Physical Science ( Midterms Reviewer )

Lesson 1.1
The Bigbang Theory and the Formation of Light Elements

Cosmology
- body of science that studies the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe.

Religious or mythological cosmology explains the origin of the universe and life based
on the religious beliefs of a specific tradition.
- The concept of creatio ex nihilo
- God creating the universe as written in the book of Genesis

Physical cosmology explains the origin of the universe based on scientific insights,
studies, and experiments.
- Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric nature of the universe
- The expanding universe through Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity
- The big bang theory

Bigbang Theory
- A cosmological model that describes how the universe started its expansion about
13.8 billion years ago, states that the universe continues to move and expand.

1.The universe began as a singularity or a point containing all space, time, matter, and
energy.

2. It expanded rapidly in nothingness through a rapid yet peaceful process called inflation.

3.The universe cooled down as it expanded.

4.A soup of matter in the form of subatomic particles was formed and nuclei of light atoms
were created via nucleosynthesis or nuclear fusion between protons and neutrons

5.Electrons interacted with these nuclei to form actual, primordial atoms via the process of
recombination.

Evidence ( people )
Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz (1910)

- Measurement of redshift
- Observed that most spiral galaxies were moving away from the earth

Georges Lemaître (1927)

- Proposed alternative idea that the universe is expanding

Edwin Hubble (1929)

- Calculated distances between the earth and several galaxies using redshift of light
- Observed distant galaxies were moving away from the Earth and one another
Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias (1965)

- Discovered cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)—a low, steady

humming noise believed to be energy remains

Modern astronomy (2014)

- Universe is estimated to be 13.8 billion years old with 5% of its composition existing
as ordinary matter

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), also known as primordial nucleosynthesis, is the

process of producing the light elements during the big bang expansion

- It yields two stable isotopes of hydrogen, two isotopes of helium, some lithium
atoms, and beryllium isotopes.

1.A proton (p) and a neutron (n) may fuse together to yield a high-energy photon (γ) and
an isotope of hydrogen (H) called deuterium (D or 2H, with one p and one n).

- The deuterium bottleneck can be traced to its low binding energy and eventual
destruction by photons at very high temperatures.
- A decrease in temperature enabled deuterium to stabilize and eventually initiate the
BBN cascade

2.Two D nuclei may fuse together to form either of the following:

a.The radioactive H isotope tritium (T or 3H, with one p and two n) and one p ; or

a.The isotope helium-3 (He-3 or 3He, with two p and one n) along with one n

3.Helium-4 (He-4 or 4He, with two p and two n) may be formed from three fusion reactions.

a.The fusion of one p and a T atom

b.The fusion of D with T

c.The fusion of D with He-3

● He-4 has a binding energy of 28 MeV. Further fusion products were a rarity since these
resulting atoms had binding energies lower than this amount mentioned above.

4.He-4 may still undergo further fusion in the presence of a T atom, yielding the lithium-7
atom (Li-7 or 7Li, with three p and four n) and a γ.

Li-7 may react with one p to produce two stable He-4 nuclei.
5.He-4 may also fuse with He-3 to yield the unstable isotope beryllium-7 (Be-7 or 7Be, with
four p and three n) along with one γ.

The nuclear reactions as predicted by the big bang nucleosynthesis

Bigbang Theory
●The correlation between predicted and observed cosmic abundances of H and He was the
major proof of the big bang theory.

•Almost all available neutrons have combined with protons, forming 24% He-4 by mass.

•About 74% H by mass remained uncombined.

●To verify these observations, scientists measured abundances of primordial material in

unprocessed gas in some parts of the universe with no stars, as well as in parts of
meteorites known as chondrites that commonly fall to Earth.

Lesson 1.2
Stellar Evolution and the Formation of Heavier Elements

- Tiny stars shining in the sky are actually giant balls of Hydrogen and Helium.
- Earth is just a tiny part of the vast complex universe.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN)

The BBN did not give rise to elements heavier than beryllium.

•Drop in temperature resulted in insufficient energy levels for fusion reactions to push
through.

•Nucleosynthesis continued with the expansion of the universe.

Stellar Formation

The star formation theory states that stars formed when gravity acted on the particles
expanding with the universe.

•Stellar nurseries form from dense molecular regions.

•Protostars are formed when these regions collapse.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
•Elements associated with both living and nonliving things mostly originated from stars
•Processes that occurred inside stars were responsible for the formation of these elements

Elements heavier than beryllium were formed through stellar nucleosynthesis.

•H and He produced from BBN started to combine in nuclear fusion reactions.

•Very high amounts of energy were released in the form of light, heat and radiation.

Stellar Evolution
Stellar evolution refers to the process in which a star changes through its lifetime.

•The abundances of elements a star contains change as it evolves.

•The course of evolution is determined by its mass.

All stars are formed from stellar nurseries called nebulae.

•A nebula breaks into smaller fragments as it further collapses before contracting into a
protostar, or a very hot stellar core that continues to gather gas and dust as it contracts and
increases in temperature.

•Nuclear reactions like the proton-proton fusion reactions occur at a temperature of

around 10,000,000 K

Protostars evolve into main sequence stars upon reaching gravitational equilibrium.

•Nuclear reactions form subatomic particles called neutrinos and positrons.

•An increase in pressure brought about by positrons and neutrinos halt the contraction of the
protostar.

The sun is believed to be in the middle of the main sequence phase of stellar evolution.

•It will remain as such for at least five billion years.

Red dwarf stars stay on the main sequence phase for at least 100 billion years due to the
slow rate of hydrogen fusion.

Not all protostars become main sequence stars.

•Brown dwarf stars are only able to fuel deuterium fusion reactions.

•They cool gradually and have an average lifespan of less than a billion years.

Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all hydrogen atoms in their cores get
depleted.

1.Helium becomes the major component of the core.

•Proton-proton chain reactions use hydrogen to produce helium.

•Hydrogen fusion moves to the outer shell and the core's surface.
Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all hydrogen atoms in their cores get
depleted.

2.Fusion stops when all hydrogen atoms in the core are used up.

•Pressure in the core decreases.

3.Helium atoms or alpha particles are converted to carbon via the alpha fusion
processes.

Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all hydrogen atoms in their cores get
depleted.

4.Temperature can increase to approximately 10 million K.

•Pressure also increases.

•Hydrogen is pushed away from the core.

•The resulting expansion eventually transforms the main sequence star to a red giant.

Fusion of elements in a red giant

Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority of helium in their cores are
consumed.

1.Hot and inert carbon core eventually becomes the white dwarf.

•Lower amounts of helium in the core decrease the rate of the alpha processes.

•Outer shell expands into space, forming a planetary nebula.

Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority of helium in their cores are
consumed.

2.A white dwarf’s composition depends on its predecessor’s mass.

•A sun-sized main sequence star lacks energy to fuse carbon and the white dwarf would
mostly contain inert carbon and some oxygen.

•A smaller star will produce a white dwarf mostly composed of helium and a bit of hydrogen.
Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars.

1.A high mass star can reach pressure and temperature levels favorable for carbon fusion.

2.It evolves through several stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in the
shells around it eventually forming multiple shells.

•Multiple elements formed in a series of reactions in the following order:

3.Elements lighter than iron can be fused since the nucleus produced has a mass lower than
the sum of their masses.

•Missing mass is released as energy.

4.Stellar nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron is not possible due to its energy
requirement.

A multiple-shell red giant

Elements heavier than iron are formed after a supernova.

1.An exploding multiple-shell red giant is called a supernova.

•happens when its core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity
2.It releases massive quantities of high-energy neutrinos.
•Neutrinos break nucleons and release neutrons.
3.The generated neutrons are picked up by nearby stars.
•key step in the formation of elements heavier than iron

Proving Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis

1.the discovery of interstellar gas and dust in the early 1900s

2.the study of different stages of stellar evolution happening throughout the universe
•Infrared radiation (IR) can be detected from different stages of stellar evolution.
•IR released by protostar is measured and compared to IR from nearby area with zero
extinction.
•approximation of energy, temperature and pressure from IR
Lesson 1.3
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis refers to the set of nuclear fusion reactions in a star's core and
overlying layers
•Responsible for the formation of elements heavier than those formed during big bang
nucleosynthesis (H, He, Li and Be)

Stellar Nucleosynthesis Theory

Arthur Eddington
•Used atomic mass measurements of F. W. Aston
•Stars get energy from the nuclear fusion of H nuclei
•Heavier elements are formed inside stars

George Gamow
•Derived the formula for mutual electrostatic repulsion
•Refers to the probability of bringing two nuclei close enough such that their forces
overcome the Coulomb barrier
•Derived the rate at which high-temperature reactions occur

Hans Bethe
•Elucidated how energy is produced in stars via hydrogen burning

Hydrogen Burning
refers to a set of stellar reactions resulting in the production of He-4 from H
•Responsible for producing energy in stars
•Two dominant processes
•Proton-proton chain reaction (responsible for the formation of helium cores)
•Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle

Proton-proton chain reaction

•Chain reaction by which a star transforms H into He
•Occurs only when there is mutual electrostatic repulsion

Proton-proton chain reaction

1.Beta-plus decay: two ps fuse to form
•a deuteron (deuterium nucleus)
•a positron (a positively-charged electron)
•a neutrino
2.Deuterium burning: D fuses with p to yield He-3 and γ
3.Fusion of two He-3 to form He-4 and two H

Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle
•Dominant source of energy in stars about 1.3 times more
massive than the sun
•Main source of He for such stars upon recycling 12C and
finishing the whole cycle

Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle
1.Proton capture: 12C fuses with p to form 13N and γ
2.Beta-plus decay: 13N producing 13C, a positron and a neutrino
3.Fusion of 13C with p to yield 14N and γ

Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle
4.Proton capture: 14N fuses with p to form 15O and γ
5.Beta-plus decay: 15O producing 15N, a positron and a
neutrino
6.Fusion of 15N with p to yield 12C and 4He

Helium burning refers to a set of stellar nuclear reactions

that uses helium to produce energy and heavier elements such as Be, O, Ne and Fe
•Also responsible for producing energy in stars
•Two dominant processes
•Triple-alpha process
•Alpha process

Triple-alpha process
•Set of two-stage nuclear fusion reactions converting three alpha particles (He-4 nuclei) into
12
C
•Creates inert carbon core found in white dwarfs and larger stars

Triple-alpha process
1.Two alpha particles fuse to yield 8Be and γ
2.8Be fuses with another alpha particle to form 12C
and γ

Alpha processes
1.Increases the core size and density by forming heavier elements
2.Vital in transforming main sequence stars to supergiants
 Alpha processes
3.Reactions capture an alpha particle and release a γ
•12C captures an alpha particle (4He) to make 16O, then 16O
captures an alpha particle to produce 20Ne

Alpha processes
4.The process continues where the product captures an extra
alpha particle until it produces the last atom in the series (52Fe)
5.All atoms produced are from even-numbered elements

Lesson 1.4
How Elements Heavier Than Iron Were Formed

Limitations of Big Bang/Stellar Nucleosynthesis

Fusion reactions above Fe is unfavorable
•Nuclear binding energy per nucleon holds the nucleus intact
•Smaller nuclear binding energy per nucleon
•Further fusion reactions with Fe require more energy

Nucleosynthesis of elements beyond Fe are nonspontaneous and require different pathways

•Neutrinos released by a supernova help in forming neutrons and protons which then get
captured by nuclei residing in nearby stars
•Neutron or proton capture processes help in achieving higher-level nucleosynthesis

Neutron Capture
Neutron capture starts with a neutron being added to a seed nucleus

This starting reaction would then produce a heavier isotope of the element
If this isotope is unstable, it would undergo beta decay

Beta decay results in an increase in the number of protons of the nucleus by one

A heavier nucleus of a new element is formed

Neutron Capture: S-process
Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of available
neutrons
•The rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the rate of beta decay (hence the term
slow)
•If a beta decay occurs, it almost always occurs before another neutron can be captured
•These occur mainly on red giant or supergiant stars, with each neutron capture taking a
decade and the cascade of processes taking thousands of years to complete

Neutron Capture: R-process

Rapid neutron capture or r-process happens when there is a large number of available
neutrons
•The rate of neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus may still be combined with
another neutron prior to beta decay (hence the term rapid)
•Associated with supernovae, in which the temperatures are tremendously high that the
neutrons are moving very fast
•Neutrons can immediately combine with isotopes that are already heavy

Proton Capture
Proton capture or p-process starts with the addition of a p to a nucleus after a supernova is
formed

The tremendous amount of energy available allows the addition of a p to the nucleus
Usually not favorable because of Coulombic repulsion

Produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus

Lesson 2.1
The Concept of Atom in Ancient Times

The Atom

Subatomic Particles
●Protons – positively charged
●Electrons – negatively charged
●Neutrons – neutrally charged

Early days of the Atomic Theory

●5th Century BC
●Greek Philosophers hypothesized about the composition of matter
●Some ideas were accepted than the others

Democritus
(460 BC–370 BC)
•Everything is made up of small indivisible particles known as atomos.
Leucippus
(5th century BCE)
●Teacher of Democritus
●Pioneer of the ideas of composition and change in matter

Atomism
●Matter is composed of atomos and void.
●The atomos may combine to form clusters in the void.
●Change can happen when some atoms collide with each other in the void.

But not everyone agreed.

(384 – 322 BC)
•Aristotle thought the the idea of the atom goes against ex nihilo and it limits the power of the
gods.
•Aristotle’s nature elements

Atomism Revisited
●The idea of the atom was given importance during the Renaissance.
●John Dalton formulated his Atomic Theory based on the atomos.
●Other researches and experiments were conducted afterwards.

Lesson 2.2
Discovery of the Subatomic Particles

The Atomos of Democritus

●solid
●indestructible
●collides with each other
●can form clusters

Modification of Democritus’ Atomic Model

●There are smaller subatomic particles.
●Two types of the smaller particles are charged.
●Two types of the smaller particles are found at the center.
The particles are very small and the atom is mostly space

Subatomic Particles
●Protons - positively charged and found at the nucleus. Discovered by Ernest Rutherford.
●Neutrons - neutral and found at the nucleus. Discovered by James Chadwick.
●Electrons - negatively charged and move around the nucleus. Discovered by JJ Thomson.

Dalton’s Solid Sphere Model

●The atom is indestructible.

●The atom is a solid particle.
●Atoms of the same element have the same properties.
The atom can combine to form compounds
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

●The atom is divisible into charged particles.

●The atom is made of a massive mass with a positive charge.
●Electrons are negatively charged particles that are embedded
on the body of the atom.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

●The atom is composed of positive and negatively charged

particles.
●The nucleus is at the center of the atom and this is where
the mass of the atom is concentrated.
●Protons are the positively charged particles and are found
at the nucleus.
●Electrons are the smaller negatively charged particles and
they move around the nucleus.
●The atom is made up of mostly space.

Lesson 2.3
Bohr Model of the Atom

The Atomic Models so far…

●Dalton’s Solid Sphere Model
●Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
●Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

The Problems of the Nuclear Model

●The eventual crash by the electrons due to:
○emitted radiation
○continuous centripetal acceleration
○increasing electrostatic force

Niels Bohr proposed his model for the atom which

will answer questions about stability and spectral
data.
Bohr Model of the Atom

●The model aims to explain the stability of the atom:

○presence of fixed circular orbits or energy levels
○ground state will have the electrons in constant energy
○light energy can be absorbed and be emitted by electrons

The orbits are quantized energy levels.

There is a specific amount of energy
required for each distance and this energy
increases when going farther away from
the nucleus.

Electrons can Interact with Energy

●Electrons are originally at its ground state.
●Electrons can absorb energy and will become excited. Electrons jump to higher energy
levels when excited.
●Electrons can then relax and go back to its ground state. This will give off energy that has a
specific wavelength and color.

The emitted light from relaxation can be

detected resulting to spectral lines.
These will give the distinct color that we
see when metals are heated or when
light is being reflected by matter

The Bohr Model Made Use of Quantum Principles and Equations

- For the energy of the electron in a specific orbit

- For the energy absorbed or emitted by the electron

Bohr Model Identified the Presence of Orbitals
●The Balmer series of spectral lines was able to identify the presence of orbitals. The
spectroscopic data were described as follows.
○sharp – s orbital
○principal – p orbital
○diffused – d orbital
○fundamental – f orbital
There were still some unanswered questions…
●The model cannot explain phenomena observed when there are more electrons.
●The model cannot explain paired spectral lines given by atoms with more than one
electrons.