On lIe InpevsonaIil oJ lIe Modevn Slale A Connenl on MacIiaveIIi's Use oJ Slalo

AulIov|s) Havve C. MansJieId, Jv.

Bevieved vovI|s)
Souvce TIe Anevican FoIilicaI Science Beviev, VoI. 77, No. 4 |Bec., 1983), pp. 849-857
FuIIisIed I American Political Science Association
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On lIe InpevsonaIil oJ lIe Modevn Slale
A Connenl on MacIiaveIIi's Use oJ Slalo
HABVEY C. MANSFIELB, JB.
Havvavd Univevsil
TIe nodevn slale, I conlvasl lo lIe AvisloleIian vegine, is essenliaII inpevsonaI. Fov MacIiaveIIi,
slalo is exlveneI pevsonaI: el, il is avgued, MacIiaveIIi Iaid lIe Joundalion Jov lIe nodevn slale in
Iis genevaI and inpavliaI advice lo acquive slalo. TIe avgunenl pvoceeds I an anaIsis oJ MacIia-
veIIi's use oJ slalo, aJlev a IvieJ considevalion oJ ils nedievaI counlevpavls.
Novadas vIen a pevson ov pavl cones lo
povev, il is said lo laIe ovev lIe slale ov lIe
govevnnenl. Il does nol cIain lo advance ils vuIe
excepl lIvougI lIe slale, as iJ lo naIe il pIain lIal
lIe slale does nol IeIong, Iul is onI deIiveved
lenpovaviI, in lvusl, lo lIe vinnev oJ a slvuggIe
Jov povev. TIe levns used na vav in Anevica,
one speaIs oJ lIe Beagan adninislvalion, consisl-
ing oJ Beagan, Iis Iieulenanls, and an assovlnenl
oJ BepuIIicans, as Iaving laIen ovev lIe |JedevaI)
govevnnenl: in Fvance, Ie gouvevnenenl ov Ie
vegine Millevand Ias acceded lo I'lal. Bul lIe
inpevsonaIil oJ lIe nodevn slale conlinues
despile lIe vaviaIiIil oJ lIe levns used lo expvess
il. Even lIe Connunisls nainlain lIe dislinclion,
in lIeov, Ielveen lIeiv pavl and lIe slale lIal
lIe pavl Ias eslaIIisIed and el exisls lo sevve.
TIe slale ov lIe govevnnenl is nol consliluled
I lIe cuvvenl IoIdevs oJ povev: valIev, il is lIeve
IeJove lIe avvive, vailing lo Ie cIained, and il
viII conlinue aJlev lIe Iave depavled, vailing
vilI equaninil and inpavliaI vegavd Jov lIe nexl
cIainanl. TIe slale na Ie lIougIl lo Iave no
inlevesl, IiIe a neulvaI, ov lo Iave ils ovn inlevesl,
in ovdev lo sevve as an avIilev, Iul in eilIev case
lIe essenliaI poinl is lIal il does nol IeIong lo an
oJ lIe conlending pavlies ov gvoups. TIe slale Ias
an exislence independenl oJ sucI pavlies ov
gvoups. Indeed, ils independence seens lo Ie con-
sliluled nol so nucI I seIJ-suIsislence, vIicI
vouId naIe il vesenIIe lIose pavlies ov gvoups, as
I aIslvaclion Jvon lIen. WIenevev lIe slale
gels a IiJe oJ ils ovn, ve na Jeav lvann, ov
Iope Jov peace and veason, Iul ve do nol undev-
sland lIal IiJe lo Ie lIe sane as lIe Iives oJ pavlies
ov gvoups Jvon vIicI lIe slale is aIslvacled. IJ
lIis discussion sounds aIslvacl, il is pavlI Iecause
lIe nodevn slale is an aIslvaclion. We nodevns
Jind aIslvaclions easiev lo denounce lIan lo do
Beceived Januav 3, 1983
Accepled Jov puIIicalion MavcI 14, 1983
vilIoul, and iJ ve denounce lIe slale as aIslvacl,
ve nean, as Mavx neanl in denouncing HegeI,
lIal il does nol succeed in Ieing aIslvacl Iul ve-
nains a looI oJ lIe vuIing pavl, gvoup, ov cIass.
TIe ideaI ov slandavd oJ aIslvaclion Jvon pev-
sonaIil is velained, ov even IeigIlened, in sucI
denuncialion.
TIus, vIen sone nodevn pevson said I'elal,
c'esl noI, lIis vas aIvead a pavadox, slaling a
conjunclion oJ lIe inpevsonaI vilI Iis pevson
|Havlung, 1949: Bosen, 1961). He couId nol Iave
said c'esl non elal, inpIing lIal lIis slale valIev
lIan sone olIev ov none vas Iis. Ouv nodevn no-
lions oJ Iegilinale povev seen Iound up vilI lIe
inpevsonaIil oJ lIe nodevn slale. Even lIe
vaunled valionaIil oJ lIe nodevn slale seens de-
signed lo ensuve ils inpevsonaIil.
HegeI's
va-
lionaI slale vas lo Ie vuIed I a univevsaI cIass oJ
Iuveaucvals educaled lo venove lIe pavliaIilies oJ
ovdinav pevsons, and WeIev's Iuveaucvalic oJ-
Jice is an ideaI-lpe oJ lIe nodevn allenpl lo den
lIal an oJJice IeIongs lo lIe oJJiceIoIdev.
Againsl lIis conceplion, one na sel lIe
lvadilionaI idea oJ lIe pvince nainlaining Iis
exisling posilion and vange oJ povevs |SIinnev,
1978, voI. 2, p. 354). SucI is SIinnev's descviplion
oJ MacIiaveIIi's usuaI ov lpicaI undevslanding oJ
lIe veIalionsIip Ielveen pvince and slale. SIin-
nev's inpvessive vovI, TIe Foundalions oJ
Modevn FoIilicaI TIougIl, ains lo sIov Iov lIe
nodevn slale |ov ils Joundalions) evoIved Jvon
lIis lvadilionaI idea oJ MacIiaveIIi's lo lIe dis-
lincliveI nodevn idea oJ lIe Slale as a Jovn oJ
puIIic povev sepavale Jvon IolI lIe vuIev and lIe
vuIed, and consliluling lIe supvene poIilicaI
aulIovil vilIin a cevlain deJined levvilov,
vIicI is lo Ie Jound in Bodin's lIougIl al lIe end
oJ lIe sixleenlI cenluv.' I sIaII queslion SIin-
'SIinnev, 1978, voI. 2, p. 353: lIe deJinilion oJ slale is
laIen Jvon Max WeIev, voI. 1, p. x. See Tavcov |1982,
pp. 63-64).
849
850 TIe Anevican FoIilicaI Science Beviev VoI. 77
nev's descviplion oJ MacIiaveIIi's use oJ slalo as
lvadilionaI, Iul Jivsl I nusl endovse and eIaIovale
Iis undevslanding oJ lIe lvadilionaI idea.
TIe lvadilionaI idea oJ lIe slale cones Jvon lIe
nolion oJ vegine |poIileia) in FIalo and AvislolIe,
vIo do nol naIe use oJ lIe levn slale.2 TIe
vegine, Jov lIen, neans conslilulion in a JuIIev
sense lIan lIe conslilulion oJ a nodevn slale: il
veJevs lo lIe Jovn ov slvucluve oJ lIe vIoIe sociel
and lo ils va oJ IiJe as enIodied in lIal slvuc-
luve. TIe oJJices ov vuIes |avcIag) oJ lIe vegine
vuIe lIe sociel I giving lIal sociel ils cIavaclev:
lIe ave nol sepavaIIe Jvon lIe sociel in sucI
nannev as lo avail inpavliaII lIe vinnev oJ lIe
povev slvuggIe vilIin sociel. OnI a denocvalic
sociel, Jov exanpIe, consisls vilI a denocvalic
vegine. A denocvalic vegine, nevI inslaIIed,
pvoceeds as soon as il can lo lIe denocvalizing oJ
sociel and appIies ils pvincipIe oJ vuIe vilI pav-
lisan disvegavd Jov lIe neulvaIil oJ lIe slale
and lIe aulonon oJ sociel.
TIus, sas AvislolIe, lIe cil is cIieJI lIe
vegine |FoIilics 1276IIO-12). TIe cil Ias levvi-
lov and inIaIilanls, Iul lIese do nol deJine il:
one cannol naIe a cil I conslvucling a vaII
avound lIe FeIoponnesus. AIlIougI a cil nusl,
oJ couvse, Iave a levvilov and a peopIe, lIese ave
naleviaI Jov ils Jovn, vIicI is ils vegine, and lIe
cil is deJined cIieJI I ils Jovn. Il is nol deJined
soIeI I ils vegine, Iecause lIe vegine is Iiniled
in vIal il can do I naluve |Jov exanpIe, cIinale)
and I Iunan naluve |lIe necessil lo salisJ ov lo
suppvess Iunan needs). Il is aIso Iiniled I cus-
lon, aIlIougI cuslon, vIicI consisls anva oJ
pvaclices eslaIIisIed I lIe pveceding vegine ov
vegines, can sonelines cIange vapidI and ullevI
lo lIe anazenenl oJ aII vIo veI on il. TIe vegine
oJ a cil is nol, noveovev, sone Iidden essence I-
ing IeIind ils levvilov and peopIe: il is puIIicI
visiIIe in ils oJJices and in lIe cIavaclevislic
IeIaviov oJ ils vuIevs as ils ovdeving |laxis). A
denocvalic vegine, Jov exanpIe, IooIs deno-
cvalic, Jov vIal is nosl visiIIe is lIal vIicI is
puIIic, and lIe puIIic is vIal lIe vuIevs do nol
need ov desive lo conceaI, lIeiv vuIe.
Fav Jvon Ieing inpevsonaI and inpavliaI, IiIe
lIe nodevn slale, lIe AvisloleIian vegine veJIecls
and advances-lIe cIavaclevislic cIain oJ lIe
pevsons vIo vuIe. SucI pevsons do nol neveI
cIain lo pvonole lIeiv ovn seIJ-inlevesl in a
gvealev vIoIe lIal is connon lo sociel, Iul lIe
pvonole lIenseIves in a pavlisan viev oJ lIe
2FIalo BepuIIic 473e, 501a, 544I-545d: Slalesnan
302I-303d: Lavs 632c, 681d, 686c, 707d, 710d-e, 712e,
714I, 715I, 734e, 739e, 751a-c, 770e, 817I, 832c, 856I.
AvislolIe FoIilics 1247I32-9, 1275a38-I4, 1276II-12,
1279a26-IIO, 1280a8-25, 1281aI2, 1289a8-20, 1297a6.
vIoIe lIal is lpicaII lIeivs, and lIe advance
lIal viev againsl lIe opposing viev oJ lIeiv
lpicaI opponenls, denocvals vevsus oIigavcIs,
Jov exanpIe. As nen cannol IeIp pveJevving lIen-
seIves, so vegines ave necessaviI pavlisan. In lIis
viev, I'dlal, c'esl noi vouId appI lo evev
vegine, incIuding a denocvalic one: in AvislolIe's
levns, lIe poIileia is lIe poIileuna, lIe Iod oJ
vuIevs. TIe ave lIe vegine, and lIe vegine is
lIeivs.
IJ a nixed vegine couId Ie nade, vIicI is
douIlJuI, il vouId advance lIe cIain lo vuIe oJ aII
pavlies ov lIe vIoIe. Il vouId Ie inpavliaI I
conIining aII pavlies valIev lIan I nol pvonol-
ing an pavl ov I venaining indiJJevenl lo vIicI
pavl vins lIe slvuggIe Jov povev. TIis vegine
vouId Ie pavlisan lo lIe connon inlevesl oJ aII in
vivlue valIev lIan inpavliaI in lIe nainlenance oJ
IiIevl lo JaciIilale lIe seIJ-pvonolion oJ eacI pev-
son and aII pavlies. B neans oJ lIis nixed
vegine, one couId judge lIe pavlisan cIains oJ lIe
Iessev vegines and sovl lIose vegines inlo good
and Iad. SucI judgnenl is asIed Jov, one couId
sa, I lIe cIains oJ lIe vegines. Il vequives an
eIevalion aIove ovdinav pavlisansIip lIal Iegins
Jvon ovdinav pavlisansIip and lIal does nol
issue in neulvaIil.
We na suppose lIal lIe inpevsonaIil oJ lIe
nodevn slale, sucI as ve Jind il in lIe JuII cIavil
oJ HoIIes's poIilicaI science, na Iave Ieen
inlended lo covvecl lIe pavlisansIip oJ lIe
AvisloleIian vegine. Fov in lIe AvisloleIian undev-
slanding as HoIIes sav il, lIe vegine vas IeJl ex-
posed lo lIe capluve oJ veIigious pavlies, vIo used
il vilI lvannicaI zeaI. We na suppose, lIen,
lIal lIe inpevsonaIil oJ lIe nodevn slale vas lIe
cIosen inslvunenl oJ secuIavizalion. TIal
IpolIesis cannol Ie eIaIovaled ov lesled Ieve.3
Bul il does seen necessav lo Iave IeJove us a
nove conpIele picluve oJ lIe aIlevnalive lo lIe
nodevn slale lIan is usuaII suppIied in discus-
sions oJ lIe usage oJ slale, so lIal ve do nol
Ieave lIe inpvession lIal sucI usage evoIved in
neve vesponse lo cIanging civcunslances ov I
naive, gvoping discovev oJ lIe onI lvuI con-
ceivaIIe poIilicaI unil, lIe nodevn slale. WIal-
evev na Iave Ieen lIe causes lIal eslaIIisIed lIe
nodevn slale, il Iad lo Ie conceived againsl lIe
aulIovil oJ cIassicaI poIilicaI science: and iJ il is
lo Ie avgued lIal poIilicaI necessilies aIone
IvougIl aIoul lIe nodevn slale, lIen il nusl Ie
sIovn vI lIose vev necessilies veve nevI con-
ceived lo vequive a nev ovdeving and a nev poIi-
lics. In vviling lIe Iislov oJ lIe nodevn slale,
Iislovians, il na Ie genlI suggesled, need
3See n allenpls in MansJieId |1968, 1971).
1983 MacIiaveIIi's Use oJ Slalo 851
cIaviJicalion Jvon poIilicaI science.4
As Jav as I can see in lIe veseavcI oJ olIevs, lIe
cIassicaI undevslanding oJ lIe vegine pvevaiIed in
nedievaI usage IeJove MacIiaveIIi. Il is oJlen nol
eas lo see vIelIev pavlisan vegine ov inpevsonaI
slale is in queslion, Iecause oJ lIe unIislovicaI
IaIil, aInosl univevsaI in nedievaI Iislovians, oJ
using lIe levn slale IeJove il occuvs ov as il vas
nol used in Iislov |CIaIod, 1964, p. 27). TIis
IaIil is a Jovn oJ supeviovil vIicI inpIies lIal
lIe oIsevvev Inovs vIal is going on Iellev lIan
lIe pavlicipanl, as, Jov exanpIe, vIen lIe
oIsevvev Inovs lIal lIe pavlicipanl Iives in a
nedievaI peviod vIeveas lIe pavlicipanl Inev
ov conceived no sucI lIing. Man nedievaI Iis-
lovians ave in, lvulI scIoIavs oJ lIe unnoliced
Ieginnings oJ nodevnil. Sonelines lIe speaI
oJ lIe slale as laIing sIape, inpIing lIal lIe
slale is essenliaII nodevn: sonelines lIe con-
lvasl lIe nedievaI slale vilI lIe nodevn
slale, inpIing lIal lIe slale is essenliaII uni-
vevsaI. AIlIougI AvislolIe Jounded Iis poIilicaI
science on lIe dislinclion Ielveen poIIs and
poIileia, one can Jind IolI levns |in lIeiv Lalin
equivaIenls, civilas and vespuIIica ov poIilia)
lvansIaled as slale |Kanlovovicz, 1957, pp.
214-216: Fosl, 1964, pp. viii, 39: Tievne, 1982,
pp. 23, 39). TIis is nol lo sa lIal slale vas
Jvon lIe Jivsl used inpevsonaII |I sIaII avgue lIal
MacIiaveIIi's use oJ slalo vas nol inpevsonaI),
nucI Iess lIal vovds ave aIvas used vilI JuII
avaveness oJ lIeiv neaning, ov lIal neanings oJ
vovds nevev cIange. Bul caulion conpeIs us lo
queslion vIelIev lIe slale is pvogvessive ov
univevsaI, as il na appeav lo us.
TIe vovd slale does indeed occuv in poIilicaI
conlexls in lIe MiddIe Ages, Iul lo nane lIe
vegine, nol a neulvaI, inpevsonaI slale. In lIis
usage lIe Lalin slalus does nol sland aIone, Iul
vequives sone acconpaning vovd ov pIvase lo
speciJ vIose slalus.5 TIe Slale oJ lIe CIuvcI
|slalus eccIesiae) ov slale oJ lIe veaIn |slalus
vegni) Ias lIe genevaI neaning oJ slale as con-
!ilion, sliII in use loda, in vIicI one nusl
speciJ lIe condilion oJ vIal. TIe condilion in-
pIied is a condilion oJ slaIiIil ov a good condi-
lion, so lIal slalus couId nean lIe veIJave |oJ lIe
veaIn) ov lIe veII-Ieing |oJ lIe CIuvcI) vIicI
gels Iinils on lIe aclions oJ lIe pope.6 Slalus did
4One sIouId innedialeI add lIal cIaviJicalion is
needed Jvon poIilicaI science lIal is avave oJ lIe cIas-
sicaI vegine: see Fosl |1964, pp. 7, 247).
'See CondoveIIi |1923, 9080): BovdaII |1923, p. 101):
Fosl |1964, pp. 270, 371n): see lIe exceplions in Tievne
J1963, p. 386)
and
Meev |1950, p. 230).
6See Fosl |1964, pp. 298-306): Kanlovovicz |1957, p.
Z71n): Tievne |1982, pp. 17, 64, 70): FovicIe |1936,
pp. 8-11).
nol nean lIe exlenl oJ eJJeclive povev, vIen
povev is aIslvacled Jvon ils pavlicuIav ends and is
genevaIized as lIe povev lo do anlIing. WIen
slalus cones lo nean aIslvacl, genevaI povev,
eJJeclive Jov an end, ve see lIe conneclion
Ielveen slale as a genevaI ov univevsaI condilion
and slale as soveveign, and ve vecognize lIe
nodevn slale.
To iIIuslvale lIe neaning oJ slalus, ve na
considev TIonas Aquinas' connenlav on
AvislolIe's FoIilics |c. 1260), an aulIovilalive
souvce Iecause oJ ils inJIuence and Iecause ils
oIjecl is poIilicaI science, nol IegaI avgunenl.
NeilIev TIonas in Iis connenlav nov WiIIian
oJ MoevIeIe in Iis lvansIalion naIes use oJ slalus
Jov lIe discussion oJ lIe vegine in lIe lIivd IooI
oJ lIe FoIilics. Bul slalus does enlev lIe vevision
oJ Aquinas' connenlav nade I Ludovicus de
VaIenlia in 1492 using Leonavdo Bvuni's lvansIa-
lion oJ AvislolIe Jvon lIe eavI JiJleenlI cenluv.7
As inslances oJ a genevaI vejeclion oJ MoevIeIe's
Ovecisns, oIigavcIia Iecones slalus paucovun,
and denocvalia, slaluspopuIavis. TIis is done in a
conlexl vIeve lIe poIilia |vegine) is said lo Ie
nolIing olIev lIan lIe ovdo doninanlun in lIe
cil |Aquinas, 1951, 111.6, 385, 392-395). TIe
slale oJ lIe Jev, lIen, is lIeiv doninalion: Iul
il is aIso lIeiv condilion, ovdev, ov va oJ IiJe,
vIicI is lIe condilion oJ lIe cil vIeve lIe
doninale. TIis lIovougII unnodevn idenliJica-
lion oJ lIe povev in a sociel vilI lIe condilion
oJ lIal sociel, vIicI naIes ils poIilics vespon-
siIIe Jov ils va oJ IiJe, seens cIavaclevislic oJ
nedievaI usage, and oJ FIovenline usage as veII,
IeJove MacIiaveIIi.8
Il is genevaII agveed lIal lIe nodevn slale vas
consliluled I an aIslvaclion Jvon pevsonaI lo in-
pevsonaI vuIe, Iul il is nol genevaII appvecialed
Iov vadicaI lIal aIslvaclion vas. To nove Jvon
slalus vilI ils concvele speciJicalion lo slalus ov
slale vilIoul sucI speciJicalion vas nol enougI,
iJ lIe slale lIus aIslvacled sliII veJevs lo soneone's
ov sone gvoup's pevsonaI vuIe, aIlIougI il does
nol nallev vIicI. TIal slale is no nove aIslvacl
lIan AvislolIe's vegine, lIe levn Jov vIicI can
sland aIone Iul aIvas signiJies one ov anolIev
Jovn oJ pevsonaI vuIe. SIinnev |1978, voI. 2, p.
356) Jinds lIe eavIiesl inpevsonaI use oJ slale
70n lIis Iunanisl oulvage upon Aquinas, see Cvanz
|1978, pp. 171-173): Bondaine |1964, pp. 590-592):
OvaInann |1941, p. 77): Mavlin |1952, pp. 41-47):
Aquinas |1971, pp. 15-21).
8See BuIinslein |1971, pp. 313-326). Bul I cannol JoI-
Iov BuIinslein vIen Ie sas lIal Leonavdo Bvuni, cIavi-
Jing Aquinas, dislinguisIes cIeavI Ielveen govevn-
nenl and lIe gvoups oJ individuaIs conlvoIIing il |p.
316). He seens lo ne cIeavI lo equale lIe lvo, in
accovd vilI Aquinas and AvislolIe.
852 TIe Anevican FoIilicaI Science Beviev VoI. 77
lo Ie, pevIaps in TIonas SlavIe's A BiaIogue
Ielveen BeginaId FoIe and TIonas Lupsel |Slav-
Ie, 1948), conpIeled in 1535. TIeve one Jinds
lIe vIoIe slale |p. 57), lIe pevJecl slale |pp.
69, 111), and a nixed slale |p. 165). Bul in
lIese inslances and in aII olIevs I couId Jind |see
esp. pp. 57, 64, 89, 99, 155, 164, 165, 167),
slale is used in lIe lvadilionaI AvisloleIian
sense oJ vegine. Fov SlavIe, lIe slale vas IolI
lIe condilion oJ Ieing vuIed and lIe vuIevs, vilI
no Iinl oJ a dislinclion Ielveen slale and sociel.
SlavIe used lIe levn slale inpevsonaII, Iul
Ie Iad I no neans acIieved lIe vadicaI aIslvac-
lion oJ an inpevsonaI slale.
TIus, lo IooI Jov lIe vise oJ lIe nodevn slale in
lIe JasIioning oJ soveveignl na Ie nisIeading,
iJ il is done vilIoul allenlion lo lIe pecuIiav
cIavaclev oJ soveveignl in lIe nodevn slale.
Modevn soveveignl is inpevsonaI, and lIe
nodevn soveveign pvescviIes vIal Ie nusl |vIicI
na Ie nucI) onI ov nainI lo Ieep lIe peace
and Iis ovn povev inlacl |see CaIasso, 1957, p.
164). Bul iJ one is conlenl lo seeI soveveignl in
unconlesled povev, one viII nislaIe lIe vedis-
covev oJ lIe vegine in AvislolIe's ElIics and
FoIilics, vIicI occuvved in lIe lIivleenlI cenluv,
Jov lIe nodevn slale.9 TIe AvisloleIian vegine
vas nol a va-slalion lovavd lIe nodevn slale,
Iovevev, Iul valIev lIe gvealesl oIslacIe lo ils
conceplion.
TIe vediscovev oJ lIe AvisloleIian vegine did
undevnine lIe IegaI cIavaclev oJ nedievaI poIili-
caI lIougIl. Fov accovding lo AvislolIe, lIe
vegine, ov lIe Iunan IegisIalov, is lIe souvce oJ
Iav, valIev lIan Iav lIe souvce oJ lIe vegine
|FoIilics 1282I8-14, 1289aI3-15). TIe veassevlion
oJ lIis lvulI couId nol JaiI lo suIvevl lIe Junda-
nenlaI pvenises IolI oJ Bonan Iav, lIe pvelense
I vIicI an enpive is pvesenled as lIe cIoice oJ a
vepuIIic, and oJ canon Iav, lIe cIain lIal Iav Ias
a divine souvce. TIose vIo Jind lIe ovigin oJ lIe
inpevsonaI, nodevn slale in lIe IegaI conceplions
oJ nedievaI covpovalisn aIso undeveslinale lIe
vadicaI naluve oJ lIe nodevn slale. To veaIize lIe
inpevsonaIil oJ lIe nodevn slale, il is nol
enougI neveI lo dislinguisI Ielveen pevson and
oJJice, since lIal sepavalion is aIvead accon-
pIisIed in lIe oJJices oJ lIe AvisloleIian vegine.
TIe nodevn slale vequives nucI nove lIal oJ-
Jices nol Ie used Jov pevsonaI vuIe accovding lo
lIe opinions oJ lIe vuIevs. IJ lIis is lo Iappen, lIe
slale as a covpovalion nusl Ie vadicaII aIslvacled
Jvon lIe acluaI pevsons vIo govevn lIvougI il.
TIe nedievaI covpovalion, oJlen caIIed univev-
silas, vas lIe IegaI pevson oJ a pveexisling gvoup,
'See MovvaII |1971, p. 80), UIInann |1961, p. 293:
1975, p. 272).
Jov exanpIe lIe nonIs oJ a nonaslev. Il con-
Jevved a IegaI innovlaIil on lIeiv gvoup, lIus a
cevlain inpevsonaIil, Iul il did nol vequive lIe
nonIs lo aIslvacl Jvon lIeiv cIavaclev as nonIs
vIen consliluling lIe univevsilas.
A gvealev aIslvaclion occuvved vIen univevsilas
vas used lo descviIe lIe connunil lIal vas lIe
souvce oJ Iav Ieond connunilies exisling undev
lIe Iav.10 Bul again, aIlIougI a IegaI pevson, lIe
univevsilas vas a pavlicuIav connunil, a pav-
licuIav peopIe Iaving an exislence IeJove ils IegaI
exislence: lIe IegaIil conJevved I incovpovalion
vas a Iaplisn, nol a cvealion |MicIaud-Quanlin,
1970, p. 55). Hence, as Bvian Tievne expIains lIe
pvincipIe oJ nedievaI covpovalisn, lIe peopIe
connand as univevsilas Iul oIe as individuaIs
|Tievne, 1982, pp. 57-58, 80). TIis is lIe pvecise
opposile oJ lIe pvincipIe I vIicI lIe nodevn
slale is incovpovaled: accovding lo HoIIes and
ouv pvesenl undevslanding, ve ave Jvee as in-
dividuaIs and oIe as cilizens. TIe nodevn slale is
cvealed I incovpovalion Jvon lIe slale oJ
naluve ov sonelIing IiIe il. TIe nodevn slale is
nol neveI a IegaIized, incovpovaled vegine: il is
avliJiciaI in ovdev lo aIslvacl Jvon an vegine lIal
nigIl Ie IuvIing IeIind lIe nedievaI covpova-
lion.
WilI MacIiaveIIi, Iovevev, ve encounlev a
JundanenlaI cIaIIenge lo lIe cIassicaI vegine
vIicI is expvessed in Iis use oJ slalo. Al Jivsl sigIl
MacIiaveIIi's use oJ slalo appeavs quile lvadi-
lionaI |as SIinnev sas1) ov AvisloleIian, lIal is,
quile Joveign lo us, Jov ve ave slvucI I lIe
pIvases suo slalo and Iovo slalo, vIicI JvequenlI
inJovn us lIal lIe inpevsonaI nodevn slale is nol
in queslion.12 Al lIe sane line ve JvequenlI en-
counlev Io slalo slanding I ilseIJ, vIicI nigIl
naIe us lIinI lIal lIe inpevsonaIil oJ lIe
nodevn slale is undev va. Bul sucI an inpves-
sion vouId Ie nisIeading. WilI us lIe slale sig-
'0See Tievne |1982, pp. 22-26, 36, 42, 73): MocIi
Onov |1951, p. 259): Kanlovovicz |1957, p. 272):
MicIaud-Quanlin |1970, pp. 7, 40-41, 55, 57): Canning
|1980, pp. 12-13, 31): Keen |1965, p. 110). See aIso JoIn
oJ SaIisIuv |FoIicvalus IV 2) Jov lIe expvession
uni-
vevsilas vei poIilicae: lIis is a univevsilas oJ lIe vegine
vIicI as sucI pvecedes lIe Iav Iul ougIl lo Iive I lIe
Iav. Undevslanding oJ lIe cIassicaI vegine did nol Iave
lo avail lIe vediscovev oJ AvislolIe's FoIilics a cenluv
Ialev.
SIinnev |1978, voI. 2, p. 354): Fosl |1964, pp.
365-366): EvcoIe |1926, p. 66): BeVvies |1957, pp. 70,
80-81): B'Enlveves |1967, p. 30): Hexlev |1973, pp. 173-
175).
2BeVvies |1957, pp. 58-59): CIiappeIIi |1969, p. 36n:
cJ. 1952, pp. 59-73). See aIso slalo Iovo pvopvio, lIeiv
ovn slale, in FIovenline Hislovies VI 8, and lIose lo
vIon lIe slale IeIonged, FIovenline Hislovies VII 2.
1983 MacIiaveIIi's Use oJ Slalo 853
niJies sonelIing inpevsonaI, and ve do nol use a
possessive pvonoun. WIen MacIiaveIIi uses Io
slalo vilIoul a possessive pvonoun, Iovevev, Ie
seens aIvas lo inpI one. MeveI Iecause lIe
vovd slalo in lIe IlaIian oJ MacIiaveIIi and oJ Iis
conlenpovavies Iad acquived lIe aIiIil lo sland
aIone I conlvasl lo lIe Lalin slalus, il does nol
JoIIov lIal slalo neanl inpevsonaI slale an
nove lIan did poIilia in MoevIeIe's lvansIalion oJ
AvislolIe's poIileia, vIicI aIso slood I ilseIJ. TIe
pIvases SIinnev ciles |1978, voI. 2, p. 354) as pos-
siIIe counlev-exanpIes suggesling a lincluve oJ
inpevsonaIil in MacIiaveIIi's slalo-Ia naeslvo
deIIo slalo, I'aulovild deIIo slalo, Ia nulazione
deIIo slalo-pvove on exaninalion lo veJev lo lIe
najesl, aulIovil, and cIange oJ soneone's
slale. TIe soneone na Ie coIIeclive, as in slalo
di Fivenze, Iul lIal does nol naIe FIovence's
slale an Iess pevsonaI lIan AvislolIe's slalus
popuIavis |in Bvuni's lvansIalion in Aquinas' con-
nenlav), vIicI is a vegine IeIonging lo lIe
peopIe. IJ lIe slalo di Fivenze incIudes Fisa, lIal is
Iecause Fisa IeIongs lo lIe FIovenlines.
WIen MacIiaveIIi sas al lIe end oJ lIe ninlI
cIaplev oJ TIe Fvince lIal lIe vise pvince sIouId
lIinI oJ a va I vIicI Iis cilizens aIvas Iave
need deIIo slalo e di Iui, Ie dislinguisIes lIal
pvince Jvon lIe slale Iul IavdI denies lIal lIe
slale is lIe pvince's |cJ. BeVvies, 1957, p. 61:
FIovenline Hislovies VI 35). WIen Ie sas in lIe
sane pIace lIal Io slalo Ias need oJ lIe cilizens,
Ie oIviousI veJevs lo lIal sane pvince's slale.
And in lIe eigIleenlI cIaplev oJ lIe Biscouvses
on Liv, vIen Ie speaIs oJ lIe diJJicuIl oJ nain-
laining Io slalo IiIevo in a covvupl cil, lIe diJ-
JicuIl is lIal oJ Ieeping Jvee lIe slale IeIonging
lo a covvupl peopIe, nol lIal oJ Ieeping an inpev-
sonaI slale Jvee. Fov, as ve Ieavn in lIe sixleenlI
cIaplev, even lIe IiIevo slalo Ias pavlisan Jviends
and enenies.
Slalo can aIso appeav in an oIjeclive genilive,
as in slalo di LonIavdia and slalo di Asia
|FIovenline Hislovies I 37: TIe Fvince, cIap. 4).
TIese slales did nol IeIong lo LonIavd and
Asia, Iul lIe did IeIong lo FiIippo Visconli and
AIexandev, vespecliveI. MacIiaveIIi veJevs lo
queIIo slalo vIicI Iad vuIed Jvon 1381 lo 1434
in FIovence |FIovenline Hislovies, III 29), neaning
lIal slale lIal vas IeId I and passed lIvougI
nan Iands in lIose eavs. Bul neilIev nan
Iands al one line nov diJJevenl Iands ovev line
naIe MacIiaveIIi's slalo an nove inpevsonaI
lIan AvislolIe's vegine.13 Nov does a pevsoniJica-
CJ. BeVvies |1957, p. 65) and BuIinslein |1971, p.
319). Fov Slvaev |1970, p. 10), pevnanenl, inpevsonaI
inslilulions, logelIev vilI aulIovil and IoaIl, suJJice
lo naIe a slale: so Ie assevls, cevlainI lIe OveeI poIis
vas a slale. See AvislolIe FoIilics 1301I6-13.
lion oJ slalo, vIicI occuvs vaveI in MacIiaveIIi,
signiJ lIe pvesence oJ lIe nodevn inpevsonaI
slale, Iecause lIe slale lIal is pevsoniJied is sliII
soneone's, IiIe lIe AvisloleIian vegine. NE cveda
nai aIcuno slalo |nov sIouId an slale evev
IeIieve, TIe Fvince, cIap. 21) slales cIeavI in
lIe conlexl vIal lIe pvince sIouId nevev
IeIieve, aIlIougI pvince Ieve veJevs lo lIe
Venelians and lIe FIovenlines. And iI sospello cIe
Io slalo aveva |lIe suspicion lIal lIe slale Iad,
FIovenline Hislovies III 23) veJevs lo lIe pvinces
oJ lIe slale soon aJlev. Quesli slali lengono iI
cove disavnalo e Ie nani e Iipiedi avnali |lIese
slales Ieep lIeiv Ieavls unavned and lIeiv Iands
and Jeel avned, Biscouvses on Liv, II 30) veJevs
lo a nislaIe oJ IolI pvinces and vepuIIics in
vegavd lo lIeiv slales. Slalo is nol nade inpev-
sonaI vilI ils ovn vevI an nove lIan vilI lIe
inpevsonaI avlicIe so Iong as soneone's ov sone
pavl's pevsonaI slale is neanl |cJ. BeVvies, 1957,
p. 79: EvcoIe, 1926, p. 77). One pevson's slalo can
Ie excIanged Jov anolIev's |FIovenline Hislovies
VI 30): so slalo is nol as pevsonaI as an oId sIoe.
As ve sIaII see, slalo is pevsonaI nol Iecause il
suils ou Iul Iecause ou Iave acquived il. TIe
avle deIIo slalo lIal MacIiaveIIi said Ie Iad Ieen
sluding Jov 15 eavs |in lIe Iellev oJ BecenIev
10, 1513 in vIicI Ie casuaII announces Ie Ias
conpIeled TIe Fvince: cJ. Iellev oJ ApviI 9, 1513)
is lIe univevsaI ov inpevsonaI avl oJ nainlaining
pevsonaI doninalion |cJ. CIiappeIIi, 1969, p.
36n). WilIoul pvoIonging lIis discussion, I can-
nol sa lIal I Iave Jound in an oJ MacIiaveIIi's
vvilings an inslance oJ lIe inpevsonaI nodevn
slale anong Iis uses oJ slalo.
TIis does nol nean, Iovevev, lIal MacIia-
veIIi's slalo is a vegine in lIe lvadilionaI ov cIassi-
caI sense. As J. H. Hexlev Ias sIovn in Iis veII-
Inovn slud, slalo in TIe Fvince is used aInosl
invaviaII in an expIoilalive sense soneone is
aInosl aIvas expIoiling soneone eIse I neans
oJ Io slalo. 14 Il nigIl Ie Iellev lo
sa
lIal slalo is
sucI expIoilalion, and one nigIl visI lo avoid
lIe anacIvonisn expIoilalion and
speaI
oJ
14Hexlev |1973): EvcoIe |1926, p. 107): SlevnIevgev
|1974, pp. 42-43). Considev MacIiaveIIi's Janous joIe
Fov vIen lIe CavdinaI oJ Bouen said lo ne lIal lIe
IlaIians do nol undevsland vav, I vepIied lo Iin lIal lIe
FvencI do nol undevsland aIoul lIe slale |non si in-
lendovano deIIo slalo: TIe Fvince, cIap. 3). Nole lIe
vave inslances oJ vegginenlo in FIovenline Hislovies II,
11, 32.
5Hexlev |1973, p. 171) speaIs aInosl in successive
senlences oJ MacIiaveIIi's slalo as an inslvunenl and as
lIe oIjecl oJ expIoilalion. As inslvunenl oJ expIoilalion
slalo inpIies lIe exislence oJ sonelIing IiIe lIe slale
vilI vIicI lo expIoil olIevs. Hexlev seens Ieve lo sIip
inlo lIe evvov oJ pvesupposing lIe nodevn slale, Jov
854 TIe Anevican FoIilicaI Science Beviev VoI. 77
doninalion doninoi) ov naslev |signovia) ov
enpive |inpevio) as MacIiaveIIi does. MacIiaveIIi
cones as cIose as Ie evev does lo a deJinilion oJ
slalo in lIe Jivsl senlence oJ TIe Fvince AII
slales, aII doninions [doniniiI lIal Iave Iad and
Iave enpive inpeviaII ovev nen Iave Ieen and
ave eilIev vepuIIics ov pvincipaIilies.' '16 Heve
slales, eilIev vepuIIics ov pvincipaIilies, ave in
apposilion lo doninions lIal Iave enpive
ovev nen. A quicI suvve oJ sone Jealuves oJ
MacIiaveIIi's poIilicaI lIougIl viII sIov Iov Jav
lIis enpive ovev nen is Jvon lIe AvisloleIian
vegine |cJ. SlevnIevgev, 1974, pp. 38-39, 56-66).
MacIiaveIIi's slalo is soneone's lo acquive ov lo
nainlain. TIe slale ilseIJ nevev acquives ov nain-
lains on ils ovn accounl sepavale Jvon lIe advan-
lage oJ sone pevson ov gvoup lIis is lIe cvilicaI
lesl lIal leIIs us MacIiaveIIi's slale is nol inpev-
sonaI |EvcoIe, 1926, pp. 150-151). Bul iJ slalo is
aIvas lIe advanlage oJ soneone ovev soneone
eIse, acquiving and nainlaining lIe slale cannol
Ie equaII inpovlanl. In lIe second cIaplev oJ
TIe Fvince, MacIiaveIIi Iels us lIinI lIal lIe
Ievedilav pvince, vIo Ias nol acquived Iis pvin-
cipaIil, is lIe naluvaI pvince Iecause Ie nain-
lains il nove easiI. Bul in lIe lIivd cIaplev ve ave
vudeI inJovned oJ lIe naluvaI and ovdinav
desive lo acquive, and in lIe sixlI cIaplev ve
Ieavn lIal lIose pvinces vIo acquive lIeiv slales
vilI diJJicuIl and I vivlue, in lolaI conlvasl lo
Ievedilav pvinces, Ieep lIen vilI ease. Mean-
vIiIe, in lIe JiJlI cIaplev oJ lIe Biscouvses,
MacIiaveIIi sas lIal lIose vIo vanl lo nainlain
lIeiv possessions Iave lIe sane visI as lIose vIo
vanl lo acquive, naneI, lIe visI lo acquive,
since nen do nol lIinI lIe possess anlIing
secuveI unIess lIe ave acquiving sonelIing nev.
One cannol sil sliII lo nainlain vIal one Ias, ve
Ieavn in lIe nexl cIaplev, Iecause aII Iunan
lIings ave in nolion. TIus in IolI TIe Fvince
and lIe Biscouvses, Jov IolI pvinces and vepuI-
Iics, acquisilion cones Jivsl.
TIis concIusion, so conlvav lo AvislolIe's poIi-
lics as veII as Iis elIics, cannol Iul aJJecl MacIia-
veIIi's nolion o04 slalo.'7 I sIaII nenlion lIvee
cIanges il pvoduces I conpavison lo AvislolIe's
vIicI Ie indicaled CIiappeIIi |pp. 173-175). Fov nove
on MacIiaveIIi's slalo, see CIaIod |1967, pp. 631-637):
OiIIevl |1965, pp. 326-330): and WIilJieId |1947, pp.
93-95).
6See BovdaII |1923, p. 110): CondoveIIi |1923, p.
87). Nole lIal nolIing is said in MacIiaveIIi's senlence
aIoul lIe Juluve.
7AvislolIe FoIilics 1267a30-32 and MacIiaveIIi Bis-
couvses on Liv I 6 |end): see aIso FoIilics 1257I38-
1258aI, 1323a34-1323I21, 1365a6-8: NiconacIean
ElIics 1129II-3.
vegine, in lIe ovdeving oJ lIe slale, lIe cIains il
advances, and lIe neulvaIil il veconnends.
Fivsl, vIeveas Jov AvislolIe lIe vegine is sone
ovdeving oJ lIe inIaIilanls oJ lIe cil lIal ve-
nains visiIIe in ils Jovn as Iong as lIe vegine
Iasls, Jov MacIiaveIIi lIe ovdev ov ovdevs oJ
lIe slale nusl Ie suIjecl lo cIange.8 Oiven lIe
necessil lo acquive and lIe consequenl Ioosening
oJ novaI veslvainl, neilIev pvinces nov vepuIIics
can aJJovd lo velain suIovdinales ov nainlain in-
slilulions lIal Iecone inconvenienl. Fvinces nusl
Ie capaIIe oJ using olIevs as Cesave Bovgia, Iin-
seIJ lIe inslvunenl oJ Iis JalIev AIexandev VI,
used Benivvo de Ovco |TIe Fvince, cIap. 7): and
in vepuIIics, ovdevs nusl Ie nanipuIaled vilI
nev nodes and lIen cIanged inlo nev ovdevs
vIen lIe nallev oJ a cil is Ieconing cov-
vupled ov vIen an enevgenc avises, Jov exanpIe
lIe cIaIIenge lo lIe Senale posed I anIilious
Ieadevs oJ lIe pIeIians. In IolI cases lIe lvue
ovdeving oJ lIe slale is nol vIal appeavs lo lIe
puIIic, Iul vIal goes on IeIind lIe scenes: and
lIis conlvasl is conJivned and expanded I lIe
oIvious inpovlance oJ conspivac in MacIia-
veIIi's poIilicaI lIougIl in conpavison lo Avis-
lolIe's |MansJieId, 1979, on Biscouvses III 6).
WIal is visiIIe in MacIiaveIIi's slale is nol lIe
cIavaclev oJ povev, Iul valIev ils eJJecluaI exlenl.
WilI lIis diJJevence ve ave on lIe va lovavd
deJining lIe slale I ils levvilov and peopIe |cJ.
SIennan, 1974, p. 25).
Second, lIe necessil lo acquive delevnines lIe
cIavaclevislic cIains oJ slales. Since slales nusl
acquive, lIe nusl ieId lo, na incile, lIe desive
Jov gIov in lIose nen oJ a pvinceI naluve vIo
nosl evince lIal desive. Al lIe sane line, lIe peo-
pIe nusl Ie conciIialed and lIeiv desive Jov secuv-
il salisJied vIen possiIIe, iJ onI lo nainlain lIe
gIov oJ pvinces and pvinceI Ieadevs in vepuIIics.
IJ a connon good is sougIl Ielveen pvinces and
peopIes, il nusl acconnodale lIeiv divevse Iul
conpIenenlav desives Jov gIov and secuvil,
vIalevev lIe cIains oJ vegines na Ie. AIlIougI
MacIiaveIIi Ieeps lIe lvadilionaI Bonan dislinc-
lion Ielveen pvincipaIilies and vepuIIics, Ie does
nol slvess lIe cIavaclevislicaII opposing cIains oJ
lIose vegines: Ie lIvovs coId valev IolI on lIe
lpicaI vepuIIican Ialved Jov lIe nane oJ
pvince and on pvinceI disdain Jov lIe JicIIeness
oJ popuIav govevnnenl |Biscouvses on Liv, I 58,
II 2). He evodes lIe lvadilionaI dislinclion vilI
sucI pIvases as pvinces in lIe vepuIIic and
civiI pvincipaIil and vilI siniIav advice lo
IolI on Iov lo nisIeIave. Bespile lIeiv conlvasl-
ing cIains lo vivlue, slales ave lo Ie judged I
lIeiv eJJecluaI lvulI in acquiving gIov and
nainlaining secuvil. One IavdI need add lIal,
18FoIilics 1247I38: Biscouvses on Liv 1 18.
1983 MacIiaveIIi's Use oJ Slalo 855
Jov MacIiaveIIi, gIov and secuvil ave in lIis
vovId. Il vas lo pvevenl lIe appvopvialion oJ lIe
cIassicaI vegine and ils cIains oJ juslice I lIe cil
oJ Ood and lIe CIvislian vepuIIic lIal Ie
divecled lIe allenlion oJ IolI vepuIIics and pvin-
cipaIilies lovavd vovIdI gain.
TIus, on veluvning lo lIe Jivsl senlence oJ TIe
Fvince, ve can see lIal MacIiaveIIi's use oJ slalo
enaIIes Iin lo Ie neulvaI Ielveen vepuIIics and
pvincipaIilies. WIeveas Jov AvislolIe lIe Iellev
vegines ave vegines in a lvuev sense lIan lIe vovse
ones,'9 Jov MacIiaveIIi pvincipaIilies ave as nucI
slales as ave vepuIIics. His veII-Inovn Iul nol
aIvas veII-exanined pveJevence Jov vepuIIics is
caveJuII quaIiJied lIe connon good is nol
oIsevved iJ nol in vepuIIics, Iul il consisls in lIe
oppvession oJ lIe Jev I lIe nan, and lo Ie con-
queved I a vepuIIic is lIe Iavdesl sIavev.20
NolIing pvevenls a pvince in a civiI pvincipaIil
|TIe Fvince, cIap. 9) Jvon IeneJiling lIe peopIe
as nucI as lIe na Ie in a Jvee vepuIIic, and in
an case MacIiaveIIi sees quile cIeavI lIal slalo
von I coIIeclive seIJisIness Ias no novaI
supeviovil ovev lIal acquived I individuaI
seIJisIness. TIe veason is lIal lIe IavdI diJJev.
Jusl as evev pvince needs a peopIe, so evev
peopIe needs a Iead-an anIilious lviIune, con-
suI, diclalov, ov senale-lo divecl il as a peopIe in
ils acquisilions.
MacIiaveIIi's neulvaIil is evidenl in Iis use oJ
lIe nedievaI levn Jov covpovalion, univevsil, in
cIaplev 19 oJ TIe Fvince. AIlIougI in eavIiev
cIaplevs Ie Iad slvessed lIe need Jov lIe pvince lo
Iave lIe Javov, ov al Ieasl lo avoid lIe Ialved, oJ
lIe peopIe in ovdev lo nainlain Iis slale, Ie nov
suddenI cIanges Iis lune. Since lIe pvince can-
nol IeIp Ieing Ialed I soneone, MacIiaveIIi dis-
cIoses Jov lIe Jivsl line, Ie is al Jivsl conpeIIed
nol lo Ie Ialed I lIe univevsil |lIal is, lIe peo-
pIe ov evevone): Iul vIen Ie cannol do lIis, Ie
nusl conlvive lo avoid lIe Ialved oJ lIe nosl
povevJuI univevsil |in lIe pIuvaI), lIal is, lIe
soIdievs. TIus MacIiaveIIi's pveJevence Jov a
denocvalic ovev an undenocvalic poIic is nol
aIsoIule and is delevnined I necessil, nol
cIoice. In lIis slalenenl oJ il Ie uses lIe nedievaI
levn univevsil in IolI senses oJ covpovalion
vilIin lIe Iav and connunil lIal is lIe souvce
oJ Iav, Iul vilI Ivusque disvegavd Jov Iav and
IegaIil.
I concIude lIal lIe palI lo lIe nodevn slale vas
nol I va oJ MacIiaveIIi's vepuIIicanisn, as
FococI |1975, pp. vii-viii) Ias avgued. His vepuI-
FoIilics 1275II-3: see FIalo, Lavs 712e: Slalesnan
303c.
20Biscouvses on Liv II 2: cJ. Biscouvses III 9, and see
MansJieId |1979) on Biscouvses 1, 55, 58-59: II 2, 19.
Iicanisn sIovs no nove oJ lIe inpevsonaIil oJ
lIe nodevn slale lIan does Iis advice lo pvinces.
A vepuIIic is-lIe slalo oJ a cevlain gvoup as a pvin-
cipaIil is lIe slalo oJ lIe pvince, in IolI cases an
eJJecluaI acquisilion. An eJJecluaI acquisilion is
one pvopevI nainlained, lIal is, conlinuaII
veJvesIed vilI nev acquisilions. BalIev lIan in
Iis vepuIIicanisn, sucI as il vas, MacIiaveIIi's
slep lovavd lIe inpevsonaIil oJ lIe nodevn slale
can Ie seen in Iis inpavliaI advice lo aII pavlies
and pevsons lo acquive vIen lIe can. TIe vev
univevsaIil oJ Iis advice lo Ie pavliaI lo oneseIJ
vequives lIal Ie Ie neulvaI Ielveen lIe pavlies Ie
advises, Jov exanpIe Ielveen pvinces and vepuI-
Iics |see MansJieId, 1981, pp. 293-305). BepuI-
Iicanisn, lIeveJove, is nol a conlinuous lvadilion
Jvon ancienl lo nodevn lines, Jov sonevIeve
Ielveen ancienl and nodevn vepuIIicanisn lIe
concepl oJ lIe inpevsonaI nodevn slale vas inlvo-
duced. AvislolIe IacIs il, and Bousseau |SociaI
Conlvacl I 6) Ias il. TIis concepl cane nol Jvon
vilIin vepuIIicanisn, Iul Jvon an allilude oJ
neulvaIil lovavd vepuIIics in lIe oId sense oJ pav-
lisan vegines, vIicI vequived a lvansJovnalion oJ
lIe vepuIIican spivil. To lIis considevalion, one
sIouId add lIe inpvessive and oIvious Jacl lIal
evevvIeve in lIe Wesl lIe nodevn slale vas, ov
vas lIe vovI oJ, a nonavcI.
NonelIeIess, lo sa lIal lIe cIange Jvon lIe
pevsonaI slale lo lIe inpevsonaI slale vas lIe
decisive sIiJl, as SIinnev does |1978, voI. 1, p.
ix), is sonevIal nisIeading. BalIev, lIe decisive
sIiJl vas Jvon lIe pevsonaI slale in lIe AvisloleI-
ian sense lo lIe acquisilive pevsonaI slale oJ
MacIiaveIIi. Fov lIis cIange pvovided lIe inpav-
liaIil lIal is JundanenlaI lo lIe nodevn slale.
InpIicil in MacIiaveIIi's genevaI advice lo acquive
vas an inpavliaI vegavd Jov aII vIo nigIl Ie
capaIIe oJ appIing il. AJlev lIis il vas Iul a slep
|aIlIougI a slep MacIiaveIIi did nol laIe) lo a
slale lIal nigIl acquive Jov aII and JaciIilale lIe
acquisilions oJ aII inpavliaII |Ovvin, 1978, 72,
1226-1227). TIus lIe inpevsonaI nodevn slale
vas conceived, nol in, Iul oul oJ, lIe lIougIl oJ
lIe nosl pevsonaI poIilicaI pIiIosopIev lIal ve
Inov, in lIe sense oJ veconnending seIJ-
aggvandizenenl. TIal is vI Jinding nedievaI an-
licipalions oJ inpevsonaIil does nol suJJice lo ex-
pIain lIe nodevn slale, Jov lIe nodevn slale ex-
pvesses MacIiaveIIi's inpavliaI acquisiliveness in
ils JovnuIalions oJ inpevsonaI IegaIil.
TIe slale oJ vagione di slalo appeaved in 1589,
soon aJlev MacIiaveIIi, in a IooI oJ lIal nane I
Oiovanni Bolevo, a JoIIovev oJ MacIiaveIIi. TIal
slale, as opposed lo MacIiaveIIi's, vas said lo Ie
inpavliaII acquisilive Iecause lIe veasoning oJ ils
vagione vas nol lIe vuIev's Iul lIe slale's. Hence
lIe slale, unIiIe MacIiaveIIi's, vas nol oppvessive
856 TIe Anevican FoIilicaI Science Beviev
VoI. 77
lo lIe vuIed.2' Bul lIe JuII conceplion oJ lIe
nodevn slale Iad lo avail lIe poIilicaI science oJ
HoIIes.
WIal SIinnev caIIs lIe nain eIenenls oJ lIe
nodevn slale gvaduaII acquived Ielveen MacIia-
veIIi and HoIIes veve neve naleviaIs assenIIed
Jov HoIIes's conslvuclion on a Joundalion pve-
paved I MacIiaveIIi. Il vas HoIIes vIo dis-
linguisIed slale Jvon sociel, lIus aIIoving lIe
slale lo vepvesenl sociel inpavliaII: Ie vIo, lo
naIe lIis dislinclion, invenled lIe concepl oJ lIe
slale oJ naluve ieIding naluvaI vigIls IeJove
naluvaI dulies and lIe vigIl oJ seIJ-pvesevvalion
genevaIizing and IegaIizing MacIiaveIIi's advice lo
acquive: and Ie il vas vIo conceived lIe inpev-
sonaI slale as an avliJiciaI pevson vIose vovds and
deeds veve ovned I Iis suIjecls, nol I Iin-
seIJ. OnI vilI a viev lo HoIIes couId ve Inov
vIal lIe vavious anlicipalions oJ lIe nodevn slale
veve anlicipaling, Iul lIe decision in lIe deci-
sive sIiJl lo nodevnil vas laIen I MacIiaveIIi.
BeJevences
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2Bolevo |1930, pp. 9, 26-33): see FviedvicI |1957, p.
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ovn speciaI veason, il no Iongev needs Jvaud. CJ. pev
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VII 5, lo descviIe a pavlisan considevalion. TIe connec-
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Nev Fvon Fvincelon
Exanining pvesidenliaI eIeclions I le v ove lin a
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SlanIe KeIIe, Jv.
lIe vigIl Iinds oJ suvve dala exisl.
Focusing on lIe JoInson and Nixon IandsIide viclovies, lIe aulIov aIso discusses lIe
conlinuing inpovlance oJ Nev BeaI issues, lIe Benocvalic Iias lIal pevsisls in lIis
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