as an
obstacle or a limitation.
5. Terminating: This is the situation when the two people are no
longer seen by others as a pair. They ultimately dissociate, share
nothing and get rid of the symbols of oneness. Divorce, annulment,
and dissolution are manifestations of this stage.
Summary
In this lecture, you have learned that interpersonal relationship
provides one context in which people communicate with each other. It has
also been established that interpersonal relationships are meant for a variety
of reasons. We have equally informed you that most relationships go
through definable stages of development and deterioration.
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Post-Test
1. Why do people initiate relationships?
2. Why do people terminate relationships?
References
Altman, I. & Taylor, D. (1973) Social Penetration: The Development of
Interpersonal Relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Baxter, L. (1982) Strategies for ending Relationships: Two Studies. Western
Journal of Speech Communication, 46, 223-241.
Judy C., Paul, E., Scott T. & Lynn H. (2003) Human Communication. New
York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
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LECTURE FIVE
Intercultural Communication
Introduction
Lecture five introduces you to communication between cultures and
co-cultures. Being an effective communicator means interacting with people
from various racial, ethnic and cultural backgrounds. The nucleus of this
lecture is to increase your confidence in your ability to communicate with
people of other cultures and co-cultures. The importance of communicating
in an ever-changing world is stressed.
Objectives
1. explain why you should study intercultural communication.
2. identify cultures and co-cultures.
3. discuss potential intercultural communication problems.
4. explain strategies for improving intercultural communication
skills.
Pre-Test
1. Why do you study intercultural communication?
2. What are cultures and co-cultures?
3. Explain ethnocentrism and stereotyping in intercultural
communication.
4. What are the strategies for improving your intercultural
communication skills?
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CONTENT
Not long ago, intercultural communication involved only
missionaries, foreign correspondents and some national political figures.
Now, however, developments in technology and shifts in demographics have
created a world on which intercultural communication is a sine-qua-non.
Rogers and Steinfatt (1999) define intercultural communication as the
exchange of information between individuals who are unalike culturally.
Intercultural communication is essential because of our increasing exposure
to people of other cultures and co-cultures. More people are exposed to
different global cultures through vocation travel, global jobs, international
conflicts, military and humanitarian service, lesbian and gay marriages.
The importance of Intercultural Communication

Today we sell our wheat, corn and crude oil, in Asia, America and
Europe, and we buy cars, building materials and so forth from the developed
countries. Therefore, the principle of comparative cost advantage that is
borne out of our economic need makes a reason for studying intercultural
communication.
Another reason for studying intercultural communication is our
curiosity about others. We are eager to demystify the identities of people
who do not look like us, sound like us or live like us. We are curious about
arranged marriages, rituals, fanatics and sports. Intercultural communication
preaches effective understanding of cultural and co-cultural friends and
enemies.
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Also, the convergence of technologies is a reason for an interest in
intercultural communication. The new technologies have, indeed,
transformed interpersonal and face-to-face communication. For most of the
twentieth century, intercultural activity required an expensive flight or phone
call. Now, people can communicate with each other around the world on the
internet. Communication technology is now at our fingertips through the
social media.
Also, the influx of foreign-born immigrants, aliens and refugees that
has changed the face of America accounts for a reason to study intercultural
communication. Today, America has become an exotic salad with many
cultures contributing to its overall flavour. A communication teacher from
Los Angeles reported that his public-speaking class had students from
twelve countries, and most spoke English as a second language. You can
communicate better with people from other cultures if you know something
about theirs.
Cultures Versus Co-cultures

You have just learned that intercultural communication is the
exchange of information between people of different cultures, but you may
be skeptical about the definitions of culture and co-culture. Culture can be
defined as a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, and
rituals that the members of a society use to cope with one another and with
their world. Culture is usually transmitted from generation to generation
through social learning. It represents a mechanism that allows human beings
to make sense of the world around them. Cultures consist of a wide variety
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of races, ethnic groups, and nationalities. In the United States, for example, a
number of co-cultures exist based on language, race, religion, economics,
age, gender and sexual orientation.
A co-culture is a group that is similar to and part of the larger culture
but is distinguished by beliefs and behaviours that differ from the larger
culture. Co-culture is used because the word subculture implies that these
groups are somehow inferior to the dominant culture. In the United State,
where the dominant culture is white and Christian, examples of co-cultures
are African-American and Muslims. It should be noted that an individual can
belong to a number of co-cultures.
Intercultural Communication Problems

Intercultural communication is subject to all the problems that impede
effective interpersonal communication. Becoming aware of these problems
can help you avoid or reduce their effects. The barriers identified include the
following:
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the belief that your own culture is superior to all other
cultures or groups. You are ethnocentric if you assess and judge the rest of
the world only from your own culture‟s perspective. The largest problem
that occurs during intercultural communication is that people bring an
ethnocentric perspective to the interaction. Ethnocentrism can create
defensiveness on the part of the person whose culture is being relegated to
the background. In ethnocentrism, you use your own culture as the yardstick
30
that others are expected to follow, but in cultural relativism another person‟s
culture is judged by its own context. There is need to accept people whose
values and norms maybe different from ours if we must ensure effective
communication.
Stereotyping
A stereotype can be defined as a generalization about some group of people
that oversimplifies their cultures. Stereotyping becomes a headache in
communication when people make assumptions about an individual on the
basis of simplified notions about the group to which he or she becomes.
Stereotyping can be injurious to groups and individuals. Allport (1958)
observed that people are more likely to stereotype individuals and groups
with whom they have little or no contact.
Strategies for Improving Intercultural Communication

The following are some of the strategies for ensuring effective intercultural
communication.
1. Have a personal self-assessment. One of the steps toward
improving your intercultural communication skills is an honest
assessment of your own communication style, beliefs and
prejudices.
2. Practice supportive communication behaviours. Supportive
behaviours, such as empathy, encourage success in intercultural
exchanges.
31
3. Develop sensitivity toward diversity. One healthy communication
perspective holds that you can learn something from all people.
Take the time to learn about other cultures and co-cultures.
Challenge yourself. You may be astonished by what you learn.
4. Avoid stereotypes. Always ensure that reckless assumptions are
not made about other‟s cultures.
5. Avoid ethnocentrism. You will learn more about the strengths our
weaknesses of your own culture by learning more about others. It
is wrong to believe that your own culture is superior to all others.
6. Develop code sensitivity. This entails learning to use the verbal
and non-verbal language appropriate to the cultural or co-cultural
norms of the individual whom you are communicating.
7. Seek shared code. While you determine which communication
style to adopt during intercultural communication, a key ingredient
in establishing shared code is tolerating ambiguity, or being open
minded about differences.
8. Use and encourage descriptive feedback. During intercultural
communication, both participants should be willing to accept
feedback and exhibit supportive behaviours. Feedback should be
immediate, class, honest and specific.
9. Open communication channel. Because intercultural
communication can be frustrating, an important strategy to apply is
to keep the lines of communication open.
32
10. Manage conflicting beliefs and practices. The need to think ahead
about how to handle minor and major differences from everyday
behaviour remains inevitable.
Summary
In this lecture, you have not only learned why the study of
intercultural communication is vital but you have also known the meaning of
a cultures and co-cultures. Some potential intercultural barriers and their
remedies have equally been discussed in this lecture.
Post-Test
1. Attempt the pre-test questions again
2. With examples, explain cultures and co-cultures
3. Intercultural communication is not interpersonal communication.
Do you agree? Discuss.
References
Rogers, E. & Steinfatt, T. (1999) Intercultural Communication. Prospect
Height: Waveland Press
DeVito, J.A. (1986) The Communication Handbook: A Dictionary. New
York: Harper and Row
Dodd, C.H. (1998) Dynamics of Intercultural Communication. New York:
McGraw-Hill
Hall, E.T. (1976) Beyond Culture. New York: Doubleday
33
LECTURE SIX
Models of Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
A model is a simple description of a system used for explaining how
something works or calculating what might happen. It is an attempt to
represent what something is and how it works. This lecture does try to
explain the most popular models of interpersonal communication.
Objectives
1. define models of communication
2. explain some models of interpersonal communication.
Pre-Test
1. Define models of communication.
2. Attempt a critique of the linear model of interpersonal
communication.
3. Discuss the differences between linear and transactional models of
interpersonal communication.
CONTENT
Folarin (1998:50) defines a model as “a symbolic representation
designed to help us visualize the relationships among various elements of a
structure, system, or process, for purposes of discussion and analysis.”
34
Models are often confused with theories because they too are expressions of
research findings. The distinction to note between theories and models is
that while theories are general statements expressing the understanding of a
subject of communication as informed by academic research, models are
visual representations of relationships between the elements of a subject of
inquiry. Models are sometimes conceived as the visual illustration of
theories because they are primarily used to visualize, analyze and discuss
complex processes which would be otherwise difficult to explain. Most
important to the definition of models is its representation of relationships.
Let us consider the Linear, Interactive and Transactional models of
Linear Models (1948)

Who
Says What
In Which Channel
To Whom
With What Effect
This model is one of the most popular ways of representing
communication. It suggests that our communication is linear and one way. In
other words, the model consists of messages which flow from sender to
receiver along particular channels. The model adequately represents the
roles of sender, message, channel and receiver. It goes a step further by
introducing the “effect” factor. The effect factor reveals that communication
encounters are hardly without a particular physical, emotional or cognitive
35
impact on the participants. This impact is a response to the message.
Examples of linear model of interpersonal communication include students
reading examination instructions and military instructions. It has, however,
been observed that Lasswell‟s model accommodates only one source/sender
and one receiver. He neither gives room for the possibility of several sources
of information nor provides for the likelihood of several receivers. In
addition, he was silent about the possible alteration of the sent message.
Noise creates a distortion in the message.
This oversimplified model has equally neglected one of the
fundamental points in this resource material: in interpersonal situations,
there is always a two-way flow of communication.
Revised Liner Model (1949)

Message Channel Message
Information Transmitter Receiver Destination
Source
Noise
Source
The Shannon and Weaver model has been very instrumental in the
development of other models. In this model, the information source
produces a message while the transmitter converts it to a signal. The channel
transmits the signal from the transmitter to the receiver. Claude Shannon, a
mathematician, developed the model to show what happens to „information
bits‟ as they travel from the source to the receiver (Folarin, 1998:51). It
differentiates information from meaning. We usually assign meaning to
36
information based on our understanding as well as field of experience. Also,
the model strategically positions noise between the sent signal and the
received signal. This implies that sometimes, perceived meaning may not be
equal to the sent meaning. The model reflects the scientific background of its
initiator.
Interaction occurs when there is a relationship between two or more

people which results in all participants influencing one another. Elements of
an interaction include dialogue, discussion and arguments. Interaction
communication is a communication process where both the source and the
destination engage in a conversation. This model elaborates the Shannon and
Weaver model as cited by Foiulger (2004) from Weiner (1948, 1986). The
key concept associated with this elaboration is that destinations provide
37
feedback on the messages they receive such that the information sources can
adapt their messages. The interactive communication model represents the
process of interpersonal communication. This model does not capture
interpersonal communication as a dynamic process. It still represents
communication as a sequential set of actions.
The major difference between interactive and transactional

interpersonal communication models lies in the number of messages
transmitted. The sender sends a message to the receiver and the receiver
responds with a feedback in an interactive communication model while the
38
sender and the receiver switch roles more than once while exchanging
multiple messages and sending multiple feedbacks in a transactional
communication model. The transactional model of interpersonal
communication, in an attempt to overcome the weaknesses of the interactive
model, depicts multiple aspects like messages, noise, feedback and field of
experience.
Summary
Models of interpersonal communication illustrate the communication
process in different ways. This different ways reflect the authors‟ perception
of the communication process and its vital components. In evaluating a
model, we consider its ability to organize and order data; the implied
predictions that can be verified with physical tests. No model is sufficient in
itself; it only gives a straight forward explanation of reality. This lecture has
discussed the relevant models of interpersonal communication such as the
linear, interactive and transitional models. It has been established that
models are a fundamental building block of theory. They are also a
fundamental tool of instruction.
Post-Test
2. Write comprehensively on the importance of feedback and noise in
interpersonal communication process.
3. What is an interactive model of interpersonal communication?
39
References
Griffin, E. (2003) A First Look at Communication Theory. New York:
McGraw-Hill
Deutsch, K. (1952) On Communication Models in the Social Sciences Public
Opinion Quarterly 16 (356-386)
Sevenrin, J.W. and Tankard, W.J. (1997) Communication Theories. New
York: Longman Publishers
Verderber, F.R. & Verderber, S.K. (2008) Communicate! USA: Thomson
Wadsworth
40
LECTURE SEVEN
Social Perception
Introduction
Lecture seven aims at giving you a better understanding of the
communicative importance of how you see yourself and how you perceive
others. In this lecture, we shall explain what perception is; describe why
differences in perception occur and the errors we occasionally make in our
perceptions of others. This lecture also examines a number of theoretical
approaches which have been used to explain social perception.
Objectives
1. define perception
2. explain some of the reasons for differences in perception.
3. identify errors we might make when we perceive others.
4. explain a number of theoretical approaches used to explain social
perception.
Pre-Test
1. Define social perception
2. Why do differences in perception occur?
3. Explain the theories of social perception.
41
CONTENT
Differences in perception affect the way we understand events,
ourselves and others. Consequently, perception affects self-concept, self-
efficacy and presentation of self perception influenced our experience and
assessment of others and our communication with them. Nobody else sees
the world your own way. Hence, the way you see the world is subjective,
uniquely your own. The uniqueness of human experience is based largely on
differences in perception.
DeVito (1986) sees perception as the process of becoming aware of
objects and events from the senses. Since our perceptions are unique,
communication between and among people becomes complicated.
Perception is not passive but active because active perception means the
mind selects, organises, and interprets that which is sensed. What,
therefore, is social perception? By social perception, we mean those
processes whereby an individual makes sense of and interprets the nature of
the other people involved in the conversation, and the nature of the setting in
which they find themselves. On the other hand, subjective perception is a
person‟s uniquely constructed meaning attributed to sensed stimuli. For
example, your perception of Ayobami is not the same as anyone else‟s
perception of him.
Factors Responsible for Differences in Perception

Perception is subjective, active and creative. Differences in perception
may be the result of physiological factors, people‟s past experiences and
42
roles, their cultures and co-cultures and their present feelings and
circumstances.
Physiological Factor
You are physiologically different from anyone else. People differ
from each other in height, weight, body type, sex and senses. Some authors
have suggested that hemispheric differences in the cerebral cortex of the
brain are sex-linked. Differences in perception also may arise from
temporary conditions. A headache or fatigue can cause you to perceive a
critical comment when a friendly one is being offered.
Past Experiences and Roles

Perceptual constancy is the concept that best explains the influence of
your past experiences on your perceptions. Perceptual constancy is the idea
that your past experiences lead you to see the world in a way that is difficult
to change; your initial perceptions persist. What happened to you in the past
influences your perception of the present and the future. For example, your
experiences affect how you relate with policemen, lawyers and politicians.
Roles can also influence perceptions. A role is the part an individual
plays in a group; an individual‟s function or expected behaviour DeVito
(1986:269). Your roles affect your communication. You may be an
academic, a student or a terrorist.
43
Culture and Co-culture
Culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, and
artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with one another and with
their world. Singer (1982), an intercultural communication researcher,
maintains that what people see, hear, taste, touch and smell are conditioned
by their culture. He says that people‟s perceptions are largely learned; the
greater the experiential differences among people, the greater the disparity in
their perceptions.
Your co-culture equally affects your perceptions of the world. A co-
culture is a group whose beliefs or behaviours distinguish it from the larger
culture of which it is a part with which it shares numerous similarities.
Present Feelings and Circumstances

Your daily, weekly, monthly or yearly cycle may affect how you
perceive stimuli. It you are having a bad week, for instance, you might be
offended by the humor of an associate; later in the mouth, you might find the
same comment very interesting.
Stages of Perception
The stages of perception include selection, organization and
interpretation.
1. Selection: This is the process of neglecting some stimuli in the
environment to focus on other stimuli. For example, you might
listen to the criticism a friend offers you, but not the corresponding
praise.
44
2. Organization: This deals with the grouping of stimuli into
meaningful units or wholes. You organize stimuli through figure
and ground, closure, proximity and similarity. Figure is the focal
point of a person‟s attention; ground is the background against
which a person‟s focused attention occurs while closure is the
tendency to fill in missing information in order to complete an
otherwise incomplete figure or statement. The principle that
objects that are physically close to each other will be perceived as
unit or group is proximity. Similarity is about the principle that
elements are grouped together because they share attributes such as
size, colour or shape.
3. Interpretation: This is the third stage you engage in during
perception. It is the assigning of meaning to stimuli. Therefore,
interpretative perception is a blend of internal states and external
stimuli. The more ambiguous the stimuli, the more room for
interpretation. Context provides cues for how an action, an object
or a situation is to be interpreted or perceived.
Theories of Social perception

There has been considerable research on the ways in which we
perceive other people. Unfortunately, there has been less attention paid to
our perception of social situations. We shall concentrate on the evidence that
concerns person perception. The early work on person perception tended to
focus on how people interpreted various personality traits. More recent
45
theories have concentrated on how people develop their own ideas about
other people. Let us examine each of the theories.
Implicit Personality Theory

This notion is based upon a number of important findings, as follows:
Coherent perception: People do have a coherent picture of which
personality traits tend to go together in other people. For example, if you
hear someone described as warm then you are also liable to think that that
person is popular, happy and successful.
Organized perceptions: These impressions are organized so that some traits
are much more important or central than others. Although this approach
generated a great deal of interesting research, it did not provide very
convincing answers to a number of important questions, such as
 How are various traits organized?
 Why are certain traits central?
Personal Construct Theory
This theory was first developed by George Kelly who was concerned
that theories such implicit personality failed to recognize that all human
beings are in some ways unique and that they develop their own very
individual ways of making sense of the world. According to Kelly, we all
have an internal set of mental categories which we use to organize our
perceptions. Personal construct theory was first developed for use in
psychotherapy, for use with individuals.
46
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is a more recent development which attempts to
explain how people perceive one another. This theory is particularly
interested in how people decide the cause of other people‟s actions. It can
also be used to examine how we explain our own actions. One way of
explaining this theory is to explain the model proposed by Jones and Davis.
Imagine yourself observing another person, A, behaving. You would be able
to observe two main things:
1. A‟S actions
2. The effect of A‟S action.
Summary
This lecture has tried to highlight some of the major processes
underlying our social perception. Almost inevitably the discussion has
focused on errors and factors responsible for differences in perception. We
have also examined the stages and theories of social perception.
Post-Test
2. How accurate are your perceptions of other people?
3. Discuss the stages of perception.
47
References
Argyle, M. (1969) Social Interaction. New York: Atherton
Restak, R. (1984) The Brain. New York: Bantam Books
Pearson, J.C. (1995) Gender and Communication. Madison WI: Brown &
Benchmark
Ashworth, P. (1979) Social Interaction and Consciousness. London: John
Wiley
Argyle, M. (1994) The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour. Harmonds
Worth: Penguin
48
LECTURE EIGHT
Non-verbal Communication
Introduction
We shall discuss the relevance of non-verbal codes in this lecture. Some of
the major non-verbal codes are identified and defined, including bodily
movement and facial expression, bodily appearance, space, time, touching
and vocal cues.
Objectives
1. define nonverbal communication
2. explain how verbal and nonverbal codes work
3. recognize the types of nonverbal communication
Pre-Test
1. Define nonverbal communication
2. Explain any five types of nonverbal codes
3. Justify the assertion that “nonverbal codes speak louder than words
and shout the truth where words lie?”
CONTENT
Non-verbal communication is unique in the dissemination of
information, feelings, thoughts, concepts and messages than verbal
codification. Research has shown that 65 percent of all social meaning in
49
face-to-face communication is conveyed through nonverbal stimuli, while
verbal stimuli account for no more than 35 percent Birdwhistell (1974). It is
important to know that nonverbal codification in interpersonal
communication actually depicts the true mind of the communicator. Hall
(1959) agrees with this position that nonverbal codes speak louder than
words and shout the truth where words lie. This makes communication
incomplete without considering unspoken languages.
What is Non-verbal Communication?

Generally, when people refer to non-verbal codification they are
talking about the signals to which the meaning will be attributed, not the
process of attributing meaning. The term is commonly used to describe all
human communication events that transcend spoken or written words. At the
same time, it should be realized that these non-verbal events and behaviours
can be interpreted through verbal symbols. According to Trenholm
(1999:115), nonverbal communication is any instances in which a stimulus
other than words creates meaning in either a sender‟s or a receiver‟s mind.
Indeed, non-verbal cues are reflex actions in communication process which
the communicator does not intend. They come momentarily and
unconsciously to complement messages and to convey the true mind of the
communicator. Non-verbal behaviours may not be communicative if they
are not interactive. Non-verbal communication is the process of sending
wordless or speechless messages. It is the dissemination of information
through silent language. It is also described as language within language.
Burgoon and Saine (1978) define non-verbal communication as the
50
attributes or actions of humans, other than the use of words themselves,
which have socially shared meaning, are intentionally sent or interpreted as
intentional, are consciously sent or consciously received, and have the
potential for feedback from the receiver. Communication is complex. We
cannot quantify the relative contribution of non-verbal communication to
verbal communication, but nonverbal communication often provides much
more meaning than people realized.
The Nonverbal Codes

Nonverbal codes are codes of communication consisting of symbols
that are not words, including nonword vocalizations. Facial expression,
bodily movement, bodily appearance, the use of space, the use of time, vocal
cues, clothing and other artifacts are all nonverbal codes.
Bodily Movement and Facial Expression

The study of posture, movement, gestures and facial expression is
called Kinesics. It is a word derived from the Greek word kinesis, meaning
movement. Interpreting the meaning of nonverbal communication is partly a
matter of assessing the other person‟s unique behaviour and considering the
context. The consideration of its context means that the situation alters how
you interpret nonverbal communication. Ekman (1999) categorized
movement on the basis of its functions, origins and meanings. These
categories are emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators and adaptors.
51
1. Emblems: They are movements that substitute for words and
phrases. Examples include an open hand held up to mean “stop”
and a forefinger and thumb together to mean “ok.”
2. Illustrators: These are movements that accompany or reinforce
verbal messages. An example is when you stroke your stomach to
say you are hungry.
3. Affect displays: They are movements of the face and body used to
show emotion. People‟s behaviour when the Super Eagles of
Nigeria wins or loses a football match left much to be desired.
4. Regulators: These are nonverbal moves that control the flow or
pace of communication. Good examples include yawning and
looking at your watch when you are bored, starting to move away
when you want the conversation to stop and fixing your eyes on
the floor or looking away when you are indifferent to a discussion.
5. Adaptors: These are movements that you might perform fully in
private but only partially in public. You might rub your nose in
public but you would probably never pick it.
Bodily Appearance
The physical qualities or bodily appearance we possess is closely
related to kinesics. Our body type such as height, weight, and physical
attractiveness hold communication potential. Body types, also known as
somatotype, have been grouped into ectomorph, mesomorph and
endomorph. While an ectomorph is a tall, thin and sometimes trail person, a
mesomorph is proportioned, athletic, trim, muscular and average in height.
52
An endomorph is short, soft and round. Physical attractiveness generally
leads to more social success in adulthood. Both women and men who are
attractive are seen as more sociable and sensitive Knapp and Hall (1992).
Attractive people receive higher initial credibility ratings than those who are
viewed as unattractive.
Space
The concept of proxemics was introduced by an Anthropologist,
Edward T. Hall in his book The Hidden Dimension in 1966. proxemics is the
study of the human use of space. He has demonstrated the role space plays in
communication. Territoriality and personal space are two concepts
considered vital to the study of space.
1. Territoriality: This refers to the need to establish and maintain
certain spaces as your own. In a neighbourhood, for instance,
fences, hedges or trees might be used to mark a territory. This is a
nonverbal indicator that signals ownership.
2. Personal space: This is the distance you maintain between
yourself and others. Large people usually claim more space
because of their size. Personal space is the personal bubble of
space that moves around with you. Distance is a nonverbal means
of communicating everything from the size of your personal
bubble to your relationship with the person to whom you are
speaking or listening.
53
Time
Temporal communication or chronemics refers to the way that people
organize and use time and the messages that are created because of our
organization and use of it. Time can be examined based on how people
perceive the past, future and present.
Touching
Tactile communication is the use of touch in communication. Touch
commands attention because it always involves invasion of another personal
space. Touch is a powerful means of communication. People who are
comfortable with touch are more likely to be satisfied with their past and
current lives. They are self-confident, assertive, socially acceptable and
active in confronting problems.
Vocal Cues
Nonverbal communication includes some sounds as long as they are
wordless. These are called paralinguistic features, the non word
characteristics of language such as pitch, rate, inflection, volume, quality,
pronunciation, articulation, silence, enunciation and nonword sounds. These
vocal cues are vital because they are linked in our minds with a speaker‟s
physical characteristics, emotional state, personality characteristics, gender
characteristics and even credibility. Kramer (1963) says vocal cues
frequently convey information about the speaker‟s characteristics such as
age, height, appearance and body type. For example, speakers who tend to
speak slowly and deliberately may be perceived as being high-status
54
individuals or as having high credibility. You are enjoined to get a copy of
the reference material on CLA 304 for a more detail information on
nonverbal cues.
Clothing and Artifacts

Objectics or object language refers to the study of the human use of
clothing and other artifacts as nonverbal codes. Artifacts are ornaments or
adornments we display that hold communicative potential, including
jewelry, hairstyles, cosmetics, watches, shoes, portfolios, glasses, hats,
tattoos and even the fillings in teeth. Your clothing and artifacts clarify the
sort of person you believe you are; your personal expression and satisfy your
need for creative self-expression. They provide physical and psychological
protection and are used to indicate self-concept.
Summary
We constantly use nonverbal communication to intentionally or
unintentionally communicate messages to others. In this lecture, you have
learned the meaning of nonverbal communication and how verbal and
nonverbal codes work. Also, the various types of nonverbal communication
have been discussed.
Post-Test
1. Attempt the previous questions again
2. In what ways can you improve your nonverbal communication?
3. Explain tactile communication.
55
References
Osho Sulaiman (2010) African Communications System. Abeokuta: ESS-OH
Consult Publications
Aguinis, H., Simonsen, M. and Pierce, C. (1998) Effects of Nonverbal
Behaviour on Perceptions of Power Bases.
Journal of Social Psychology, 138 (4), 455-475
Burgoon, J.K., and Saine, T. (1978) The Unspoken Dialogue: An
Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
56
LECTURE NINE
Assertive Communication
Introduction
The history of assertiveness training goes back several decades to the
1950s when a number of therapists started to devise ways of helping
individual patients who had serious problems in expressing themselves and
standing up for their rights. It was recognized that giving these individuals
more self-confidence, along with specific skills and technique, would help
them to cope effectively with everyday life. In this lecture, the reasons why
assertiveness is such an important topic in interpersonal communication are
discussed.
Objectives
1. define what we mean by assertiveness
2. explain the rationale for assertive communication
3. compare assertive, aggressive and submissive behaviour
Pre-Test
1. Define assertive communication.
2. Discuss the different styles of behaviour.
3. Why is assertiveness an important topic in interpersonal
communication?
57
CONTENT
It has been discovered that assertiveness was not simply valuable for
people with very serious difficulties. Many professionals and people in their
everyday lives are of the opinion that they could benefit by communicating
more assertively. So, what do we mean by assertive communication? A
typical definition of assertiveness taken from a well-established reference
material says: Assertion involves standing up for personal rights and
expressing thoughts, feelings and beliefs in direct, honest and appropriate
ways which respect the rights of other people.
This definition brings out the following features of assertiveness:
1. recognizing that you have basic human rights which should be
respected by others.
2. recognizing that these rights include being able to express your
feelings and needs.
3. communication which is direct, honest and open
4. expressing mutual respect for other people and their rights.
Why is Assertiveness Important?

There are at least three reasons why assertiveness is an important
topic within interpersonal communication. Firstly, it appears that assertion
training has become one of the most popular, if not the most popular, ways
of developing social skills. This popularity is not just confined to formal
training courses and workshops. The discovery of assertive communication
58
has helped in changing lives as it has aided freedom of expression clearly
and concisely without resorting to manipulation and intimidation. It has
become a way to be direct, open and honest without being obnoxious.
The second reason for looking at assertiveness in a bit more detail is
the way it claims to build an explicit relationships between values, attitudes
and behaviour. This raises issues of ethical behaviour and morality which
are often left implicit in other methods. Lastly, as with other popular
theories, there is a danger that assertiveness will be accepted too uncritically.
Different Styles of Behaviour?

Every resource material on assertive behaviour defines three styles of
behaviour: assertion, aggression and submission (or non-assertion). These
are often expressed as a continuum with assertion in the middle: Aggression-
Assertion-Submission
Aggressive Behaviour
This includes some form of threat which undermines the rights of the
other person. It is about winning, regardless of the other person‟s feelings.
The verbal and non-verbal accompaniments to aggressive behaviour include
loud and abusive talk, interruption, and glaring or staring eye contact.
Individuals who regularly use aggressive behaviour may well „win‟ in the
short term but will usually be disliked. They also run the risk of inviting an
even more aggressive response.
59
Submissive Behaviour
This behaviour gives in to the demands of others by avoiding conflict
and accepting being put upon. Verbal and non-verbal accompaniments
include apologetic and hesitant speech, soft speech, nervous gestures and a
reluctance to express opinions. Submissive individuals will be seen as weak
and easily manipulated. They will certainly not inspire confidence in others.
Assertive Behaviour
The characteristics are open and clear expression, firm and fluent
conversation, and quick spontaneous answers. The nonverbal components
include medium levels of eye contact; appropriate facial expressions; smooth
gestures; relaxed but upright body posture; and appropriate paralinguistic.
Assertive individuals tend to derive more satisfaction from their relationship
with others and achieve their goals more often. There are various ways of
categorizing assertive behaviour. These include:
1. Basic assertion: This is where you simply give the straight
forward statement of what you need, want, believe or feel. For
example, I bought this radio here yesterday and it will not pick up
any signals on FM. I need to have it replaced.
2. Responsive assertion: This where you check the other person‟s
needs or feelings. For example, what do you think we should do?
3. Empathetic assertion: This where you state your needs and wants
but also explicitly recognize the other person‟s point of view or
feelings.
60
4. Consequence: This is the strongest form of assertion. It is where
you tell the other person what will happen to him if he does not
change his behaviour.
5. Discrepancy assertion: This is where you point out the
discrepancy between what you have agreed previously on what
seems to be happening or is about to happen. This also usually
means repeating what you want in the situation.
6. Negative feelings assertion: This is where you point out the effect
that the other person‟s behaviour is having upon you.
Summary
As with many of the lectures covered in this resource material, one
conclusion is that you need practical research on some aspects of
assertiveness. For example, how should it work in multicultural
organizations? Assertive behaviour is one style of behaviour which can be
used in social situations, and which is worth considering if you feel that you
are having difficulty in expressing yourself directly. The impact of assertive
messages will depend upon a range of social and cultural factors.
Post-Test
2. Does assertiveness always work?
3. Explain the different types of assertive behaviour.
61
References
Eyre, E.C. (1979) Effective Communication Made Simple. London: W.H.
Allen
Hargie, O.D. (1997) The Handbook of Communication Skills. London:
Routledge
Townend, A. (1991) Developing Assertiveness. London: Routledge
Wilson, K. and Gallois, C. (1993) Assertion and its Social Context. Oxford:
Pergamon
62
LECTURE TEN
Styles and Principles of Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
This lecture aims at introducing you to the styles and principles of
interpersonal communication. A definition of interpersonal communication
may be insufficient to clarify its nature. To explain interpersonal
communication in more detail, we consider here the various styles and
principles of this form of communication.
Objectives
At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. explain the styles of interpersonal communication
2. discuss the principles of interpersonal communication.
Pre-Test
1. What is dyadic communication? Explain its principles.
2. Discuss the styles of interpersonal communication.
3. Interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons. What are
these reasons?
CONTENT
Interpersonal communication is the personal process of coordinating
meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual
opportunities for both speaking and listening. When you move from
intrapersonal to interpersonal communication, you move from
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communication that occurs within your own mind to communication that
involves one or more other persons. Like intrapersonal communication,
interpersonal takes place for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to
resolve conflicts, to share information, to prove your perception of yourself,
or to fulfill social needs. People are able to establish relationships with
others through our interpersonal communication. Dyadic and small-group
communication are two subjects of interpersonal communication. Dyadic or
two-person communication may include interviews between an employer
and an employee. Small group communication is the interaction of a small
group of people to achieve an interdependence goal. This type of
communication does occur in families, religious groups and study groups. It
is time we considered the styles of interpersonal communication.
Controlling style
This is the style of interpersonal communication where the sender of a
message leaves little or no room for the receiver to provide feedback. This
style is always adopted by the chief executives and heads of organizations
when passing instructions to their subordinates. The controlling style might
prove to be an efficient form of communication during crisis situations.
Egalitarian Style
This style is much more efficient and friendly than the controlling
style as it favours and facilitates healthy two-way communication whereby
information is mutually shared. The egalitarian style encourages the
participants to air their own views on a topical issue.
64
Structuring Style
The structuring style is generally used to communicate specific goals
and brings coordination to an organization. To avoid making this a one-way
conversation, it is always better to modify this style and keep it more open to
responses from the audience.
Dynamic Style
This is an approach which involves the use of motivation and praises
to encourage a person to get inspired and achieve a certain goal. However,
this style does not function where the receiver lacks enough knowledge
about the required action expected of him or her.
Relinquishing Style
This style is highly open for ideas to the extent that it can transfer the
responsibility of the communicator to the receiver. It is a style that thrives
when the sender and the receiver are equally interested in carrying the
conversation ahead.
Withdrawal Style
A style where any of the communicators displays absolute
indifference to participate in the communication process. The style in
basically the failure or lack of communication.
65
Principles of Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is a selective, systematic, unique and
ongoing process of interaction between individuals who reflect and build
personal knowledge of one another as they create meaning. Having
discussed the functions of interpersonal communication in the first lecture,
let us examine its principles.
1. Communication Begins with the Self

How you see yourself can make a great difference in how you
communicate. Rogers (1957) says every individual exists in a continually
changing world of experience of which he is central. We cannot not
communicate. Many communication scholars and social scientists believe
that people are products of how others treat them and of the messages others
send them.
2. Communication Involves Others
Communication itself is probably best understood as a dialogic
process. A dialogue is simply the act of taking part in a conversation,
discussion or negotiation. An effective communicator considers the other
person‟s needs and expectations when selecting messages to share. A child,
for instance, learns to accept roles in response to the expectations of others
through verbal and nonverbal symbols.
3. Communication is Complicated
Communication is far more than simple information transmission. It
involves choices about the multiple aspects of the message-the verbal,
66
nonverbal, behavioural aspects, the channels used, the characteristics of the
participants and the situation in which the communication occurs.
4. Communication is Inevitable, Irreversible and Unrepeatable
Communication takes place almost every minute of your life. Even if
the other person did not intend a message for you, you gather observations
and draw specific conclusions. As you understand the irreversibility of
communication, you may become more careful in your conversations with
others and you may be meticulous in making your speeches and comments.
It is difficult to go back in time and erase your messages to others.
Summary
In this lecture, you have learned that a definition of interpersonal
communication may not be sufficient to clarify its nature. To discuss
interpersonal communication in more detail, we have been able to x-ray
some of the styles and principles that guide our understanding of
Post-Test
2. Why do you study interpersonal communication?
3. Discuss the ways in which intrapersonal and interpersonal
communication differ from each other.
67
References
DeVito, J.A. (1999) Essentials of Human Communication. New York:
Longman
Horton, G.E., and Brown, D. (1990) The Importance of Interpersonal Skills
in consultee-Centered Consultation: A Review Journal of Counselling
and Development, 68, 423-426
McQuail, D. (2005) Mass Communication Theory: London: SAGE
Publications
68
LECTURE ELEVEN
Nature of Interpersonal Communication Theory
Introduction
Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between
two or more people. It is also an area of study. Successful interpersonal
communication is when the message senders and the message receivers
understand the message. This lecture examines the theories that can aid our
understanding of the working of interpersonal communication.
Objectives
1. define a theory
2. explain the various theories of interpersonal communication.
Pre-Test
1. What is a theory?
2. Why do you study the theories of interpersonal communication?
3. Discuss any five theories of interpersonal communication.
CONTENT
Forcese and Richer (1973) defines a theory as a model that has been
tested. This means that its concepts have been operationalized and the
relationship among the variables verified. They add that a theory consists of
a set of propositions that are interrelated, a proposition taken to mean a
verified statement of relationship between variables. Babbie (1986:37)
69
defines a theory as a systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws
that relate to a particular aspect of life. Folarin (1998) sees a theory as “a
crap detector which enables us to separate scientific statements from
unscientific ones.” The following theories of interpersonal communication
have been identified. They are: uncertainty reduction theory, social exchange
theory, symbolic interaction theory, relational dialectics theory, onion theory
and social penetration theory.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Uncertainty reduction theory originated from the socio psychological
perspective. It addresses the basic process of how we gain knowledge about
other people. The theory posits that people have difficulty with uncertainty,
they want to be able to predict behaviour and are, therefore, motivated to
seek more information about people.
Social Exchange Theory

This theory falls under the symbolic interaction perspective. The
theory predicts, explains and describes when and why people reveal certain
information about themselves to others. The Social Exchange Theory rests
on Thibaut and Kelley‟s (1959) theory of interdependence. This theory states
that relationships grow, develop, deteriorate and dissolve as a consequence
of an unfolding social-exchange process, which may be conceived as a
battering of rewards and cost both between the partners and between
members of the partnership and others.
70
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Symbolic Interaction Theory originated from the socio-cultural
perspective in that it relies on the creation of shared meaning through
interactions with others. This theory focuses on the ways in which people
form meaning and structure in society through interactions. People are
motivated based on the meanings assigned to people, things and events.
Symbolic interaction theory argues the world is made up of social objects
that are named and have socially determined meanings. When people
interact overtime, they come to shared meaning for certain terms and actions
and thus come to understand events in particular ways.
Relational Dialectics Theory

This theory emerges from the interplay of competing discourses.
Discourses are systems of meaning that are uttered whenever we make
intelligible utterances aloud with others or in our heads when we hold
internal conversations. Relational Dialectics theory poses the primary
assumption that assumptions insinuate the concept of creating meaning
within ourselves and others when we communicate. However, it also shows
how the meanings within our conversations may be interpreted, understood
and of course, misunderstood.
Onion Theory
This is an analogy that suggests that like an onion, personalities have
layers that start from the outside (what the public sees) all the way to the
core (ones private self). Often, when a relationship begins to develop, it is
71
customary for the individuals within the relationship to undergo a process of
self-disclosure. As people divulge information about themselves, their layers
begin to peel, and once those layers peel away they cannot go back, just as
the layers on an onion cannot be replaced.
Social Penetration Theory

Irwin Attman and Dallas Taylor are the originators of the social
penetration theory. The theory was made to provide conceptual framework
that describes the development in interpersonal relationships. It refers to the
reciprocity of behaviours between two people who are in the process of
developing a relationship. The behaviour vary based on the different levels
of intimacy that a relationship encounters.
Summary
In this lecture, we have been able to assess some of the definitions of
a theory. The lecture has equally familiarized you with the notable theories
of interpersonal communication.
Post-Test
2. Apart from the theories of interpersonal communication discussed in
this lecture, carry out an individual assignment on, at least, six other
theories of interpersonal communication.
72
References
Bitner, John (1989) Mass Communication: An introduction. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall
Folarin, Babatunde (1998) Theories of Mass Communication. Ibadan:
Stirling-Horden Publisher
Berlo, David (1977) “Human Communication: The Basic Proposition” in
Thomas Steinfatt(ed), Readings in Human Communication: An
Interpersonal Introduction. Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing,
Indianapolis
73
LECTURE TWELVE
Computer-Mediated Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
In lecture six, we were rather critical of the linear model of
communication. However, it is useful in some respects. It does make it clear
that all messages are conveyed through particular channels of
communication. This is not surprising, as Shannon and Weaver were
particularly interested in one channel of communication-the telephone. In
this lecture, you shall learn the importance of computer mediated
communication, how mediated communication affects us through the
communication process, and how to be a more critical consumer of mediated
messages.
Objectives
1. define computer-mediated communication and explain its importance.
2. anaylse the differences between computer-mediated communication
and interpersonal communication.
3. Identify types of computer-mediated communication.
Pre-Test
1. Define computer-mediated communication.
2. Explain synchronous communication and asynchronous communication.
3. Explain the differences between computer-mediated communication and
74
CONTENT
We are all involved in mediated communication which is any
communication interaction using technology as the primary channel.
Mediated communication is more than just the electronic and the print
media. It is any form of communication that employs electronic means.
Computer-mediated communication, often referred to as CMC, is human-to-
human communication using networked computer environments to facilitate
interaction. Computer-mediated communication is different from mediated
communication because the human-to-human interaction is interactive.
Individuals involved in the computer-mediated interaction serve
simultaneously as source and receiver. Computers, connected via the
Internet or a computer network, act as the channel of communication.
Because the interaction is personal, the message can consist of anything the
two people wish to discuss. And because CMC is interactive, feedback
naturally occurs through the exchange of interactive messages. Computer-
mediated communication is defined as any communication that occurs
through the use of two or more electronic devices. The term has traditionally
been referred to those communications that occur via computer-mediated
formats. The popular forms of CMC include e-mail, video, audio or text
chart, text conferencing, instant messaging, bulletin boards and weblogs.
75
Importance of Mediated Communication
Many of the rationale for the study of interpersonal communication
are also relevant to the study of mediated communication.
First, an understanding of the process of mediated communication will
enable you to learn to think critically about the messages the media send to
you. You will become a more thoughtful media consumer.
Second, as a citizen of a world in which technology seems to be
bringing people closer together, it will help you to understand how the media
function and to develop the skills to interpret their significance.
Also, another reason to study mediated communication is to become a
more thoughtful producer of mediated messages. Sending an e-mail
message, creating a web page, and posting to an online chat room or
discussion board are all examples of mediated communication.
Differences between Computer-Mediated Communication and

Interpersonal Communication
The following are some of the differences between CMC and interpersonal
communication.
1. Missing Signals: There is a considerable body of research into situations
where the usual range of non-verbal cues can only play a limited part-
such as making a phone call. A theory of cuelessness developed by Derek
Rutter is a good example. The theory suggests that we are influenced by
the aggregate number of usable cues or signals we can perceive from the
other person. There is lack of non-verbal cues in electronic
communication.
76
2. The Language of CMC: Researchers have tried to investigate the
special linguistic characteristics of CMC as well as special features which
writers have used to insert emotional comments. That you are typing into
a computer, and writing messages in CMC does not mean that the
messages are like other writing. This is because exchanges are often rapid
and informal, and hence more like spoken language.
3. Identity in CMC: The notion that CMC is more impersonal has led to
predictions that CMC will encourage people to behave in less orderly
ways. Because of the anonymity and impersonality, people will be much
more inclined to be rude, abusive and antisocial.
4. Community in CMC: In CMC, we can create identities for ourselves
which mean that we are not automatically judged in terms of all the usual
social cues such as race, gender and class. Some writers have argued that
this gives an opportunity for more democratic communication across
existing social boundaries. On-line communities have certainly been
created and we can observe how they have developed norms for
interaction and handle conflict between members with more or less
success.
Types of Computer-mediated Communication

One way to classify types of CMC is to determine whether the
communication is synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous
communication occurs when members of the communication interaction are
able to interact in real time and each participant is simultaneously a sender
and receiver. For instance, a face-to-face conversation or telephone call is
77
synchronous. Asynchronous communication occurs when the
communication interaction has delays and each participant must take turns
being the send or and receiver. You must have engaged in asynchronous
communication if you have ever kept in touch with a friend or family
member by mail. Some of the popular types of CMC include e-mail, bulletin
board systems, instant messaging/chat, audio-video conferencing and multi –
user environments.
1. Electronic mail or e-mail: This uses Internet or a computer network to
send addressable messages to another person connected to the Internet or
network. It is a popular form of asynchronous CMC.
2. Bulletin Board Systems (BBS): They are text based on asynchronous
communication tools that allow you to disseminate information to a large
number of people. BBS discussions housed on websites are focused on a
particular topic of interest.
3. Instant Messaging and Chat: This form of synchronous communication
is a text that allows users to connect two computers over the Internet and
have a “conversation” through their computers. It requires specialized
software, often free, that allows you to contact other people and establish
instant messaging. Various websites host chat rooms that allow multiple
users to log on and interact with other users. Internet relay chat (IRC) is a
text-based synchronous communication system that allows multiple users
to interact in real time via the Internet.
4. Audio-Video Conferencing: It uses the Internet or a network to connect
two or more multi-media-capable computers for live, interactive
conversations using visual and auditory channels of communication.
78
Computer microphones are usually made use of to conduct conversations
over the Internet.
5. Multiuser Environments (MUDs): These are Web-based virtual worlds
where participants can interact and engage in fantasy role-playing. This
type of synchronous CMC is far less functional than e-mail, video
conferencing and instant message. They are primarily for entertainment
purpose.
Summary
Interpersonal communication has obviously become increasingly
important as computer-mediated communication becomes more widespread.
Perhaps a future review of this resource material will have to mirror the fact
that face-to-face communication and CMC are both major forms of
interaction for the majority of people, and the relationship between the duo
will be a critical issue for every seasoned communicator.
Pre-Test
1. Attempt the pre-test question again
2. How can the channel affect communication?
3. Is computer-mediated communication a new form of interpersonal
communication?
79
References
Lea, M. (1992) Contexts of Computer-Mediated Communication. London:
Harvester-Wheatsheaf
Turkle, S. (1996) Life on the Screen: Identity in the age of the Internet.
London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson
McQuail, Denis (2005) Mass Communication Theory. London: SAGE
Publications
80
LECTURE THIRTEEN
Conflict And Interpersonal Communication
Introduction
Communicating in organizations is not an easy task. In fact, a
pervasive part of organizational life is conflict. Conflict can be both
destructive and productive. This lecture shall give you a working definition
of conflict. The styles of interpersonal conflict management are also
discussed.
Objectives
1. define interpersonal conflict
2. compare and contrast the styles of interpersonal conflict
management
Pre-Test
1. Define interpersonal conflict
2. Explain the styles of interpersonal conflict management.
3. Distinguish between interpersonal conflict and interpersonal
violence.
CONTENT
Conflict is an inevitable part of close relationships and can take a
negative emotional toll. Numerous research studies have shown that quantity
of conflict in a relationship is not as important as how the conflict is
81
handled. Interpersonal conflict is distinct from interpersonal violence which
goes beyond communication to include abuse. What exactly is conflict?
Putnam and Poole‟s (1987) definition highlights several critical components
of conflict: “The interaction of interdependent people who perceive
opposition of goals, aims and values, and who see the other party as
potentially interfering with the realization of these goals.” Conflict can
destroy work relationships or create a needed impetus for organizational
change and development. Interpersonal conflict occurs in interactions where
there are real or perceived incompatible goals, scarce resources, or opposing
viewpoints. Interpersonal conflict may be expressed verbally or non verbally
along a continuum ranging from a nearly imperceptible cold shoulder to a
very obvious blowout.
Conflict Management Styles

There has been much research done on different types of conflict
management styles, which are communication strategies that attempt to
avoid, address or resolve a conflict. It must be noted that styles are not
always consciously chosen. We may instead be caught up in emotion and
become reactionary. The strategies for managing conflict include competing,
avoiding, accommodating, compromising and collaborating.
Competing Style
The competing style indicates a high concern for self and a low
concern for others. When we compete, we are striving to win the conflict,
potentially at the expense or loss of the other person. One way we may
gauge our win is by being granted or taking concessions from the other
82
person. The competing style also involves the use of power, which can be
coercive or non coercive. This style has been linked to aggression, although
the two are not always paired if assertiveness does not work. There is a
chance it could escalate to hostility.
Avoiding Style
This often indicates low concern for self and a low concern for others,
and no direct communication about the conflict. In some situations, avoiding
a conflict can show a high level of concern for the other. In general,
avoidance does not mean that there is no communication about the conflict.
Remember, you cannot NOT communicate! Even when you try to avoid
conflict, you may intentionally or unintentionally give your feelings away
through verbal and nonverbal communication. This style is either passive or
indirect, meaning there is little information exchange.
Accommodating Style
A style that indicates a low concern for self and a high concern for
others and is often viewed as passive or submissive. This is because
someone complies with or obliges another without providing personal input.
Generally, we accommodate because we are being generous, we are obeying
or we are yielding. Accommodating can be suitable when there is little
chance that our own goals can be achieved. Research has shown that the
accommodating style is more likely to occur when there are time restraints
and less likely to occur when someone does not want to appear weak. The
context for and motivation behind accommodating play a vital role in
whether or not it is an appropriate conflict management strategy.
83
Compromising Style
This style shows a moderate concern for self and others and may
indicate that there is a low investment in the conflict or relationship. Even
though it is always said that the best way to handle a conflict is to
compromise, the compromising style is not a win, win solution. It is a partial
win and lose. In essence, when we compromise, we give up some or most of
what we want. It may be a good strategy when there are time limitations or
when prolonging a conflict may lead to relationship deterioration.
Compromise may also be good when both parties have equal power or when
other resolution strategies have refused to work.
Collaborating Style
This is a style that involves a high degree of concern for self and
others. It usually indicates investment in the conflict situation and the
relationship. Although the collaborating style takes the most work in terms
of communication competence, it ultimately leads to a win/win situation in
which neither party has to make concessions because a mutually beneficial
solution is discovered. Its obvious advantage is that both parties are satisfied
and which could lead to positive problem solving in the future. It could also
strengthen the overall relationship. The disadvantage lies in the fact that it is
time consuming and only one person may be willing to embrace this
approach.
84
Summary
In this lecture, it has been established that interpersonal conflict is
distinct from interpersonal violence, which goes beyond communication to
include abuse. When conflict is well managed, it has the potential to lead to
more rewarding and satisfactory relationships.
Post-Test
1. Explain how perception and culture influence interpersonal
conflict
2. Discuss the strategies for effectively managing conflict
References
Owen, Hargie (2011) Interaction Research, Theory and Practice. London:
Routledge
Andrew, C. and Neil, S. (2000) Reconciliable Difference. New York:
Guilford Press
Putman, L. and Poole, S. (1987) Conflict and Negotiation. Newbury Park:
CA: Sage
85

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UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

Distance Learning Centre

Department of Communication and Language Arts

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication

Opening and Closing

What is Interpersonal Relationship?

The importance of Interpersonal Relationships

The stages in Interpersonal Relationships

The importance of Intercultural Communication

Cultures Versus Co-cultures

Intercultural Communication Problems

Strategies for Improving Intercultural Communication

Linear Models (1948)

Revised Liner Model (1949)

Interaction occurs when there is a relationship between two or more

The major difference between interactive and transactional

Factors Responsible for Differences in Perception

Past Experiences and Roles

Present Feelings and Circumstances

Theories of Social perception

Implicit Personality Theory

What is Non-verbal Communication?

The Nonverbal Codes

Bodily Movement and Facial Expression

Clothing and Artifacts

Why is Assertiveness Important?

Different Styles of Behaviour?

1. Communication Begins with the Self

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Social Exchange Theory

Relational Dialectics Theory

Social Penetration Theory

Differences between Computer-Mediated Communication and

Types of Computer-mediated Communication

Conflict Management Styles

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