Materials 16 02552

materials
Review
Recent Advances in Properties and
Applications of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Smart
Cement-Based Composites
Yali Hao 1, Cheng Shi 1, Zhenxiao Bi 1, Ziqiang Lai 1, Anming She 1,2
and Wu Yao 1,2,
*
1
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China
2
Key Laboratory of Advanced Civil Engineering Materials of Ministry of Education, Tongji University,
Shanghai 201804, China
* Correspondence: yaowuk@tongji.edu.cn
Abstract: Under the strategies of low-carbon and environmental protection, promoting green tech-
nology innovation to achieve carbon neutrality in the construction field has become a universal goal.
As the building material with the highest consumption, concrete has gradually begun to transform
into a multi-functional and intelligent product. Therefore, the research on carbon fiber-reinforced
cement-based composites (CFRCs) is of relative interest. It mainly uses carbon fibers (CFs) with high
elasticity, strength, and conductivity to disperse evenly into the concrete as a functional filler, to
achieve the intelligent integration of concrete structures and function innovatively. Furthermore, the
electrical conductivity of CFRC is not only related to the content of CFs and environmental factors
but also largely depends on the uniform dispersion and the interfacial bonding strength of CFs
in cement paste. This work systematically presents a review of the current research status of the
enhancement and modification mechanism of CFRC and the evaluation methods of CF dispersion.
Moreover, it further discusses the improvement effects of different strengthening mechanisms on
the mechanical properties, durability, and smart properties (thermoelectric effect, electrothermal
effect, strain-sensitive effect) of CFRC, as well as the application feasibility of CFRC in structural
real-time health monitoring, thermal energy harvesting, intelligent deformation adjustment, and
other fields. Furthermore, this paper summarizes the problems and challenges faced in the efficient
and large-scale applications of CFRCs in civil engineering structures, and accordingly promotes some
proposals for future research.
Citation: Hao, Y.; Shi, C.; Bi, Z.;
Lai, Z.; She, A.; Yao, W. Recent Keywords: carbon fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (CFRCs); enhancement and
Advances in Properties and modification mechanism; mechanical properties; durability; smart properties; application
Applications of Carbon Fiber-
Reinforced Smart Cement-Based
Composites. Materials 2023, 16,
2552. https://doi.org/ 1.Introduction
10.3390/ma16072552 With the continuous development of high-strength and high-performance technologies
Academic Editor: Karim Benzarti in civil engineering, concrete has been widely used in large-scale structures and infras-
tructural engineering because of its low cost and stable performance [1,2]. However, the
Received: 19 February 2023 problems of traditional concrete are becoming increasingly prominent (single function, low
Revised: 15 March 2023 tensile strength, and easy fracture), which seriously restrict the development of concrete
Accepted: 20 March 2023 materials [3,4]. Moreover, under the actions of adverse factors such as environmental
Published: 23 March 2023
changes, external loads, and construction, concrete structures inevitably produce damage
accumulation and resistance attenuation damage and even lead to catastrophic accidents
[5]. Therefore, the vulnerable parts of the structure should possess multi-functions (real-
time health monitoring [6], self-regulation [7], self-protection [8], and so on), such that as a
Copyright: © 2023 by the
result, the structure can display early warning signs before major disaster events, which is
authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel,
also a research hotspot for scholars around the world.
Switzerland. This article is an open
access article distributed under
To prepare an intelligent, cement-based, material-integrating structural function and
the terms and conditions of the
multiple functions, smart-sensing materials such as a fiber Bragg grating sensor [9], shape
Creative Commons Attribution (CC memory alloy [10], and lead zirconate titanate piezoelectric ceramics [11,12] are usually
BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 2552. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16072552 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2023, 16, 2 of 29
2552
embedded in concrete for real-time monitoring of stress, strain, damage, and

temperature changes. However, due to the characteristics of a high cost, low durability,
and poor compatibility with the concrete matrix, such sensors bear great environmental
pressure from preparation to recovery [13]. Accordingly, to further improve the
environmental compatibility of cement-based materials and reduce material costs, the
latest research focuses on innovatively adding some conductive fillers to cement-based
materials, such as carbon nanotubes [14,15], graphene oxide [16], carbon fibers (CFs) [17],
and iron oxide nanoparticles [18]. Numerous studies have [19,20] shown that these
conductive fillers promote the generation of cement hydration product C-S-H gel
through nucleation to further refine the internal pore structure, to achieve the purpose of
improving the mechanical properties and durability of the structure. Simultaneously,
cement-based materials are also endowed with superior electrical, thermal,
electromagnetic, and other sensing functions owing to their excellent inherent
performance. Therefore, an enormous amount of research effort has been put into studying
carbon fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (CFRCs). CFs, as a multifunctional
filler, are uniformly dispersed into cement paste. On the one hand, based on their
characteristics of a light weight and high strength, CFs have a great highly technical
attraction in strengthening and toughening [21], reducing drying shrinkage [22], and other
mechanical properties of concrete. On the other hand, CFs possess a thermal and electrical
conductivity similar to metal, thermostability and corrosion resistance similar to
ceramic, and the softness and knittability of textile fibers apart from their inherent
characteristics. Under the action of a load, temperature, and other external factors,
CFRC will present pressure [23] and temperature sensitivity [24] with a change in its CF
spacing, which is one of its most unique characteristics. Hence, as a functional filler, CFs
have prominent advantages in the preparation of smart concrete [25].
As the multi-functionalization and intellectualization of concrete structures has be-
come possible, CFRC is just the right kind of smart material widely used to meet the
needs of the intelligent development of civil engineering. Moreover, it can realize the
self-diagnosis, self-regulation, and self-protection of concrete structural damage within
the real service environment and during natural disasters, which is of great significance
to reducing economic losses. Through the unremitting efforts of scholars at home and
abroad, the conductive properties of CFRC and its influencing factors have been studied
deeply. However, there are some uncertainties and discreteness in the smart properties
of CFRC due to the existence of hydrophobic CFs with some defects, including a poor
dispersion and weak bonding strength between the CFs and concrete matrix, which
dominantly restrict the engineering application of CFRC. The novelty of this paper is that
it provides a summary of the latest research progress of the applications in the field of
smart CFRC. Contraposing the difficulty of CF dispersion and weak interfacial adhesion,
an up-to-date summary of the reinforcement and modification methods used in
different studies is given first. The influence of the conductive transmission mechanism
of CFRC is furthermore given along with a discussion in this review. Additionally, based
on the available limited literature, the improvement effects of the mechanical
properties, durability, and smart properties (electrothermal, thermoelectric, and sensing
effects) of CFRC under different modification and strengthening mechanisms are
systematically analyzed. Special attention is also paid to the potential applications of
CFRC in the fields of structural real-time health monitoring, thermal energy harvesting, and
intelligent deformation adjustment. Finally, the critical problems that need to be solved
urgently are pointed out, with the purpose of providing a useful reference for further
research on CFRC.
2.Review Objective and Methodology

2.1. Review Objective
Over the course of the systematic literature review of CFRC, it was found that the
incorporation of CFs can not only significantly enhance the strength and toughness of CFRC
but also improve its electrical conductivity, with the intrinsic functions of self-sensing and
self-adjusting. Considering these characteristics, on the one hand, CFRC can act as a
2552
sensor to reflect its degree of internal damage. On the other hand, it can be used as a
driver to adjust temperature, stress, and deformation, which has attracted much attention
in the research and development of intelligent material structure systems. To improve
the application potential of CFRC in smart structures, it was imperative to
systematically summarize the current research progress of CFRC and identify the prevailing
achievements to compile the existing research gaps for further research. Researchers
worldwide have focused on various objectives during their investigations of CFRC,
leading to the results obtained being somewhat discrete. Thus, the compilation of the
existing research gaps based on a critical combination of existing research findings is
essential to provide a broad perspective of the current research level. In this work, while
attempting to review the basic and pioneering progress of CFRC research work by
domestic and foreign scholars, we summarize the potential drawbacks that may exist in
CFRC from its preparation to application, such as the non-uniform dispersion of CFs and
poor interfacial bond strength. Moreover, the significance of this review is further
elaborated in terms of the enhancement potential of different enhancement modification
mechanisms on the mechanical, durability, and smart properties of CFRC.
2.2. Methodology
This review further summarizes the existing research progress on the mechanical,
durability, and smart properties of CFRC by collecting and evaluating the related literature
published previously. Regarding data collection, it was mainly realized using the well-
known literature database sources such as Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar.
Important strings such as “carbon fiber”, “cement” and so on were typed in the keyword
search box and separated with commas to retrieve the literature related to CFRC. The
number of articles to be included in this review was then further narrowed down pre-
cisely by title, abstract, and keywords in the preliminary assortment of the literature
data. Moreover, irrelevant document types were excluded through continuous
optimization to ensure that the documents included corresponded to the topic being
explored. Finally, all research articles retrieved from each source database were
imported into Mendeley for their literature management and intelligent identification to
eliminate duplicates in the research paper database. CFRC is a developing field that has
received a lot of attention from researchers since its inception. Through this technique, a
more comprehensive scope of relevant information about the topic was obtained.
Whereas the complete literature search list on CFRC is about 4000, this review is
summarized based on these references.
2.3. Data Collection and Categorization

The comprehensive review of the current research progress on CFRC from its prepara-
tion to properties to application was conducted based on both scientometric and traditional
analytical methodologies. Therein, the scientometric analysis method is essential for
data collection and classification, as it can provide reliable, reasonable, and relatively
less sub- jective results for the assessment of the characteristics of the available
retrieved data. As presented in Figure 1, the scientometric analysis of the trends and
types of the CFRC literature was conducted based on the large Web of Science database
in this paper. The research on CFRC dates back several decades but the publication of
the related literature remained slow when the concept of CFRC was first introduced. By
2010, the publication speed of the CFRC literature was accelerated, and the period from
2016 to 2020 was the most fruitful period, with the annual number of published papers
increasing exponentially (Figure 1a). The reason for this phenomenon is the increasing
demand for the intelligent development of structures driven by advances in science and
technology. The scientometric statistical results of the types of documents searched for
related to CFRC are presented in Figure 1b. As can be seen from the results of the article
types, the journal literature, patents, and conference papers account for 52.2%, 36.2%, and
7.9%, respectively, which constitute an important part of the source of the CFRC database.
The rest consists of other sections
2552
such as reviews and books, which account for about 3.7% of the overall CFRC literature
database.
Figure 1. (a) Publication trend of the CFRC literature; (b) Types of documents in the CFRC
literature.
3.Reinforcement and Modification Mechanism of CFRC

It is widely accepted that CFs have a carbon content of more than 90% and are
endowed with high tensile strength, high elastic modulus, and good electrical conductivity
(Figure 2a). Generally speaking, CFs are divided into three types, namely
polyacrylonitrile-based CFs, pitch-based CFs, and metal-plated CFs, and their resistivity
ranges from 1 × 10−5 to 1 × 10−3 Ω·cm. Among these fibers, the conductivity of
polyacrylonitrile-based CFs and metal-plated CFs is relatively good; yet, the high cost of
metal-plated CFs cannot be ignored. Hence, polyacrylonitrile-based CFs are considered
a cost-effective conductive material under the premise of a comprehensive
consideration of their resistivity, cost, dispersibility, and durability. However, due to the
hydrophobicity and light weight of CFs, the main challenge faced by CFRC is the poor
interfacial bonding strength between CFs and the cement matrix. Additionally, a series of
defects are introduced by fibrous agglomeration. Research has established that not only is
the potential of CFRC in terms of its mechanical properties not being fully utilized [26],
but its conductivity is also affected [27]. Thus, it is necessary to improve CFRC through
appropriate reinforcement and modification processes to obtain good performance.
Figure 2. Morphology of (a) CFs, (b) water-reducing agent, (c) silica fume, (d) dispersant,
and
(e) defoamer ((a) are from Ref. [28] while (b–e) are proposed by this paper).
3.1. Modification of CFs

Extensive efforts have been made to improve the degree of dispersion of chopped
CFs in the cement matrix, which is mainly divided by mechanical separation and
chemical treatment. At present, ultrasonic [29], ball milling, and high-shear mixing
technologies are frequently used for the simple mechanical separation of CFs, and then
the surface of CFs is further modified by dispersing [30] and water-reducing agents
(Figure 2b) [31]. This is mainly based on the principle that six-membered rings and
polar hydroxyl groups in the dispersant unit structure form hydrogen bonds with polar
groups and polar water molecules on the surface of CFs to increase the hydrophilicity
and wettability of CFs, thus promoting the dispersion of CFs into single filaments [29].
The effect produced by the
2552
improved dispersion of CFs can be used to explain the formation of finer and denser
microstructures of CFRC. Although the dispersant can effectively reduce the open porosity,
there is no way to avoid the dispersant generating large voids during the specimen prepa-
ration stage. Furthermore, these pores are far beyond the measurement range of the MIP
technique, which is extremely detrimental to the mechanical properties of CFRCs (Figure 3).
Considering that silica fume is a mineral admixture with fine particles and a spherical
distribution (Figure 2c), Wen et al. [32] found that the combined action of the dispersant
methylcellulose (Figure 2d) and silica fume was fairly effective in promoting the dispersion
of CFs and reducing porosity and electrical resistivity. Meanwhile, Wang et al. [33] used a
modified molding process combining chemical dispersion and multi-level physical pro-
cesses to treat 20 mm long CFs and then prepare CFRC (Figure 4a). As can be seen from its
fracture surface, this process can obtain a CFRC with evenly distributed CFs (Figure 4b).
Figure 3. Macroscopic optical image of the CFRC including dispersant [34].
Figure 4. (a) Dispersion and mixing process of CFRC; (b) Fracture section [33].
The surface of CFs is smooth and free of active groups, and the bonding between
CFs and cement mainly depends on the attractive van der Waals forces. Based on the
uniform dispersion of CFs, its surface can also be activated by plasma treatment [35], in
situ growth [36], or chemical oxidation [37] to improve the interfacial bonding strength.
Kim et al. [35] found that CFs treated with argon, nitrogen, or oxygen plasma could increase
their number of hydrophilic functional groups on the surface, accelerate the hydration
of cement, and make the cement matrix around the CFs more compact. Meanwhile,
Li et al. [38] reported that the nano-silica with a negative charge could be uniformly
dispersed on the surface of CFs employing electrophoretic deposition. The specific surface
area increased by in situ growth modification effectively improves the dispersion and
interfacial bonding strength of CFs when the chemical bonding and infiltration conditions
2552
of CFs are similar [36]. Additionally, Fu et al. [39,40] confirmed that a great quantity of
hydrophilic oxygen-containing functional groups could be formed in strong oxidants, thus
providing more binding sites for SiO2 and effectively improving the dispersion ability of
CFs. Figure 5 shows the micromorphology of CFs before and after modification with the
silane coupling agent. As seen in the figure, untreated CFs have a clean surface and
regular longitudinal grooves (Figure 5a). After being soaked in nitric acid, their surface
activity is enhanced, and it presents a string shape in the axial direction, thus increasing
its surface roughness (Figure 5b). After immersion in a hydrophilic SiO2 coating solution
for 3 h, a large number of nano-SiO 2 particles will grow on the CF surface (Figure 5c).
Therefore, the interfacial bonding strength can be effectively improved by stimulating the
reaction of nano-SiO2 on the CF surface with cement hydration products.
Figure 5. (a) Ordinary CFs; (b) CFs treated with nitric acid; (c) Nano-silica coated on the surface
of CFs [41].
3.2. Optimization of CFRC Mixing Process

Whether CFs can be uniformly dispersed in the stirring process is still a crucial
issue in the preparation of CFRC. The purpose of mixing is not only to strengthen the
chemical reaction of the mixture and accelerate the heat transfer rate of the mixture but
also to consider the uniform dispersion of CFs in the cement matrix and the minimum
breaking loss. Wu et al. [42] examined the resistivity changes of CFRC that were mixed
by the wet mixing process and the dry mixing process, respectively, and the results
indicated that under the same content of CFs, the wet mixing process can achieve a
relatively uniform dispersion of CFs and is not easy to aggregate immediately.
Additionally, the conductive property of CFRC prepared by the wet mixing process is
better than that of the dry mixing process. Yang et al. [43] evaluated the effect of mixing
time and throwing order on the dispersion of CFs based on the dispersion coefficient
and variation index. The results showed that CFs could be evenly dispersed in the
slurry by mingling it in water first and then adding cement to stir for 2 min.
Although the strengthening and modification process of CFRC has brought positive
benefits in elevating mechanical properties, the commonly used modification technologies
still come with defects such as a low dispersion efficiency, poor dispersibility, and difficulty
in long-term storage. In brief, the uniform dispersion of CFs in cementitious systems is
still a challenging problem, so it is imperative to seek a simpler, faster, and lower energy
consumption preparation process.
3.3. Improvement of CF Dispersion Evaluation Mechanism

The uniform distribution of CFs is one of the primary prerequisites for improving the
mechanical and electrical properties of CFRC. At present, the method of CF dispersion
evaluation in cement matrix is mainly divided into direct and indirect evaluation. The
method of direct evaluation is mainly used to qualitatively evaluate the dispersion of CFs by
measuring the resistivity of hardened cement paste or fresh cement paste under the action
of alternating current, which is fast, convenient, and relatively economical. Woo et al. [44]
characterized the dispersion degree of CFs in CFRC based on AC impedance spectroscopy,
and comprehensively analyzed the orientation, overall segregation, and local agglomeration
of CFs in the cement matrix combined with the point probe technique and dispersion factor.
Zhu et al. [29] indirectly evaluated the dispersion of CFRC according to the quality variation
2552
coefficient, SEM, XRD, BET, and other indicators. Yuan [45] proposed a new method of deep
learning for evaluating the distribution of CFs based on SEM, which mainly extracted the
components of CFs from the scanned image and then made a detailed analysis. Meanwhile,
Gao et al. [46] discussed the influence mechanism of CF distribution on CFRC performance
utilizing computer tomography and gray entropy correlation analysis. This method is more
intuitive and applicable for the evaluation of a small range CF dispersion state and can
obtain the true CF distribution at the microscopic level of CFRC, as shown in Figure 6.
Based on the existing evaluation systems, it is necessary to make further improvements
to effectively reflect the dispersion state of CFs in cement paste. This will better guide
the design of CFRC preparation technology and promote its application in advanced
structural materials.
Figure 6. The actual fracture appearance, CT images, and micrograph of CFRC [46].
4.Conductive Mechanism of CFRC

The extensive carbon net plane formed by aromatic rings in CFs is a conjugated system
and the movement of π electrons is an important factor for the conductivity of CFRC. Nu-
merous studies have shown that the conductivity of the CFRC multiphase system is mainly
based on electrons and holes, and it is also affected by ionic conductivity [47]. The Ca2+,
K+, Na+, and OH− in the pore solution will directionally move to the CF surface to form a
conductive water film under the action of an applied electric field. The ionic conductivity
process is also closely related to the concentration of conductive ions in the pore fluid, the
moisture content, and the hydration degree [48]. The ionic conductivity of specimens with
a 28 d curing age and drying treatment can be neglected. Moreover, electronic conduction
can be divided into the tunnel conduction effect and contact conduction effect, which are
mainly affected by the content of CFs [49,50] (Figure 7a). When the content of CFs is small,
the distance between adjacent CFs is greatly enlarged for π electrons to pass through the
potential barrier, and a reduction in resistivity is unobvious (Figure 7b). With the gradual
increase in CF content, the distance between adjacent CFs is greatly reduced. Generally,
when it is less than 2.5 nm, π electrons can pass through the potential barrier between two
adjacent CFs to form a conductive path through the tunneling conduction effect (Figure 7c).
This phenomenon mainly occurs near the percolation threshold, which plays a decisive
role in determining the overall resistivity of CFRC. When surpassing a certain amount, a
2552
large number of chopped CFs are overlapped with each other to generate contact
conductivity and a relatively stable resistivity can be obtained (Figure 7d) [27,51,52].
Besides the content of CFs, the aspect ratio of CFs, internal pore structure, and the
interfacial bonding strength between the matrix and CFs are other crucial factors
defining the conductivity of CFRC. Celzard et al. [53] analyzed the influence mechanism
of the CF aspect ratio on the percolation threshold and found that the larger the CF
aspect ratio, the smaller the percolation threshold. According to Wu et al. [54] as well,
the percolation threshold of CFRC is closely related to the dispersion of CFs. Meanwhile,
the experimental results of Chung et al. [55] pointed out that the closure and
development of internal cracks and the interface contact state of CFs and cement-based
composites are also indispensable factors affecting the conductivity of CFRC.
Figure 7. (a) Variation trend of electrical conductivity versus CF content [49] and (b–d)
Conductive mechanism diagram of CFRC proposed by this paper.
In brief, the conductive mechanism of CFRC is extremely complex and these

conduction mechanisms coexist and relate with each other. Although the above
research could explain the sudden change in the conductivity of CFRC near the
percolation threshold, each model derivation has specific applicable conditions. Thus, it is
worthwhile to propose a more general, simple, and accurate CFRC conductivity model
for future investigation.
5.Property Evaluation of CFRC

5.1. Mechanical Properties
Owing to the abundant inherent properties of CFs, good dispersion could play a
significant role in preventing the cracking and toughening of CFRC [56,57]. This could
be attributed to the fact that doped CFs can optimize the internal pore structure on the
microscopic level, effectively bridging the two ends of the crack and delaying the further
formation and development of the crack, which has been assigned to be the
strengthening effect on improving the mechanical properties of CFRC (Figure 8a–c) [58].
However, when the fraction of CFs exceeds a certain amount, CF addition can introduce
internal defects due to uneven dispersion. It furthermore leads to the stress
concentration of the CFRC under stress, causing the efficiency of the reinforcing phase not
to be fully played out (Figure 8d–f). Moreover, the surface hydrophobicity of CFs as well
might cause damage to the interfacial
2552
bonding strength between CFs and the cement matrix, resulting in a weakening effect
on the mechanics and durability of CFRC [19]. Within CFRC, these two mechanisms
restrict and develop each other, and their influence on performance is mainly
manifested in the different dominant positions of the two mechanisms. It is indicated
that the weakening effect introduced by CF addition should be taken into due
consideration and an appropriate reinforcement and modification technology should be
further sought out to obtain a good mechanical property.
Figure 8. Morphology of CFRC at (a–c) low CF content and (d–f) high CF content [29].
Wang et al. [59] reported that CFs can obtain a uniform dispersion in the new dis-
persant hydroxyethyl cellulose solution with the assistance of ultrasonic technology. A
certain amount of defoamer (Figure 2e) can effectively reduce the bubbles in cement paste
and improve its fluidity. The compressive strength, tensile strength, and elastic modulus
of CFRC prepared by this method are, respectively, 20%, 140%, and 26.8% higher than
specimens without CFs. The mechanical properties of CFRC are well related to the in-
terfacial bonding strength between CFs and cement paste. Heo et al. [41,60] designed a
unique treatment method that can uniformly coat nano-SiO2 particles on the surface of
CFs for hydrophilic modification based on the chemical reaction of a silane coupling
agent. It was concluded that the significant improvement in the chemical binding force
of the interface transition zone could be achieved through the C-S-H gel formed by the
reaction of nano-SiO2 and Ca (OH)2. Furthermore, the CFRC modified by nano-SiO2
coating increased the energy consumption during drawing failure, which contributed to
the deflection and blocking of crack diffusion. Compared with ordinary mortar, the
frictional bond strength and bending strength were increased by 27.3–33.0% and 58.1%,
respectively. In contrast, the compressive strength decreased somewhat. This might have
been caused by the air content introduced by the increased volume fraction of CFs [61].
Yet, Li et al. [38] introduced a new modified mixing method, in which nano-SiO2 was
deposited on the surface of CFs uniformly by electrophoresis. The shear bond strength
and total fiber drawing work of CFRC were increased by 93% and 182%, respectively.
This confirmed the great potential of electrophoresis in improving the mechanical
properties of CFRC. Similarly, ozone treatment [40] and plasma modification [35] can
also improve the surface roughness and hydrophilicity of CFs. Apart from the
modification of CFs, mixing CFs with other fibers can also modify the microstructure of
CFRC. Yao et al. [62] stated that the mixing of CF steel fibers was more beneficial to
improving the mechanical properties of CFRC than that of CF polypropylene fibers,
which could increase the compressive strength, cleavage strength, and breaking
modulus by 31.4%, 36.5%, and 32.9%, respectively. The reason for this phenomenon is
that polypropylene fibers belong to low modulus fibers, while steel fibers have the
outstanding advantages of having a high elastic modulus and flexural toughness, so
Materials 2023, 16, 10 of 29
2552
the hybridization of CFs and steel fibers can give full play to their respective
performance advantages. Moreover, silica fume particles are fine, which can fill the gap
well between cement particles and aggregate within the holes introduced by the
addition of CFs, such that the integrity of CFRC is better and the compactness is higher.
Meanwhile, a significant improvement in silica fume facilitating the dispersion of CFs
can be observed. In brief, appropriate reinforcement modification technology should be
considered to improve the dispersion degree of CFs in the cement matrix, enhance the
interfacial bond strength, and refine the pore structure, which can achieve the objective
of strengthening the mechanical properties of CFRC.
5.2. Durability of CFRC

The durability of CFRC in the actual service environment determines its
commercial- ization and application potential in the field of intelligent construction
[63]. CFs used in engineering are mostly one-dimensional carbon materials with high
aspect ratios, stable chemical properties, and high toughness [64]. The CFs scattered in
the concrete can give full play to the bridging effect, which contributes to inhibiting the
generation of connecting cracks and improving the anti-expansion capacity of the
structure. Consequently, significant benefits can be generated in improving
impermeability, frost resistance, sulfate corrosion resistance, carbonation resistance, and
chloride ion permeability of structures [65–69]. Yuan et al. [67] evaluated the effect of CF
content on the frost resistance durability of CFRC based on the relative dynamic elastic
modulus and mass loss rate. It was found that with the increase in CFs, the relative
dynamic elastic modulus of CFRC incorporating 1 wt.% CFs could remain at 90% after 150
freezing–thawing cycles, showing excellent frost resistance. According to Guo et al. [70],
CFRC as well had superior corrosion resistance in their simulated seawater sea sand
concrete environment.
However, CFs added directly cannot effectively fill the pores inside CFRC; on the
contrary, it will also introduce a series of defects due to its poor dispersion. It should
be pointed out that there still exist possibilities for further amelioration in improving
the durability of CFRC. For this reason, extensive attempts have been made to refine the
pore structure through a fiber hybrid [71] and add some ultra-fine mineral admixtures
[72] or nano conductive fillers [73] to improve the durability of the structure. Zhou et
al. [71] found that the average bending strength and splitting tensile strength of CFRC
prepared by mixing CFs and polypropylene fibers can reach 8.4 MPa and 3.7 MPa,
respectively, and
the chloride ion diffusion coefficient was 2.26 × 10−12 m2/s. Compared with CFRC doped
with CFs alone, its anti-fracture performance and durability were greatly improved. Abbasi
et al. [72] confirmed that mixing CFs and silica fume into concrete can not only improve
the phenomenon of CF agglomeration but also increase the 28 d splitting tensile
strength by about 25–38%. The reduction in porosity is also beneficial to improving the
resistance of CFRC to chloride ion penetration, sulfate attack, and carbonization. Ashraf
[74] designed CFs and silica fume to be used as reinforcing agents to jointly improve the
structure of the poor interfacial transition zone of recycled concrete. The results
showed that the compressive strength, tensile strength, and bending strength of the
recycled concrete at 28 d increased by 20%, 34%, and 46%, respectively, compared with the
control group. Moreover, it only had a 6% mass loss under the action of an acid attack,
which improved its acid resistance durability by nearly 40%. Furthermore, a large number
of research achievements have been made in improving the durability of CFRC by using
nanomaterials based on its filling effect, crystal nucleus effect, and surface activity effect
[75]. Zuo et al. [76] stated that CFRC containing both CFs and carbon nanotubes showed a
more prominent crack-bridging effect, which contributed to restricting the initiation and
extension of cracks. Wang [77] reported that nano-CFs could improve the microscopic
morphology of CFRC through fiber bridging and pore filling, which could obtain
satisfactory durability at a dosage of 0.3%. Similarly, the influence mechanism of
carbon black mixed with CFs to enhance the durability of CFRC through a
reinforcement network formed by internal interaction cannot be ignored. Moreover, the
mechanical and durability properties of CFRC have been
Materials 2023, 16, 11 of 29
2552
reviewed and summarized, and the two typical enhancement categories have also been
provided in this work. Detailed information on the mechanical and durability properties is
presented in Tables 1–3, which contribute to compare the properties of designed mixtures
with different ratios.
Table 1. Mechanical and durability properties of unmodified CFRC.
Enhanceme
Properties Types w/b Ratio Content of Modificati nt in Referenc
CFs on Properties es
Compressive strength Concrete – 0.55 vol.% No 8.3%
[30]
Flexural strength Concrete – 1 vol.% No 20%
Compressive strength Mortar 0.51 3 vol.% No 61.5%
Bending strength Mortar 0.51 4 vol.% No 74.5% [61]
Splitting strength Mortar 0.51 4 vol.% No 58.1%
Compressive strength Concrete 0.46 0.2 vol.% No 3.8% [78]
Flexural strength Mortar 0.35 1 vol.% No 36.3% [79]
Table 2. Mechanical and durability properties of physically modified CFRC.
Enhancement
Properties Types w/b Ratio Content of CFs Modification
References
in Properties
strength steel fibers
Compressive Hybrid with 0.3 vol.%
Splitting tensile Co ncrete 0.4 0.2 vol.% 31.4%
Hybrid with 0.3 vol.% 36.5%
strength Concrete 0.4 0.2 vol.%
Modulus of steel [62]
Hybrid with 0.3 vol.%
32.9%
Concrete 0.4 0.2 vol.% steel fibers
rupture
Flexural
Hybrid with 0.3 vol.%
toughness Concrete 0.4 0.2 vol.% 33.9–199.5%
steel
Compressive
strength Recycl 0.41 0.5 vol.% Addition of silica fume 20%
concrete
Tensile strength Recycled
0.41 0.5 vol.% Addition of silica fume 34%
concr [74]
Flexural
strength Recycled
Acid attack concr
resistance Recycled
concr
Compressive
Hybrid with 1 vol.%
strength Concrete 0.46 0.2 vol.% 8% [78]
steel
Compressive
Mortar 0.4 0.75 vol.% Addition of bottom ash 18.75%
strength
[80]
Bending
Mortar 0.4 0.75 vol.% Addition of bottom ash 11.1%
streng
Flexural Carbon nanotubes
Mortar 0.5 0.4 wt.% (CNTs)-nano-SiO2 (NS) 14.1%
streng modified CFs [81]
Compressive
Mortar 0.5 0.4 wt.% CNTs-NS modified CFs 10.18%
strength
Materials 2023, 16, 12 of 29
2552
Table 2. Cont.
Properties Types w/b Ratio Content of CFs Modification References

Enhancement
in
Autogenous
Mortar 0.5 0.4 wt.% CNTs-NS modified CFs 27%
shrinka
Dry shrinkage Mortar 0.5 0.4 wt.% CNTs-NS modified CFs 14.8%
Impermeability Mortar 0.5 0.4 wt.% CNTs-NS modified CFs 15.1%
Table 3. Mechanical and durability properties of chemically modified CFRC.
Properties Types w/b Ratio Content of CFs Modification

Enhancement in References
Prope
Compressive 0.3% hydroxypropyl

strength Mortar 0.45 0.5 wt. 14.28%
cellulose dispersed CFs
0.5% polyvinyl
Compressi Mortar 0.45 0.5 wt.% pyrrolidone dispersed 17.6%
strength
CFs
0.3% hydroxypropyl [29]
Bending
Mortar 0.45 0.5 wt.% 1.28%
strength cellulose dispersed CFs
Bending 0.5% polyvinyl
pyrrolidone dispersed 15.38%
Mortar 0.45 0.5 wt.%
strength CFs
Tensile strength Mortar 0.32 0.51 vol.% O3 modification 38%
Tensile
Mortar 0.35 0.51 vol.% O3 modification 82% [40]
modul
Ductility Mortar 0.23 0.51 vol.% O3 modification 26%
Compressive
Mortar 0.39 0.6 wt.% Dispersant and
ultrasound acting 20%
streng together
Tensile strength Mortar 0.39 0.6 wt.% Dispersant and
ultrasound acting 140% [59]
together
Modulus Mortar 0.39 0.6 wt.% Dispersant and
ultrasound acting 26.8%
together
10.4% (compared
Bending with uncoated
strength Mortar 0.5 1.5 vol.% SiO2 coated CFs specimen); 58.1% [60]
(compared with the
plain)
5.3. Smart Properties

5.3.1. Thermoelectric Effect
As a multifunctional composite, apart from its remarkable mechanical properties,
Wen et al. [82] found that CFRC possesses good thermoelectric properties. This might
be related to the inherent properties of CFs. Most of the fibers used in cement-based
materials are polyacrylonitrile-based based CFs and are subjected to a carbonization
process with temperatures up to 600–1750 ◦C in the manufacturing stage, which cause
abundant excess holes to remain in the valence band [76]. When there is a temperature
gradient across the CFRC specimen, the hole carriers wearing a positive charge will
move from the hot end to the cold end of the material, thereby generating a current
[83]. With the extensive application of CFRC in the field of civil engineering,
researchers have found that its
Materials 2023, 16, 13 of 29
2552
thermoelectric performance could capture the weak energy generated by solar radiation
under the action of the temperature gradient and recover and convert it into electric energy.
Thus, the thermoelectric technology of CFRC shows tremendous development potential in
regulating the surface temperature of buildings in summer and recycling industrial waste
heat. Additionally, it also provides new insights into energy conservation and emission
reduction in the field of construction [84].
Since the thermoelectric performance of CFRC was first proposed, scholars at home
and abroad have conducted generous research on it [85,86]. According to the thermoelectric
merit (ZT = S2σT /K), an excellent thermoelectric material should possess low thermal
conductivity, high conductivity, and the Seebeck coefficient simultaneously. However, these
parameters are interdependent, and an increase in conductivity may lead to an increase in
thermal conductivity, so it is still a challenge to jointly optimize them to maximize their
thermoelectric performance. Wen et al. [87] showed that the absolute thermoelectric power
of original CFRC was only −0.8 µV/◦C. Thus, many attempts were made to improve the
thermoelectric performance of CFRC. The first was the selection of fiber type, including
continuous fibers or cut fibers; P-type fibers or cut fibers directly affect the thermoelectric
properties of CFRC in the direction of fiber [88]. The second improvement was the option
of conductive filler, which mainly impacts the thermoelectric behavior of CFRC through the
thickness direction. Metal compounds (such as Bi2Te3, Bi2O3, Bi2S3), conductive polymers
(polycarbonate), and carbon nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes, carbon black) are commonly
employed as interlayer conductive fillers. Wei et al. [89] first reported that the
thermoelectric performance of CFRC could be effectively improved with the addition of
5.0 wt.% Bi2O3. The Seebeck coefficient could be increased to 4–5 times the original and the
absolute thermal power up to 100.28 µV/◦C. Likewise, the incorporation of Bi2Te3
particles could reduce the thermal conductivity and resistivity of CFRC [90]. Meanwhile,
Jagadish et al. [91] obtained that 45 wt.% Bi2S3 had a significant advantage in collecting
energy and converting it into electrical energy. Moreover, the effect of conductive polymers
on thermoelectric performance should not be ignored. P3OT (poly (3-octyl thiophene)) itself
has a high Seebeck coefficient [92]. The product obtained by compounding 50% P 3OT with
CFs had a Seebeck coefficient of 136 µV/◦C and a maximum power factor of 7.05 µW m−1
K−2, which provided a new method for preparing CFRC with excellent thermoelectric
performance. Wei et al. [93] treated CFs with different contents of phenolic resin and found
that CFRC containing thin pyrolytic carbon layers exhibited typical semiconductor
behavior, and its thermoelectric properties were comparable to those of oxide
thermoelectric materials (Figure 9). Furthermore, extensive efforts have been made in
investigating the influence of carbon nanomaterial conductive fillers for improving the
thermoelectric properties of CFRC currently [76,94,95]. Cao et al. [95] observed that the
incorporation of graphite significantly improved the Seebeck effect of CFRC, which the
Seebeck coefficient aggrandized from
1.6 µV/◦C to 16.1 µV/◦C when the content of the graphite was 10 wt.%. Furthermore, the
dominant conductivity type of CFRC gradually changed from the initial P-type conductivity
to the N-type conductivity with the augmentation of the graphite content. It is clear that
before the formation of the CF conductive network, the Seebeck coefficient gradually
increases with increasing CF content. Then, the conductive network forms when the
content of CFs is 0.6 wt.%. After that, carriers with positive electric charges randomly
diffuse into the conductive network, resulting in the reduction in carrier concentration and
Seebeck coefficient. Meanwhile, the incorporation of graphite increases the linearity and
possibility of the Seebeck effect at this stage of CFRC. Additionally, the preparation process
of CFRC is well related to electrical conductivity. Liu et al. [96] evaluated the influence
of three different Bi2Te3 doping modes on the thermoelectric enhancement effect, namely,
uniform volume mixing, gradient volume mixing, and gradient layer mixing. It was found
that the thermoelectric energy of CFRC prepared by the gradient layer mixing process
could reach 36.3 µV/◦C, which was nearly 10 times higher than that of traditional ones.
Furthermore, Wen et al. [97] discovered that the technology of bromine intercalation further
enhanced the charge transfer between the intercalation layer and the carbon body in CFRC
Materials 2023, 16, 14 of 29
2552
and increased the carrier concentration, which made the absolute thermal power reach
−12 µV/◦C.
Figure 9. Thermoelectricity of CFRC prepared by treating CFs with different contents of phenolic
resin. (a) Conductivity; (b) Seebeck coefficient; (c) ZT [93].
By summarizing the research progress on thermoelectric performance in the past ten

years (Table 4), it was found that compared with traditional CFRC, although the Seebeck
coefficient and electrical conductivity have been greatly improved through a series of
improved processes, they will inevitably lead to a thermal conductivity increase. Although
the ZT value has been improved (ZT max < 1), it invariably fails to meet the sensitivity
requirements of satisfactory thermoelectric materials in the practical construction field.
Further attempts and improvements are thereby required.
Table 4. Thermoelectric properties of CFRC.
S Thermoelec Electrical Thermal

ρ tric Conductivi Conductivi ZT References
µV/
Types ◦ (Ω Power ty (S/m) ty
C) (µV/K) (W/(m·K)
cm)
0.4 wt.% CFs 7 ± 0.3 (2.8 ± 0.2) × 103 8.8 ± 0.3
0.4 wt.% CFs + 0.5 [76]
21.7 ± 3.6 (7.1 ± 0.2) × 23.5 ± 3.6
wt.% CNTs
102
1 wt.% CFs −2.82 ± 0.11 (8.3 ± 0.5) × −0.48 ± 0.11 [82]
102
Normal
lightweight 125.1 127.44
concrete with CFs
Lightweight
concrete with fly 65.3 67.64 [83]
ash and CFs
Lightweight
concrete with 49.7 52
silica
fume and CFs
Pristine CFs −3.13 ± 0.16 −0.79 ± 0.16
Bromine [87]
−18.9 ± 1.32 −16.6 ± 1.32
intercalated CFs
5 wt.% Bi2O3 + CFs 97.94 100.28 [89]
CF epoxy polymer
(Te + Bi2Te3 + – 0.02 163 0.51 0.09 [90]
carbon black)
50 wt.% CFs 136 380 [92]
Materials 2023, 16, 15 of 29
2552
(800
Table 4. Cont.
Electrical Thermal
(µV/◦C) Power Conductivity Conductivity ZT Referenc
S (Ω ρ
Types Thermoelectric es
cm)
(µV/K) (S/m) (W/(m·K)
Thin pyrolytic
carbon layer 3.11 × 10−3 [93]
modified CFRC
3.0 wt.% CaCFRC
modified 3Co4O9
58.6 [98]
1 wt.% CFs +
0.9
CeFe4Sb12 89.9 2.01 × 105 2.45 [99]
27 ◦C:
1 wt.% CFs 19.73 22.07 0.2008 0.22 1.334 ×
[100]
10−7
89
◦
C:
1.609 ×
10−7
5.3.2. Electrothermal Effect

Apart from favorable conductivity and thermal conductivity, CFs with a disordered
graphite structure manifest the advantages of a small diameter and large specific
surface area, which make the Joule heat generated by energizing easy to emit. Their
electrothermal conversion efficiency can also reach more than 90%. Although CFRC has
been designed for various electric heating elements, there are still many drawbacks that
need to be solved. For example, internal stress, unsaturated bonds, and impurities
generally exist in CFs, as well as easy-to-produce oxidation weight loss when heated in
an aerobic environment, resulting in an unstable electric heating performance of CFRC.
Consequently, widespread attention has been paid to investigating the improvement and
enhancement mechanism of the electrothermal properties of CFRC. The research of Hai et
al. [101] concluded that the influence of moisture on the electrothermal effect is mainly
reflected in conductivity. The moisture in the pore solution could promote the electrical
conductivity and electrothermic effect at a low content of CFs (<0.3 wt.%). Conversely,
the water film on the surface of CFs will increase the electronic transition resistance
between CFs in the CFRC that has formed a conductive network (Figure 10). On this
basis, Hai et al. [102] further found that the conductivity of CFRC prepared by the
technique of a CF gradient distribution process was 131.8% higher than that of traditional
concrete, while its maximum interlayer temperature difference was reduced to a varying
degree. This principle provides a new consideration for reducing interlayer thermal stress.
Chen et al. [103] modified the surface of polyacrylonitrile-based CFs with
graphene/epoxy resin coating, which could increase the temperature of CFs by 40 ◦C,
energizing at a voltage of 4 V for 60 s. The electrothermal properties also improved by
about 21.4% and possessed good rapid temperature response sensitivity. Furthermore, it
still had good electrothermal stability after 20 times of cold and hot cycles at a 6 V
voltage. Lu et al. [10] designed a unique method of modifying aluminum surfaces based
on siloxane groups and furtherly enhancing the electrothermal efficiency of CFs through
chemical bonds. It is also a great choice to blend CFs with other conductive fillers to
synergistically improve the thermoelectric properties of CFRC except for the
modification of CFs. Xu et al. [104] stated that the incorporation of steel fibers at a low
content of CFs (0.6–0.8 wt.%) was beneficial to the formation of the internal conductive
network of CFRC, which significantly promoted the improvement of the electrothermal
effect. When the content of CFs exceeded 1 wt.%, the incorporation of steel fibers would
inhibit the homogeneous dispersion and effective connectivity of CFs, as well as air bubbles
introduced, thereby reducing the electrothermal conversion rate. Wu et al. [105] found that
conductive concrete mixed with CFs and carbon black can give full play to the
advantages of the larger aspect ratio of CFs and short-range electrical conductivity of
carbon black particles, making the resistivity as low as 1 Ω·m. In addition, Wang et al.
Materials 2023, 16, 16 of 29
2552
[106] introduced a new modified mixing technology, in which the magnetically
separated fly ash is used as conductive aggregate and then compounded with CFs. The
conductive mortar prepared by
Materials 2023, 16, 17 of 29
2552
this process not only has a high conductivity (<30 Ω·cm), but also, the Seebeck coefficient
is nearly 10 times higher than that of traditional CFRC (up to 2.63 mV/ ◦C). It can be seen
that the electrothermal performance of CFRC has a high application value in the field of
intelligent sensing, which is worthwhile for further research [107].
Figure 10. Variations in the (a) electrical conductivity and (b–d) electrothermal properties of CF
content [101].
5.3.3. Strain-Sensitive Effect

The conductive network formed inside CFRC can respond quickly to external loads
and environmental changes, showing a shocking strain sensitivity [108]. That is, electrical
resistivity will decrease proportionally with increases in external mechanical strain,
and conversely, it will increase gradually. These two effects of CFRC are reversible
within an elastic range, and once the internal structure is damaged, electrical resistivity
will change irreversibly [109]. It can usually be measured by the gauge factor (GF),
which is defined as the ratio of the relative change in electrical resistance to mechanical
strain, as shown in Formula (1):
∆ R/R0 ∆ R/R0 (1)
GF = =
∆L/L0 ε
where, GF—strain-sensing sensitivity; ∆R—the value of resistance change; R0—initial
resistance; ∆L—length change; L0—initial length; and ε—strain.
Fu et al. [110] first applied CFRC to monitoring the slight fatigue damage of the
structure in 1996. It was found that the fatigue damage of CFRC incorporating 0.24 vol.
% CFs will irretrievably make the electrical resistivity reduced by 2% in the first 10%
fatigue life of compression or tensile strength, which might be caused by the bond
separation between adjacent fibers. This phenomenon provides a new insight into the
application of CFRC in the field of real-time structural health monitoring. To further
improve the strain-sensing effect of CFRC, Azhari et al. [111] studied the resistivity
response of CFRC under cyclic loading with different stress amplitudes (5, 10, 20, 30, 60
kN) (Figure 11a). On this basis, the strain response sensitivity of the conductive
composites using CFs alone (Figure 11b) and a mixture of CFs and CNT (Figure 11c)
were also compared, confirming that there was a good correspondence between the strain
and fractional change in resistivity of CFRC, and the addition of carbon nanotubes could
enhance the sensitivity of CFRC as well as having good repeatability under cycle
compression loading. Xu et al. [112] placed CFRC under the action of a magnetic field
and discussed the influence mechanism of the orientation and arrangement of internal
fibers on piezoresistive sensing. The results show that CFRC arranged parallel to the
magnetic field possesses superior sensitivity, repeatability, and stability in strain sensing.
Moreover, the excellent strain-sensing behavior of CFRC is closely related to its inherent
macro-properties. Thus, extensive attempts have been made to improve the strain-
sensing effect through the technology of enhancement modification. Meanwhile, Fu et al.
[39] reported a novel modification method for CFs, in which the CFs were first exposed
to an atmosphere of ozone, and then used as conductive
Materials 2023, 16, 18 of 29
2552
filler to prepare CFRC. It was concluded that CFRC modified by ozone not only enhanced
the mechanical properties of the matrix but also significantly improved the sensitivity
of electrical resistance to strain. Although some achievements have been made in
improving the strain-sensing effect of CFRC, it should be pointed out that there is still
much room for improvement, so more attention needs to be paid to future research.
This has further stimulated researchers to improve the stress strain and damage
monitoring ability of CFRC under static and dynamic loads through various measures.
Figure 11. Response of CFRC under cyclic compressive loading at (a) different load
amplitudes,
(b) 15 wt.% CFs, and (c) 15 wt.% CFs + 1 wt.% CNT [111].
So far, numerous studies have been carried out on the sensing response of electrical re-
sistivity to the strain of CFRC under external actions, such as uniaxial compression, tension,
bending, and repeated cyclic loading. The influence mechanism of CF content, loading
amplitude, loading rate, and other factors on the sensitivity and stability of intelligent
cement-based sensors has been well-defined, respectively. Various studies have confirmed
that CFRC is a new type of intelligent cement-based material integrating structural func-
tions and sensing functions. After calibration, it can not only be used for health monitoring
and the condition evaluation of actual structures but also has good application potential in
the fields of traffic monitoring, vehicle dynamic weighing, structural vibration control, and
reinforcement corrosion condition monitoring [27,113].
6.Engineering Applications of CFRC

Owing to its remarkable characteristics of thermoelectric, electrothermal, and strain-
sensing properties, CFRC could be well used to monitor the stress and strain state and
crack damage in structures in real time, which shows a potential investment value in the
areas of thermoelectric energy harvesting, deformation regulation, and structural health
monitoring, as well as melting snow and ice and electromagnetic shielding.
6.1. Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting

Large cities often experience the heat island effect in hot summer, which is mainly
caused by increases in the surface temperature of roofs and cement concrete pavements
under the strong radiation of sunlight. Supposing the heat energy in the environment can
be reasonably collected and converted into electric energy through conductive channels,
this would play a good role in reducing the urban heat island effect. In recent years, apart
from having a satisfactory structural function, the properties of CFRC can be altered for
different applications compounded with various smart components. Thus, the emergence of
thermoelectric cement-based materials has been tremendously promoted. The temperature
difference induced by solar radiation triggers the CFRC for energy harvesting. To further
explore its feasibility, Wei et al. [100] simulated the energy collection capacity of CFRC
under solar radiation for the first time (Figure 12a). In the study, CFRC was made into a
thin plate with a thickness of 20 mm and an area of 1 m 2, and it was found that the energy
obtained could reach 4–5 µW. This indicated that the ZT of CFRC is relatively low, resulting
in a small amount of energy captured per square meter. Although this result is not very
satisfactory, it is promising in shaping a great future. Future research should pay sufficient
Materials 2023, 16, 19 of 29
2552
attention to the thermoelectric conversion efficiency of CFRC. On this basis, if the vast
building surface of CFRC can be used reasonably and effectively for energy harvesting
in summer, it will be an important effort that cannot be ignored for reducing worldwide
energy consumption. Hence, CFRC with good thermoelectric conversion performance will
have good application value in reducing the urban heat island effect, recycling waste heat
in the construction industry, and thermoelectric energy harvesting.
6.2. Intelligent Adjustment of Structure

According to the unique characteristics of the electrothermal effect, the volume of
self-adjusting smart concrete will expand during heating with electricity, which could
be well used to realize the active control of the concrete structure. This function of self-
adjusting smart concrete could alleviate the shortcomings of traditional concrete such
as, for example, lower tensile strength, easy cracking, and sudden fracture without any
symptoms, greatly facilitating the development of intelligent civil structures [10]. Although
researchers have made great efforts to explore the potential of shape memory alloys in the
deformation regulation of concrete beams, the high cost and compatibility with concrete are
still the main factors restricting its popularization. However, CFRC equipped with good
electrothermal properties has obvious advantages in having a fast heating rate and ease
of control, which could be considered to be embedded into concrete to achieve structural
deformation adjustment. Yao et al. [114] designed a new structure combination mode, in
which the CFRC with a superior electrothermal effect was embedded in the upper part of
the concrete beam and then heated with electricity (Figure 12b). This method is equivalent
to applying compressive pre-stress to the bottom layer of the concrete beam by using
the volume expansion generated by the electric heating of CFRC, such that the bearing
capacity of the concrete beam can be greatly improved when it reaches the same downward
deflection. The results showed that under the control of CFRC deformation regulation, the
peak load of concrete beams could be increased by more than 50%, which deeply facilitates
the wide application of CFRC to realize low-cost and intelligent structural deformation
adjustment in the field of civil engineering in the future.
6.3. Structural Health Monitoring

CFRC possesses a significant stress strain-sensing effect, which can be considered as a
sensor embedded into beams, columns, piers, and other components to form intelligent
systems for the application of structural health monitoring in civil engineering [17].
This system is a non-destructive monitoring system, and it mainly monitors and
evaluates the stress and strain state and crack damage degree in real time through data
testing to make a rapid response. Generally, the self-monitoring concrete prepared by
CFs (0.2–0.5 vol.%) is endowed with a reversible stress and strain-sensing effect. It
should be noted that an increase in reversible resistivity provides an indication of
reversible strain with a strain- sensitive factor of up to 700 [113]. Moreover, the
structural form of CFRC as a sensor also tends to diversify with the development of
science and technology, which is transformed from the bulk gradually into the coating,
interlayer, bonding, and embedding. The detailed structural arrangement is shown in
Figure 12c [27]. The commonly used sensor mainly comprises letting the CFRC smart
cement-based blocks with a size of aggregate embed into concrete structures. Compared
with other forms, it not only has high sensitivity and good compatibility but can also
realize high-efficiency, large-scale, and distributed intelligent monitoring of
infrastructure due to its cost advantage [115]. Moreover, the smart sensor prepared by
adding conductive filler likewise has good bending strength and toughness, showing
outstanding advantages in optimizing structural design and building smart cities.
6.4. Melting Snow and Ice

Traditional snow and ice removal techniques mainly include the use of deicing salt
and mechanical removal, which not only affects the durability of the structure but also
consumes huge financial and material resources. According to statistics, the US, China,
Materials 2023, 16, 20 of 29
2552
and the European Union spend nearly 6, 10, and 9 billion dollars, respectively, on dealing
with snow and ice accumulation on roads each year. To overcome the shortcomings of
the existing technology, researchers have found that incorporating appropriate amounts
of CFs into cement-based materials can significantly improve the electrical conductivity
of the structures. Based on the inherent resistivity of the CFRC to current flow, heat can
be generated by applying an electric potential to the CFRC using embedded electrodes.
Moreover, the electrothermal conversion efficiency of CFRC is extremely high, so it can
be considered for applying the Joule heat generated by energizing the CFRC to the snow
melting and deicing of airport runways in winter (Figure 12d). The application advantages
of CFRC are mainly reflected in the automation of road maintenance operations in winter
and reducing the use of hazardous deicing chemicals, thus greatly increasing the service
life of road structures. To further explore the feasibility of CFRC alternatives to traditional
schemes for heated pavement systems, Sassani et al. [116] investigated the percolation
characteristics of CFs in different carriers and the electrothermal properties of CFRC under
long-term experimental tests. The results show that CFs can reach the percolation threshold
of CFRC at a volume dosing of 0.25–1%, 0.6–1%, and 0.5–0.75% in paste, mortar, and
concrete, respectively. Furthermore, the resistivity of CFRC from 28 d to 460 d decreases
from 1.86 × 10−2 to 1.22 × 10−2 S/cm, and the corresponding electrothermal conversion
efficiency decreases by only 16%. More importantly, this suggests that the optimal CF
dosage of CFRC with a stable electrothermal effect in a long-term service environment
should be controlled at 1 vol.%, which provides a certain reference value for realizing low
energy consumption and high-efficiency snow and ice melting in large areas of pavements.
6.5. Electromagnetic Shielding

CFRC itself has good electrical conductivity, which can effectively absorb, reflect,
and shield the electromagnetic wave pollution and leakage caused by radio
communication (Figure 12e). It was found that the shielding effect of ordinary concrete
under 500 Hz radiation is 1 dB, while the incorporation of 3 vol.% CFs can enhance its
shielding effect by 15 times. To further improve the electromagnetic shielding effect of
CFRC in smart city applications, Xie et al. [117] found that compounding CFs with iron
nanoparticles had a higher shielding effect than using CFs as the only filler, with a
shielding value of 70 dB at 0.1 GH radiation. Additionally, the surface chemistry of CFs
is an important parameter to measure the interaction between the cement matrix and the
fibers. The surface pretreatment of CFs utilizing heat treatment or chemical agents can
increase relative surface area, activate the surface chemical functional groups, and
effectively improve the degree of dispersion and bonding strength with the matrix. The
chemical vapor deposition technique is based on the surface structural changes caused
by the pyrolytic carbon deposition of CF at 1200 ◦C to enhance the electromagnetic
shielding effect of CFRC. Meanwhile, Fu et al. [118] improved the electromagnetic
shielding performance of CFRC by chemically plating a thin layer of nickel on the CF
surface to enhance the interfacial bonding with the matrix, and the shielding value could
be as high as 87 dB at 1 GHz radiation. The existing modification techniques have
demonstrated the potential application of CFRC in the field of electromagnetic shielding,
among which the combination of nickel and CFs as one of the most effective ways to
enhance the shielding effect of CFRC at present.
Materials 2023, 16, 21 of 29
2552
Figure 12. The application of CFRC in (a) Thermoelectric energy harvesting, (b) Intelligent adjust-
ment, (c) Structural health monitoring, (d) Melting snow and ice, and (e) Electromagnetic shielding.
((a,b,d) are proposed by this paper while (c,e) are from Ref. [27] and Ref. [119], respectively).
7.Conclusions and Future Research Needs

With the rapid increase in the production of domestic CFs, the problem of higher
preparation costs of CFRC has been gradually alleviated. Compared with traditional
cement-based materials, CFRC possesses the characteristics of high strength and durability,
good electrical conductivity, and sensitivity to temperature and stress. Based on those
characteristics, CFRC could be considered to be made as an intelligent system integrat-
ing mechanical and sensing properties, which greatly promotes the application potential
of CFRC in the fields of real-time health monitoring, thermoelectric energy harvesting,
structural intelligent regulation, and so on. To develop a CFRC with excellent properties,
the preparation process, conductive transmission mechanism, and mechanical and
smart properties under the actual service environment are key factors affecting its
performance. Hence, aiming at the challenge of homogeneous dispersion of hydrophobic
CFs in the cement matrix, this paper first provides state-of-the-art information on the
CFRC reinforcement modification mechanism and CF dispersion evaluation method. The
conductive transmission mechanism of CFRC and the improvement effect of different
strengthening mechanisms on the mechanical properties, durability, and smart
properties of CFRC are also deeply discussed. The main conclusions and relevant
suggestions are as follows:
(1) Due to the strong van der Waals forces and surface hydrophobicity between
CFs, the main challenge facing the preparation process of CFRC is how to improve the
uniform dispersion of CFs in the cement slurry and enhance the interfacial bond
strength between CFs and the cement matrix. Although the dispersion degree of CFs has
been greatly improved through a series of physical dispersion and chemical modification
methods, the preparation process is relatively complicated and cannot be used in
practical engineering structures on a large scale. Further research could consider
developing some useful but uncomplicated stirring processes to prepare CFRC and
simultaneous multi-scale compounding with other functional fillers to further improve
the mechanical and sensing properties of CFRC.
(2)The homogeneous distribution of CFs in the cement matrix is the foundation of the
functionality of CFRC. The evaluation of the dispersion degree of CFs is mainly based on
the macroanalysis of SEM images or lateral evaluation through electrical and
mechanical properties in recent years. The area observed by scanning electron
microscopy is limited
Materials 2023, 16, 22 of 29
2552
and not representative. Meanwhile, the results obtained by electrical and mechanical
property tests are closely related to the moisture content of the sample itself and the
bonding conditions between the sample and the electrode, making it difficult to accurately
assess the dispersion of CFs within CFRC. Therefore, an urgent problem is to establish a set
of evaluation systems to guide and regulate the dispersion quality of CFs in the matrix.
(3)The incorporation of CF can give full play to the toughening effect in the matrix, and
its working principle is mainly manifested in changing the cracking path of microcracks,
blocking the cracking path, and playing the bridging role of cement paste. In general,
0.5% and 1% are considered to be the optimal volume dosages of CFRC to ensure good
mechanical properties and maintain large workability. This is because the high volume
fraction of CFs will cause inherent defects within the CFRC, which will greatly reduce the
performance. However, in terms of smart sensing, the strain coefficient decreased from 1.16
to 0.6 when the content of CFs increased from 0.1 vol.% to 1.5 vol.%, indicating that CFRC
with low CF dosage has a higher degree of strain response. Based on the comprehensive
consideration of the influence of environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, it
is recommended that the optimal dosing of CFRC be set in the range of 0.5–1.5 vol.%. CFRC
is equipped with satisfactory smart properties (thermoelectric, electrothermal, and strain-
sensitive effect) while being relatively insensitive to environmental factors. If properly
calibrated, CFRC can realize cost-effective adjustment and monitoring of structures without
other auxiliary sensing devices.
(4)The scattered CFs in concrete can fully exert the bridging effect to effectively inhibit
the generation of connected cracks, such that CFRC shows great durability in environments
of freezing and thawing, chloride ion penetration, carbonization, and sulfate corrosion.
However, most of the current research is based on the discussion of the durability of
CFRC under the action of a single action, while the research on the degradation law of
the durability and smart properties of CFRC is still very insufficient; so, further research
is needed to guide the durability design of CFRC in the actual service environment.
(5) There is a good corresponding relationship between the resistivity change and its
stress strain state of CFRC. The improvement of mechanical properties, durability, and
smart properties of CFRC is still limited by the factors of CF content, length, and dispersion
degree. Thus, adjusting the interaction behavior between CFs and the cement matrix
by an appropriate enhancement modification mechanism is required. The integration of
intelligent structures can be realized through early warning, adaptive adjustment, and self-
repair to improve the safety and reliability of CFRC. This is of great significance for further
research and application of CFRCs in the fields of structural real-time health monitoring,
thermal energy harvesting, intelligent deformation adjustment, and other engineering
fields.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.H. and W.Y.; methodology, C.S.; validation, Y.H.,
A.S. and W.Y.; formal analysis, Z.B. and Z.L.; investigation, Y.H.; resources, Z.B. and Z.L.; writing—
original draft preparation, Y.H.; writing—review and editing, C.S. and W.Y.; visualization, Y.H.;
supervision, A.S.; project administration, W.Y.; funding acquisition, W.Y. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The financial support from the Open Fund of the State Key Laboratory of Disaster
Reduction in Civil Engineering (Grant No. SLDRCE18-05) and the National Key Research and
Development Program of China (Project No. 2019YFC1906203).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The study did not report any data.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Open Fund of
the State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering (Grant No. SLDRCE18-05) and the
National Key Research and Development Program of China (Project No. 2019YFC1906203).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2023, 16, 23 of 29
2552
References
1. Bae, B.I.; Lee, M.S.; Choi, C.S.; Jung, H.S.; Choi, H.K. Evaluation of the Ultimate Strength of the Ultra-High-Performance
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Beams. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2951. [CrossRef]
2. Milovancevic, M.; Denic´, N.; C´ irkovic´, B.; Nešic´, Z.; Paunovic´, M.; Stojanovic´, J. Prediction of Shear Debonding Strength of
Concrete Structure with High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Structures 2021, 33, 4475–4480. [CrossRef]
3. Suchorzewski, J.; Prieto, M.; Mueller, U. An Experimental Study of Self-Sensing Concrete Enhanced with Multi-Wall Carbon
Nanotubes in Wedge Splitting Test and DIC. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 262, 120871. [CrossRef]
4. Han, B.; Sun, S.; Ding, S.; Zhang, L.; Yu, X.; Ou, J. Review of Nanocarbon-Engineered Multifunctional Cementitious Composites.
Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2015, 70, 69–81. [CrossRef]
5. Zhu, X.; Chen, X.; Bai, Y.; Ning, Y.; Zhang, W. Evaluation of Fracture Behavior of High-Strength Hydraulic Concrete Damaged
by Freeze-Thaw Cycle Test. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 321, 126346. [CrossRef]
6. Biondi, L.; Perry, M.; McAlorum, J.; Vlachakis, C.; Hamilton, A. Geopolymer-Based Moisture Sensors for Reinforced Concrete
Health Monitoring. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2020, 309, 127775. [CrossRef]
7. Wang, J.; Sun, H.; Yu, L.; Liu, S.; Geng, D.; Yuan, L.; Zhou, Z.; Cheng, X.; Du, P. Improvement of Intrinsic Self-Healing Ability of
Concrete by Adjusting Aggregate Gradation and Sand Ratio. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 309, 124959. [CrossRef]
8. Cruz, A.M.; Javier, P. Self-Compacted Concrete with Self-Protection and Self-Sensing Functionality for Energy Infrastructures.
Materials 2020, 13, 1106. [CrossRef]
9. Wong, A.C.L.; Childs, P.A.; Berndt, R.; Macken, T.; Peng, G.D.; Gowripalan, N. Simultaneous Measurement of Shrinkage and
Temperature of Reactive Powder Concrete at Early-Age Using Fibre Bragg Grating Sensors. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2007, 29,
490–497. [CrossRef]
10. Lu, H.; Wang, X.; Yao, Y.; Gou, J.; Hui, D.; Xu, B.; Fu, Y.Q. Synergistic Effect of Siloxane Modified Aluminum Nanopowders
and Carbon Fiber on Electrothermal Efficiency of Polymeric Shape Memory Nanocomposite. Compos. Part B Eng. 2015,
80, 1–6. [CrossRef]
11. Ma, Y.; Yin, D.; Wang, X.; Li, Y.; Jiang, Q. Cement-Based Piezoelectric Composite Sensor Designed for Charactering the Three-
Dimensional Stress State in Concrete. Smart Mater. Struct. 2020, 29, 085048. [CrossRef]
12. Pan, H.H.; Guan, J.C. Stress and Strain Behavior Monitoring of Concrete through Electromechanical Impedance Using Piezoelectric
Cement Sensor and PZT Sensor. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 324, 126685. [CrossRef]
13. Scott, R.H.; Chikermane, S.; Vidakovic, M.; McKinley, B.; Sun, T.; Banerji, P.; Grattan, K.T.V. Development of Low Cost Packaged
Fibre Optic Sensors for Use in Reinforced Concrete Structures. Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed. 2019, 135, 617–624.
[CrossRef]
14. Gao, Y.; Jing, H.; Yu, Z.; Li, L.; Wu, J.; Chen, W. Particle Size Distribution of Aggregate Effects on the Reinforcing Roles of
Carbon Nanotubes in Enhancing Concrete ITZ. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 327, 126964. [CrossRef]
15. Rocha, V.V.; Ludvig, P. Influence of Carbon Nanotubes on the Mechanical Behavior and Porosity of Cement Pastes Prepared
by a Dispersion on Cement Particles in Isopropanol Suspension. Materials 2020, 13, 3164. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Pan, Z.; He, L.; Qiu, L.; Korayem, A.H.; Li, G.; Zhu, J.W.; Collins, F.; Li, D.; Duan, W.H.; Wang, M.C. Mechanical Properties
and Microstructure of a Graphene Oxide-Cement Composite. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2015, 58, 140–147. [CrossRef]
17. De Sutter, S.; Verbruggen, S.; Tysmans, T.; Aggelis, D.G. Fracture Monitoring of Lightweight Composite-Concrete Beams.
Compos. Struct. 2017, 167, 11–19. [CrossRef]
18. Bautista-Gutierrez, K.P.; Herrera-May, A.L.; Santamaría-López, J.M.; Honorato-Moreno, A.; Zamora-Castro, S.A. Recent
Progress in Nanomaterials for Modern Concrete Infrastructure: Advantages and Challenges. Materials 2019, 12, 3548.
[CrossRef]
19. Akbar, A.; Kodur, V.K.R.; Liew, K.M. Microstructural Changes and Mechanical Performance of Cement Composites Reinforced
with Recycled Carbon Fibers. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 121, 104069. [CrossRef]
20. Jung, M.; Lee, Y.S.; Hong, S.G.; Moon, J. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC): Dispersion,
Mechanical Properties, and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Shielding Effectiveness (SE). Cem. Concr. Res. 2020, 131,
106017. [CrossRef]
21. Lu, Z.; Hanif, A.; Sun, G.; Liang, R.; Parthasarathy, P.; Li, Z. Highly Dispersed Graphene Oxide Electrodeposited Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Cement-Based Materials with Enhanced Mechanical Properties. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2018, 87, 220–228.
[CrossRef]
22. Liu, Y.; Tafsirojjaman, T.; Dogar, A.U.R.; Hückler, A. Shrinkage Behavior Enhancement of Infra-Lightweight Concrete through FRP
Grid Reinforcement and Development of Their Shrinkage Prediction Models. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 258, 119649.
[CrossRef]
23. Chen, J.; Hou, Z.; Yu, H.; Gao, L. Research on the Double Yellow Lines Monitoring System Based on Pressure-Sensitivity of
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2012, 209–211, 779–785. [CrossRef]
24. Han, J.; Wang, D.; Zhang, P. Effect of Nano and Micro Conductive Materials on Conductive Properties of Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Concrete. Nanotechnol. Rev. 2020, 9, 445–454. [CrossRef]
25. Wei, A.; Tan, M.Y.; Koay, Y.C.; Hu, X.; Al-Ameri, R. Effect of Carbon Fiber Waste on Steel Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Exposed to the Marine Environment. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 316, 128356. [CrossRef]
26. Li, W.; Zhu, J.H.; Chen, P.; Xing, F.; Li, D.; Su, M. Evaluation of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Matrix as a Recyclable
Strengthening Material. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 217, 234–243. [CrossRef]
27. Han, B.; Ding, S.; Yu, X. Intrinsic Self-Sensing Concrete and Structures: A Review. Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed. 2015, 59,
110–128.
[CrossRef]
Materials 2023, 16, 24 of 29
2552
28. Wu, Z.; Zhang, J.; Yu, H.; Ma, H.; Wang, H.; Zhang, G.; Yan, B. Experiment and Mesoscopic Modelling on the Dynamic
Compressive Behaviors of a New Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cement-Based Composite. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2022, 130,
104519. [CrossRef]
29. Zhu, H.; Zhou, H.; Gou, H. Evaluation of Carbon Fiber Dispersion in Cement-Based Materials Using Mechanical Properties,
Conductivity, Mass Variation Coefficient, and Microstructure. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 266, 120891. [CrossRef]
30. Sassani, A.; Ceylan, H.; Kim, S.; Gopalakrishnan, K.; Arabzadeh, A.; Taylor, P.C. Influence of Mix Design Variables on
Engineering Properties of Carbon Fiber-Modified Electrically Conductive Concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 152,
31. Kim, G.M.; Park, S.M.; Ryu, G.U.; Lee, H.K. Electrical Characteristics of Hierarchical Conductive Pathways in Cementitious
Composites Incorporating CNT and Carbon Fiber. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2017, 82, 165–175. [CrossRef]
32. Wen, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Electric Polarization in Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cement. Cem. Concr. Res. 2001, 31, 141–147.
[CrossRef]
33. Wang, Z.; Ma, G.; Ma, Z.; Zhang, Y. Flexural Behavior of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Beams under Impact Loading.
Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 118, 103910. [CrossRef]
34. Díaz, B.; Guitián, B.; Nóvoa, X.R.; Pérez, C. Analysis of the Microstructure of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Cement Pastes
by Impedance Spectroscopy. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 243, 118207. [CrossRef]
35. Kim, J.H.; Han, J.H.; Hong, S.; Kim, D.W.; Park, S.H.; Wee, J.H.; Yang, K.S.; Kim, Y.A. Effect of Plasma Surface Modification
on Pullout Characteristics of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cement Composites. Carbon Trends. 2021, 3, 100030. [CrossRef]
36. Yin, Z.; Wu, D.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, R. Effectively Modified Surface Microstructure and Properties of Carbon Fiber via In-Situ
Growth of Nano-SiO2. ECS J. Solid State Sci. Technol. 2021, 10, 091011. [CrossRef]
37. Wen, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Piezoresistivity in Continuous Carbon Fiber Cement-Matrix Composite. Cem. Concr. Res.
1999, 29,
38. Li, H.; Liebscher, M.; Curosu, I.; Choudhury, S.; Hempel, S.; Davoodabadi, M.; Dinh, T.T.; Yang, J.; Mechtcherine, V.
Electrophoretic Deposition of Nano-Silica onto Carbon Fiber Surfaces for an Improved Bond Strength with Cementitious
Matrices. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2020, 114, 103777. [CrossRef]
39. Fu, X.; Lu, W.; Chung, D.D.L. Improving the Strain-Sensing Ability of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cement by Ozone Treatment of
the Fibers. Cem. Concr. Res. 1998, 28, 183–187. [CrossRef]
40. Fu, X.; Lu, W.; Chung, D.D.L. Improving the Tensile Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement by Ozone Treatment of the
Fiber. Cem. Concr. Res. 1996, 26, 1485–1488. [CrossRef]
41. Heo, G.H.; Park, J.G.; Song, K.C.; Park, J.H.; Jun, H.M. Improving the Interfacial Bond Properties of the Carbon Fiber Coated
with a Nano-SiO2 Particle in a Cement Paste Matrix. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2020, 2020, 1–18. [CrossRef]
42. Wu, J.P.; Yao, W. Preparation of Conductive Cement-Based Materials and Its Resistivity Test. Method Mater. Rev. 2004, 18,
85–87.
43. Yang, Y.; Mao, Q.; Shen, D.E. Study on Fiber Dispersion in Carbon Fiber Cement-Based Composites. J. Build. Mater. 2001, 1,
84–88.
44. Woo, L.Y.; Wansom, S.; Ozyurt, N.; Mu, B.; Shah, S.P.; Mason, T.O. Characterizing Fiber Dispersion in Cement Composites Using
AC-Impedance Spectroscopy. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2005, 27, 627–636. [CrossRef]
45. Yuan, D.; Jiang, W.; Tong, Z.; Gao, J.; Xiao, J.; Ye, W. Prediction of Electrical Conductivity of Fiber-Reinforced Cement-
Based Composites by Deep Neural Networks. Materials 2019, 12, 3868. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Gao, J.; Sha, A.; Wang, Z.; Hu, L.; Yun, D.; Liu, Z.; Huang, Y. Characterization of Carbon Fiber Distribution in Cement-Based
Composites by Computed Tomography. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 177, 134–147. [CrossRef]
47. Sun, M.; Li, Z.; Mao, Q.; Shen, D. Study on the Hole Conduction Phenomenon in Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Concrete. Cem.
Concr. Res. 1998, 28, 549–554. [CrossRef]
48. Jia, X.; Zhang, X.; Ma, D.; Yang, Z.; Shi, C.; Wang, Z. Conductive Properties and Influencing Factors of Electrically
Conductive Concrete: A Review. Cailiao Daobao/Mater. Rev. 2017, 31, 90–97.
49. Chiarello, M.; Zinno, R. Electrical Conductivity of Self-Monitoring CFRC. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2005, 27, 463–469.
[CrossRef]
50. Nan, X.; Li, X. Study on Conductive Mechanism of Carbon Fiber Filled Cement-Based Composites. Adv. Mater. Res. 2012,
415, 1435–1438. [CrossRef]
51. Xu, J.; Yao, W.; Wang, R. Nonlinear Conduction in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Mortar. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2011, 33,
52. Chen, B.; Wu, K.; Yao, W. Conductivity of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement-Based Composites. Cem. Concr. Compos.
2004, 26, 291–297. [CrossRef]
53. Celzard, A.; McRae, E.; Deleuze, C.; Dufort, M. Critical Concentration in Percolating Systems Containing a High-Aspect-Ratio
Filler. Phys. Rev. B-Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1996, 53, 6209–6214. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Wu, J.; Liu, J.; Yang, F. Three-Phase Composite Conductive Concrete for Pavement Deicing. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 75,
129–135.
[CrossRef]
55. Chung, D.D.L. Piezoresistive Cement-Based Materials for Strain Sensing. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2002, 13, 599–609.
[CrossRef]
56. Chen, Z.Y.; Yang, J. Experimental Study on Dynamic Splitting Characteristics of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Materials
2021, 14, 94. [CrossRef]
57. Li, Y.F.; Lee, K.F.; Ramanathan, G.K.; Cheng, T.W.; Huang, C.H.; Tsai, Y.K. Static and Dynamic Performances of Chopped
Carbon-Fiberreinforced Mortar and Concrete Incorporated with Disparate Lengths. Materials 2021, 14, 972. [CrossRef]
58. Park, H.M.; Park, C.; Bang, J.; Lee, M.; Yang, B. Synergistic Effect of MWCNT and Carbon Fiber Hybrid Fillers on Electrical and
Mechanical Properties of Alkali-Activated Slag Composites. Crystals 2020, 10, 1139. [CrossRef]
Materials 2023, 16, 25 of 29
2552
59. Wang, C.; Li, K.Z.; Li, H.J.; Jiao, G.S.; Lu, J.; Hou, D.S. Effect of Carbon Fiber Dispersion on the Mechanical Properties of Carbon
Fiber-Reinforced Cement-Based Composites. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008, 487, 52–57. [CrossRef]
60. Heo, G.H.; Park, J.G.; Song, K.C.; Park, J.H.; Jun, H.M. Mechanical Properties of SiO2-Coated Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Mortar
Composites with Different Fiber Lengths and Fiber Volume Fractions. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2020, 2020, 1–12. [CrossRef]
61. Safiuddin, M.; Abdel-Sayed, G.; Hearn, N. Flexural and Impact Behaviors of Mortar Composite Including Carbon Fibers. Materials
2022, 15, 1657. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Yao, W.; Li, J.; Wu, K. Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Concrete at Low Fiber Volume Fraction. Cem. Concr.
Res.
2003, 33, 27–30. [CrossRef]
63. Makul, N. Advanced Smart Concrete—A Review of Current Progress, Benefits and Challenges. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274,
122899. [CrossRef]
64. Faudree, M.C.; Uchida, H.T.; Kimura, H.; Kaneko, S.; Salvia, M.; Nishi, Y. Advances in Titanium/Polymer Hybrid Joints by
Carbon Fiber Plug Insert: Current Status and Review. Materials 2022, 15, 3220. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Cao, S.Q.; Xin, X.F.; Yang, M. The Analysis on the Mechanical Property and Durability of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete.
Adv. Mater. Res. 2011, 194–196, 869–872. [CrossRef]
66. Chung, D.D.L. Processing-Structure-Property Relationships of Continuous Carbon Fiber Polymer-Matrix Composites. Mater.
Sci. Eng. R Rep. 2017, 113, 1–29. [CrossRef]
67. Yuan, X.; Zhu, G.; Liang, Y. Freeze/Thaw Durability of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2012,
174–177, 816–820. [CrossRef]
68. Ge, R.; Yin, Z.; Zhang, J. The Shear and Durability of CFRP Reinforced Concrete Beams. Adv. Mater. Res. 2012, 368–373, 1500–
1504. [CrossRef]
69. Wang, L.; Cheng, D.; Wang, X. Experimental Research on Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Reactive Powder
Concrete after Exposure to Cryogenic Temperatures. Materials 2022, 15, 4240. [CrossRef]
70. Guo, F.; Al-Saadi, S.; Singh Raman, R.K.; Zhao, X.L. Durability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) in Simulated Seawater Sea
Sand Concrete (SWSSC) Environment. Corros. Sci. 2018, 141, 1–13. [CrossRef]
71. Zhou, M.; Zhang, X. Research on Mechanical Properties and Durability of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete Materials. J.
Funct. Mater. 2021, 52, 01133–01138. [CrossRef]
72. Abbasi, B.; Raza, S.S.; Hussain, I.; Iqbal, M. Influence of Different Fibers on Mechanical and Durability Performance of Concrete
with Silica Fume. Struct. Concr. 2021, 22, 318–333. [CrossRef]
73. Rezania, M.; Panahandeh, M.; Razavi, S.M.J.; Berto, F. Experimental Study of the Simultaneous Effect of Nano-Silica and
Nano-Carbon Black on Permeability and Mechanical Properties of the Concrete. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 2019, 104,
102391. [CrossRef]
74. Ashraf, M.J.; Idrees, M.; Akbar, A. Performance of Silica Fume Slurry Treated Recycled Aggregate Concrete Reinforced with
Carbon Fibers. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 66, 105892. [CrossRef]
75. Brown, L.; Sanchez, F. Influence of Carbon Nanofiber Clustering in Cement Pastes Exposed to Sulfate Attack. Constr. Build.
Mater.
2018, 166, 181–187. [CrossRef]
76. Zuo, J.; Yao, W.; Wu, K. Seebeck Effect and Mechanical Properties of Carbon Nanotube-Carbon Fiber/Cement Nanocomposites.
Fullerenes Nanotub. Carbon Nanostruct. 2015, 23, 383–391. [CrossRef]
77. Wang, T.; Xu, J.; Peng, G.; Meng, B. Durability Test of Nano-Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Funct. Mater. 2019, 50, 114–
121.
78. Song, W.; Yin, J. Hybrid Effect Evaluation of Steel Fiber and Carbon Fiber on the Performance of the Fiber Reinforced Concrete.
Materials 2016, 9, 704. [CrossRef]
79. Akbar, A.; Liew, K.M. Multicriteria Performance Evaluation of Fiber-Reinforced Cement Composites: An Environmental
Perspective. Compos. Part B Eng. 2021, 218, 108937. [CrossRef]
80. Atiteh, M.; Aydin, E. Carbon-Fiber Enriched Cement-Based Composites for Better Sustainability. Materials 2020, 13, 1899.
[CrossRef]
81. Zhou, F.; Pan, G.; Zhang, L. Enhancing the Shrinkage Resistance and Impermeability of Cement-Based Materials Using Carbon
Fiber Modified by in Situ-Grown Nano-SiO2 and Carbon Nanotubes. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 63, 105542. [CrossRef]
82. Wen, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Cement as a Thermoelectric Material. J. Mater. Res. 2000, 15, 2844–2848. [CrossRef]
83. Demirel, B.; Yazicioglu, S. Thermoelectric Behavior of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Lightweight Concrete with Mineral Admixtures.
Xinxing Tan Cailiao/New Carbon Mater. 2008, 23, 21–24. [CrossRef]
84. Singh, V.P.; Kumar, M.; Srivastava, R.S.; Vaish, R. Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting Using Cement-Based Composites: A Review.
Mater. Today Energy 2021, 21, 100714. [CrossRef]
85. Kim, M.; Sung, D.H.; Kong, K.; Kim, N.; Kim, B.J.; Park, H.W.; Park, Y.B.; Jung, M.; Lee, S.H.; Kim, S.G. Characterization of
Resistive Heating and Thermoelectric Behavior of Discontinuous Carbon Fiber-Epoxy Composites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2016,
90, 37–44. [CrossRef]
86. Wei, J.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Jia, Z.; Qiao, S.; Zhang, Q.; Du, J. Effect of Porosity and Crack on the Thermoelectric Properties of
Expanded Graphite/Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement-Based Composites. Int. J. Energy Res. 2020, 44, 6885–6893.
[CrossRef]
87. Wen, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Enhancing the Seebeck Effect in Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cement by Using Intercalated Carbon Fibers.
Cem. Concr. Res. 2000, 30, 1295–1298. [CrossRef]
88. Guerrero, V.H.; Wang, S.; Wen, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Thermoelectric Property Tailoring by Composite Engineering. J. Mater. Sci.
2002,
37, 4127–4136. [CrossRef]
Materials 2023, 16, 26 of 29
2552
89. Wei, J.; Hao, L.; He, G.; Yang, C. Enhanced Thermoelectric Effect of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites by
Metallic Oxide/Cement Interface. Ceram. Int. 2014, 40, 8261–8263. [CrossRef]
90. Han, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Carbon Fiber Polymer-Matrix Structural Composites Exhibiting Greatly Enhanced through-Thickness
Thermoelectric Figure of Merit. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2013, 48, 162–170. [CrossRef]
91. Jagadish, P.R.; Khalid, M.; Li, L.P.; Hajibeigy, M.T.; Amin, N.; Walvekar, R.; Chan, A. Cost Effective Thermoelectric Composites
from Recycled Carbon Fibre: From Waste to Energy. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 195, 1015–1025. [CrossRef]
92. Wang, D.; Su, Y.; Chen, D.; Wang, L.; Xiang, X.; Zhu, D. Preparation and Characterization of Poly(3-Octylthiophene)/Carbon
Fiber Thermoelectric Composite Materials. Compos. Part B Eng. 2015, 69, 467–471. [CrossRef]
93. Wei, J.; Zhang, Q.; Zhao, L.; Hao, L.; Yang, C. Enhanced Thermoelectric Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites.
Ceram. Int. 2016, 42, 11568–11573. [CrossRef]
94. Sung, D.H.; Kang, G.H.; Kong, K.; Kim, M.; Park, H.W.; Park, Y. Bin Characterization of Thermoelectric Properties of Multifunc-
tional Multiscale Composites and Fiber-Reinforced Composites for Thermal Energy Harvesting. Compos. Part B Eng.
2016, 92, 202–209. [CrossRef]
95. Cao, H.; Yao, W.; Qin, J. Seebeck Effect in Graphite-Carbon Fiber Cement Based Composite. Adv. Mater. Res. 2011, 177,
96. Liu, X.; Liao, G.; Zuo, J. Enhanced Thermoelectric Properties of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cement Composites (CFRCs) Utilizing
Bi2Te3 with Three Doping Methods. Fullerenes Nanotub. Carbon Nanostruct. 2020, 29, 295–303. [CrossRef]
97. Wen, S.; Chung, D.D.L. Effect of Carbon Fiber Grade on the Electrical Behavior of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement. Carbon N.
Y.
2001, 39, 369–373. [CrossRef]
98. Wei, J.; Hao, L.; He, G.P.; Yang, C.L. Thermoelectric Power of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites Enhanced by
Ca3Co4O9. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2013, 320, 354–357. [CrossRef]
99. Wan, S.; Huang, X.; Qiu, P.; Bai, S.; Chen, L. The Effect of Short Carbon Fibers on the Thermoelectric and Mechanical
Properties of P-Type CeFe4Sb12 Skutterudite Composites. Mater. Des. 2015, 67, 379–384. [CrossRef]
100. Wei, J.; Nie, Z.; He, G.; Hao, L.; Zhao, L.; Zhang, Q. Energy Harvesting from Solar Irradiation in Cities Using the Thermoelectric
Behavior of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites. RSC Adv. 2014, 4, 48128–48134. [CrossRef]
101. Hai, R.; Yang, J.; Zhang, H.; Wu, K. Electrothermal Performance of Carbon Fiber Cement Mortar in Wet and Dry Environment. J.
Build. Mater. 2006, 9, 593–597.
102. Hai, R.; Pan, H.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, K. Study on Electrothermal Performance of Cement Mortar with Gradient Distribution of Carbon
Fiber. J. Build. Mater. 2019, 12, 332–335+351.
103. Chen, C.; Dong, H.; Chen, Z.; Lu, S.; Zeng, W.; Xiong, W. Electrothermal Properties and Structural Stability of Carbon Fibers
Enhanced by Grapheneepoxy Surface Process. J. Electron. Microsc. 2021, 40, 581–588.
104. Xu, J.C.; Sui, Y.; Li, L.; Diao, B. Experimental Study on the Electrothermal Effect of Concrete Reinforced with Hybrid Carbon and
Steel Fiber. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2014, 490–491, 94–98. [CrossRef]
105. Wu, X.; Cui, Y.; Hui, G.; Ma, Y.; Zhang, B. Electrothermal Performance Test of Carbon Black Carbon Fiber Concrete and Carbon
Black Concrete. J. Jiangsu Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed. 2015, 36, 362–367.
106. Wang, Z.; Wang, Z.; Ning, M.; Tang, S.; He, Y. Electro-Thermal Properties and Seebeck Effect of Conductive Mortar and Its Use
in Self-Heating and Self-Sensing System. Ceram. Int. 2017, 43, 8685–8693. [CrossRef]
107. Galao, O.; Bañón, L.; Baeza, F.J.; Carmona, J.; Garcés, P. Highly Conductive Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete for Icing Prevention
and Curing. Materials 2016, 9, 281. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
108. Han, J.; Pan, J.; Cai, J.; Li, X. A Review on Carbon-Based Self-Sensing Cementitious Composites. Constr. Build. Mater.
2020, 265,
120764. [CrossRef]
109. Dong, W.; Li, W.; Tao, Z.; Wang, K. Piezoresistive Properties of Cement-Based Sensors: Review and Perspective. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2019, 203, 146–163. [CrossRef]
110. Fu, X.; Chung, D.D.L. Self-Monitoring of Fatigue Damage in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Cement. Cem. Concr. Res. 1996, 26,
15–20. [CrossRef]
111. Azhari, F.; Banthia, N. Cement-Based Sensors with Carbon Fibers and Carbon Nanotubes for Piezoresistive Sensing. Cem.
Concr. Compos. 2012, 34, 866–873. [CrossRef]
112. Xu, J.; Yin, T.; Wang, Y.; Liu, L. Anisotropic Electrical and Piezoresistive Sensing Properties of Cement-Based Sensors with Aligned
Carbon Fibers. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2021, 116, 103873. [CrossRef]
113. Shi, Z.Q.; Chung, D.D.L. Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Concrete for Traffic Monitoring and Weighing in Motion. Cem. Concr. Res.
1999,
29, 435–439. [CrossRef]
114. Yao, W. Self-adjustment of Carrying Capacity of Concrete Embedded with CFRC. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2006, 22, 401–403.
115. Han, B.; Yu, X.; Zhang, K.; Kwon, E.; Ou, J. Sensing Properties of CNT-Filled Cement-Based Stress Sensors. J. Civ. Struct.
Health Monit. 2011, 1, 17–24. [CrossRef]
116. Sassani, A.; Arabzadeh, A.; Ceylan, H.; Kim, S.; Sadati, S.M.S.; Gopalakrishnan, K.; Taylor, P.C.; Abdualla, H. Carbon Fiber-Based
Electrically Conductive Concrete for Salt-Free Deicing of Pavements. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 203, 799–809. [CrossRef]
117. Xie, N.; Jiao, Q.; Zang, C.; Wang, C. The Influence of Nano-Fe on the Electromagnetic Shielding Properties of Nano-Fe/Carbon
Fiber/LDPE Composites. E-Polymers 2009, 1, 1–14.
Materials 2023, 16, 27 of 29
2552
118. Fu, X.; Chung, D.D.L. Submicron Carbon Filament Cement-Matrix Composites for Electromagnetic Interference Shielding. Cem.
Concr. Res. 1996, 26, 1467–1472. [CrossRef]
119. Kong, W.W.; Shi, J.F.; Zou, K.K.; Li, N.; Wang, Y.Y.; Yan, D.X.; Li, Z.M. Synergistically Optimizing Interlaminar and Electromagnetic
Interference Shielding Behavior of Carbon Fiber Composite Based on Interfacial Reinforcement. Carbon N. Y. 2022, 200, 448–
455. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Materials 16 02552

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials 16 02552

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials 16 02552

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

materials

embedded in concrete for real-time monitoring of stress, strain, damage, and

2.Review Objective and Methodology

2.3. Data Collection and Categorization

3.Reinforcement and Modification Mechanism of CFRC

3.1. Modification of CFs

Figure 3. Macroscopic optical image of the CFRC including dispersant [34].

3.2. Optimization of CFRC Mixing Process

3.3. Improvement of CF Dispersion Evaluation Mechanism

4.Conductive Mechanism of CFRC

In brief, the conductive mechanism of CFRC is extremely complex and these

5.Property Evaluation of CFRC

5.2. Durability of CFRC

Table 1. Mechanical and durability properties of unmodified CFRC.

Table 2. Mechanical and durability properties of physically modified CFRC.

Properties Types w/b Ratio Content of CFs Modification References

Table 3. Mechanical and durability properties of chemically modified CFRC.

Properties Types w/b Ratio Content of CFs Modification

Compressive 0.3% hydroxypropyl

5.3. Smart Properties

By summarizing the research progress on thermoelectric performance in the past ten

Table 4. Thermoelectric properties of CFRC.

S Thermoelec Electrical Thermal

5.3.2. Electrothermal Effect

5.3.3. Strain-Sensitive Effect

6.Engineering Applications of CFRC

6.1. Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting

6.2. Intelligent Adjustment of Structure

6.3. Structural Health Monitoring

6.4. Melting Snow and Ice

6.5. Electromagnetic Shielding

7.Conclusions and Future Research Needs

You might also like