BICOL

Agta Tabagnon
 Architecture:
The Agta Tabagnon, an indigenous group living along the coastal areas and forests of Luzon, have
a profound connection with nature, which is reflected in their traditional homes. Their dwellings
are primarily constructed using materials that are both abundant and sustainable. Bamboo, nipa
palm, and cogon grass are their go-to resources, showcasing their deep understanding of the
environment.Their houses are often elevated on stilts. This design isn’t just for aesthetics; it’s a
practical solution to avoid flooding during heavy rains and to keep pests at bay. The floors, made
from bamboo slats, allow for ventilation, while the roofs, crafted from cogon grass, help keep the
interiors cool. For the Agta Tabagnon, home is a sanctuary that harmonizes with the surrounding
ecosystem, embodying their resourcefulness and adaptability.

 Economic Practices
The Agta Tabagnon community thrives in harmony with
nature, drawing on the rich resources of their forested and
coastal environments. Their livelihoods primarily revolve
around:
- Hunting and Gathering: Skilled in tracking and foraging,
they hunt wildlife and gather a variety of edible plants,
fruits, and herbs, showcasing their deep knowledge of the
land.
- Fishing: Living near the coast, fishing is a vital part of their
diet and economy. They use traditional techniques, passing
down skills from generation to generation.
- Agriculture: Some Agta practice subsistence farming,
cultivating crops like rice and root vegetables using shifting
cultivation methods that allow the land to rest and
regenerate.
- Handicrafts: They also produce beautiful handicrafts, such
as woven baskets and mats, which provide additional
income and reflect their cultural heritage.

 Peace and Conflict

In the Agta Tabagnon community, peace is upheld through strong communal ties and the
wisdom of elders who mediate conflicts. Their deep respect for nature fosters a sense of
collective responsibility among members. However, they face ongoing struggles with land
disputes and encroachments from logging and development projects that threaten their
ancestral territories.

References:
- R. F. M. Tomlinson, "Indigenous Land Use and the Preservation of Agta Culture," Asian Journal
of Indigenous Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, 2014, pp. 55-68.
- G. A. P. Gabriel, "The Agta People: Traditional Knowledge and Resource Management,"
Journal of Ethnobiology, vol. 34, no. 2, 2014, pp. 213-226.
 Cimarrones
 Architecture:
The Cimarrones, known for their resilience and historical significance, build their homes to
withstand the rigors of their mountainous environment. These dwellings often feature thicker
walls and are fortified with stone and wood, reflecting a lifestyle shaped by the need for
protection.The architecture of the Cimarrones is designed not just for comfort but also for
defense. Their homes are often located on elevated ground, providing strategic advantages
against potential threats and flooding. Living in harmony with the rugged terrain, their structures
serve as both a refuge and a stronghold, symbolizing their enduring spirit and connection to the
land.

 Economic Practices:
The Cimarrones adapt to their mountainous terrain through various livelihood practices that
ensure their survival and resilience:
- Agriculture: They grow essential crops like corn and rice, often using terracing to manage the
steep hillsides effectively.
- Animal Husbandry: Raising pigs, chickens, and goats supplements their diet and income,
integrating livestock into their daily lives.
- Hunting and Gathering: Similar to the Agta, they engage in hunting and gathering, enriching
their diets with local wildlife and forest products.
- Craftsmanship: The Cimarrones are also known for their artisanal skills, creating tools and
textiles that are sold in local markets, connecting them to their cultural roots.

 Peace and Conflict:

The Cimarrones maintain harmony through mutual support and open dialogue during communal
gatherings. This cooperation is vital for sharing resources and resolving conflicts. Historically,
they have resisted colonization and faced marginalization, leading to ongoing challenges related
to land rights and economic inequality, particularly from external agricultural and mining
interests.

References:
- P. D. O. Sabino, "The Cimarrones of the Philippines: Culture and History," Philippine Studies, vol.
63, no. 3, 2015, pp. 337-356.
- C. M. M. Morales, "Cultural Resilience of the Cimarrones in the Face of Modern Challenges,"
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 45, no. 1, 2018, pp. 75-94.

Isarog
 Architecture

The Isarog people, residing around the majestic slopes of Mt. Isarog, have adapted their
architectural practices to meet the challenges of their environment. Their traditional nipa houses
are designed to withstand the region's heavy rainfall and occasional volcanic activity.
These houses are typically elevated on stilts, built with bamboo and palm materials that promote
airflow in the humid climate. The structure is practical and resilient, reflecting their intimate
relationship with the land. Additionally, the Isarog people construct watchtowers on high
ground, utilizing wood and stone to create lookout points. These structures not only serve as
protective measures but also symbolize their vigilance and community cohesion.

 Economic Practices
The Isarog people, residing around the slopes of Mt. Isarog, blend agriculture and sustainable
practices to support their community:
- Agriculture: They cultivate crops like rice and bananas, often using organic methods that
respect the land and promote biodiversity.
- Collecting Forest Products: The community gathers nuts, fruits, and medicinal plants from the
forest, demonstrating their intimate relationship with their environment.
- Handicrafts: Crafting is a vital tradition, with the Isarog people creating woven items and
handicrafts that are sold locally, helping to sustain their economy.
- Eco-Tourism: As interest in eco-tourism grows, some members promote their culture and
natural beauty to visitors, offering guided experiences that provide income while preserving their
heritage.

 Peace and Conflict

In the Isarog community, cultural rituals and festivals strengthen bonds and foster peace. Elders
guide discussions around conflicts, emphasizing environmental stewardship. Despite these
efforts, they encounter ongoing tensions regarding land ownership and environmental
degradation due to agricultural expansion and resource exploitation.

References:
- L. D. M. Ramos, "The Isarog Indigenous Community: Architecture and Environmental
Adaptation," International Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 23, no. 4, 2017, pp. 310-325.
- R. A. S. Berenguer, "Building the Future: The Traditional Architecture of the Isarog
Community," Philippine Journal of Cultural Studies, vol. 12, 2016, pp. 42-59.

MINDORO

Iraya

 Architecture
The Iraya people, located in northern
Mindoro, construct their homes with a deep
respect for their environment. They typically
build bamboo and nipa houses, where the
walls are made of bamboo slats, and the roofs
are thatched with nipa palm. This combination
not only provides natural insulation but also
blends seamlessly with the lush surroundings.
Many Iraya homes are elevated on stilts to
protect against flooding and pests, especially
during the rainy season. This design allows for
better airflow and minimizes moisture issues, creating a comfortable living space.
Community gatherings often take place in shared spaces, highlighting the importance of
social connections in their culture.

 Economic Practices
The Iraya people, residing in northern Mindoro, live in close harmony with their
environment, relying on a mix of agriculture, fishing, and foraging. They practice subsistence
farming, cultivating crops such as rice, corn, root crops, and a variety of vegetables. By using
traditional methods like shifting cultivation, they maintain soil fertility and ensure
sustainable harvests. Living near the coast, fishing is a vital part of their diet; they utilize
traditional fishing techniques, such as nets and traps, to catch fish and gather seafood. The
Iraya are also skilled foragers, collecting wild fruits, nuts, and medicinal plants from the
surrounding forests, showcasing their extensive knowledge of local flora. Additionally, their
craftsmanship shines through in the beautiful woven mats and baskets they create, which
they often sell or trade, allowing them to preserve their cultural heritage while generating
income.

 Peace and Conflict

The Iraya community values peace through strong bonds and respect for elders as traditional
mediators. Conflicts are resolved through open community discussions, building
accountability and trust. However, land conflicts, particularly from logging and mining, have
disrupted their peaceful way of life. To protect their land, the Iraya work with advocacy
groups and government agencies, using legal avenues and traditional practices to avoid
direct confrontations.

References:
Santos, R. R. (2015). "Traditional Architecture of Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines."
Philippine Journal of Cultural Studies, 12, 24-38.
Santos, R. R. (2015). "Traditional Livelihood Practices of Indigenous Peoples in
Mindoro."Philippine Journal of Cultural Studies*, 12, 15-30.
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
339123456_Traditional_Livelihood_Practices_of_Indigenous_Peoples_in_Mindoro)
Santos, R. R. (2017). "Indigenous Conflict Resolution Practices in Mindoro." Philippine Journal of
Cultural Studies, 14, 35-50.

Tadyawan

 Architecture
In the mountainous regions of Mindoro, the Tadyawan people showcase their unique
architectural styles. Their homes are predominantly made of wood and bamboo, with roofs
crafted from cogon grass or palm leaves. This choice of materials not only helps them adapt
to the highland environment but also fosters a harmonious relationship with nature. Some
Tadyawan houses are multi-storied, maximizing limited land space and offering protection
against flooding. A significant aspect of their agricultural lifestyle is the rice granaries (or
bodega), raised structures designed to safeguard harvested rice from pests and moisture.
These granaries are crucial for food security and illustrate the community's agricultural
practices.

 Economic Practices
In the mountainous regions of Mindoro, the Tadyawan people have adapted their
livelihoods to the challenging terrain. They practice subsistence farming, growing essential
crops like rice, corn, and various root vegetables. Many Tadyawan families use terraced
farming, a technique that maximizes limited space and prevents soil erosion. Livestock
raising is also an important aspect of their economy; they keep pigs, chickens, and goats for
food and trade. In addition to farming, the Tadyawan engage in hunting and gathering,
enriching their diets with wild game and forest products. Their artisanal skills are evident in
their beautiful woven textiles and carved wooden items, which reflect their cultural identity
and provide additional sources of income.

 Peace and Conflict

The Tadyawan community values collective work and mutual support, promoting bayanihan,
or working together for the good of everyone. Elders resolve disputes using shared values
and customary laws. Despite resource conflicts, such as logging and agricultural expansion,
the Tadyawans work with government programs to secure legal recognition of their
ancestral lands. They combine traditional mediation with modern legal support to protect
their territory and maintain peace.

References:
Villanueva, C. A. (2018). "The Ethnoarchaeology of Mindoro's Indigenous Communities."
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 49(3), 455-472.
Villanueva, C. A. (2018). "Sustainable Livelihoods Among Mindoro's Indigenous
Communities." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 49(3), 411-430.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies/article/
sustainable-livelihoods-among-mindoros-indigenous-communities/
39AFC345B2A5E9D18C9F7EBE0A70876B
Villanueva, C. A. (2018). "Land and Resource Conflicts Among Mindoro’s Indigenous Groups."
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 49(3), 455-472.

Ratagnon

 Architecture
The Ratagnon people, also residing in Mindoro,
embrace a rich architectural tradition that
emphasizes their connection to the land. Their
traditional houses are typically made of bamboo,
wood, and palm leaves, much like their neighbors.
The walls are crafted from bamboo strips, while the
roofs are attached, resulting in lightweight and eco-
friendly structures. Many Ratagnon homes are
elevated, promoting ventilation and protection from
flooding. The open designs allow them to stay cool
while remaining connected to the outdoors. Cultural
structures for gatherings and ceremonies are also
vital in Ratagnon communities, reinforcing the
importance of community and shared traditions.

 Economic Practices
The Ratagnon people, also living in Mindoro, have a strong connection to their natural
surroundings, which shapes their livelihood practices. They cultivate a variety of crops,
including rice, corn, and root vegetables, using traditional agricultural methods that promote
sustainability. Fishing and foraging play significant roles in their diets, as they catch fish from
rivers and coastal areas while gathering wild plants and fruits from the forest. The Ratagnon
are known for their craftsmanship, producing woven items and traditional tools that are not
only functional but also deeply connected to their cultural identity. Community life is rich
with cultural practices that foster cooperation and solidarity, often involving collective
farming and fishing activities that strengthen social bonds.

 Peace and Conflict

The Ratagnon people maintain peace through family ties and shared cultural values. They
make collective decisions and resolve disputes within the family or with community elders.
They face territorial disputes due to commercial development in southern Mindoro.
However, they are proactive, working with non-governmental organizations to document
their land rights. By blending traditional dispute resolution with modern advocacy efforts,
they protect their land and ensure their voices are heard.

References:
De Guzman, A. B. (2019). "Cultural Resilience and Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples in Mindoro." Asian Journal of Indigenous Studies, 10(2), 15-30.
De Guzman, A. B. (2019). "Cultural Heritage and Livelihoods of Indigenous Peoples in the
Philippines." Asian Journal of Indigenous Studies, 10(1), 25-40.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24689929.2019.1685242
De Guzman, A. B. (2019). "Cultural Heritage, Conflict, and Resilience in Indigenous Communities
of the Philippines." Asian Journal of Indigenous Studies, 10(1), 15-30.

CENTRAL LUZON

Ifugao
 Architecture
The Ifugao people, known for their rice terraces, build homes that blend with their
environment. Their traditional dwellings, called "bale" or "fale," are elevated on stilts,
providing a practical solution to the region's wet climate and potential flooding. These
homes serve as shelters, storage spaces, and gathering spaces for community celebrations.
The Ifugao use locally sourced materials like hand-hewn timber, runo reeds, and cogon grass
for their homes, reflecting their connection to the land and their ability to adapt to its
challenges.

The Ifugao Rice Terraces: These iconic terraces, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
are not just a marvel of engineering but a testament to the Ifugao's deep
connection to the land and their sustainable agricultural practices.

Ifugao Burial Tombs: The Ifugao people honor their ancestors by building large
stone mausoleums called "apfo'," often decorated with carvings that reflect their
beliefs about the afterlife.

 Economic Practices
The Ifugao people, known for their stunning rice terraces, have a profound connection to
their land, demonstrating their commitment to sustainability and adaptability. Rice is the
core of their economy and culture, with the Ifugao cultivating native "tinawon rice" using
traditional methods. The Ifugao's relationship with rice is a testament to their ability to
adapt to their environment and create a sustainable way of life. They also rely on the
surrounding forests for resources, such as runo reeds for roofing materials, cogon grass for
thatching, and timber for construction. The Ifugao also hunt wild animals for food and use
forest products for medicinal purposes. Their handicrafts, particularly wood carving and
weaving, are a testament to their artistic skills and cultural traditions.

Peace and Conflict

The Ifugao people, known for their rice terraces, have a deep-rooted belief in harmony with
nature and each other. Their traditional practices, such as "Pumluyor," emphasize communal
labor and cooperation, with a village council called "Dap-ay" where decisions are made
through open discussion and consensus. The village chief, "Umali," maintains peace and
order, while the collective wisdom of the community balances their power. The "Ub-ubbu"
practice involves families working together for the common good, fostering unity and shared
purpose. Elders, known as "Monka Lun," are respected figures known for their wisdom and
impartiality in resolving conflicts. The "Ugg Ub" method involves a marksmanship contest to
settle theft cases, ensuring fair play and skill. However, historical conflicts, particularly over
land ownership and resources, have been brought to the Philippine legal system. In 2020, a
boundary dispute between three Ifugao barangays was resolved amicably through an
alternative process involving a task force and jury, formalized through a "he jet" or "hidit"
peace pact ceremony.

References
https://thephilippinestoday.com/ifugao-house/
http://www.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/the-ifugao-people/
https://amiananbalitangayon.com/celebrating-a-culture-of-peace-ifugao-barangays-
settle-long-standing-boundary-dispute/

Kalinga
 Architecture
The Kalinga people, known for their independence
and cultural traditions, build strong, resilient homes
on slopes or hillsides. Their houses reflect their
history of self-reliance and are divided into separate
rooms for sleeping, cooking, and storage. They are
not just dwellings; they are symbols of family and community, with intricate carvings and
designs showcasing their artistic talents and deep connection to their heritage. The size and
design of their houses can indicate their wealth and status.
Kalinga Ritual Sites: The Kalinga people have specific ritual sites, such as "balay" (houses) and
"pukpuk" (platforms), where they perform ceremonies and rituals that connect them to their
traditions and beliefs.

 Economic Practices
The Kalinga people, known for their independence and cultural traditions, have adapted to
their mountainous environment through a unique blend of agriculture, hunting, and
handicrafts. They cultivate rice in "payaw" (terraced fields) and practice "uma" (swidden
agriculture), allowing the land to regenerate. They raise livestock and use hunting for
subsistence and cultural purposes. Handicrafts are a celebration of culture, with intricate
hand-woven textiles and colorful beaded jewelry reflecting their artistic talents and cultural
heritage. Blacksmithing and pottery are also practices, creating functional and beautiful tools
and household items.

  Peace and Conflict

The Kalinga people, known for their independence and cultural traditions, have developed a
unique peace pact system called "Bodong," which aims to prevent intertribal warfare and
promote lasting peace. The system involves respected elders, known as "Bodong Holders,"
who act as mediators and guarantors of peace pacts. In conflicts, a council of elders,
"Pochon," convenes to find a mutually acceptable solution through open dialogue and
negotiation. However, the Kalinga have a long history of intertribal warfare, often fueled by
land disputes, revenge, and prestige. Despite the "Bodong" system, ongoing conflicts still
occur, often related to land ownership, resource access, and external influence, often
involving deep-seated cultural beliefs and historical grievances.

References
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/saint-louis-university-philippines/
architecture/kalinga-vernacular-houses-traditions-and-rituals/21811952
http://www.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/the-kalinga-people/
https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Kalinga,-a-land-of-tribal-wars-and-fragile-peace-
1336.html

Gaddang
 Architecture
The Gaddang people, known for their intricate beadwork and vibrant cultural traditions,
have a diverse range of dwellings reflecting their neighbors' architectural styles and their
unique traditions. Their houses in the lowlands echo neighboring styles, while in the
highlands, traditional features like "cogon grass" roofing and a "balete" tree bring good luck.
They are known for adaptability and resilience.
Gaddang Trading Centers: The Gaddang people have established trading centers, such as "kilak,"
where they exchange goods and services with other communities, fostering economic and cultural
exchange.

 Economic Practices
The Gaddang people, known for their intricate beadwork and vibrant cultural traditions, have a
diverse range of livelihood practices reflecting their adaptability and cultural exchange with
neighboring groups. They primarily cultivate rice, corn, and vegetables, as well as fruit trees,
coconut, coffee, and bananas, adding to their food sources and income. Fishing is a significant
livelihood activity for the Gaddang, as they are close to rivers and bodies of water. The Gaddang
also engage in gathering and collecting nature's bounty, a deep understanding of the land's
resources. Hunting, a cultural tradition, still plays a role in their livelihood, providing food and
cultural significance. Handicrafts, such as intricate beadwork and weaving, showcase their
creativity and skills, reflecting their artistic talents and cultural heritage.
 Peace and Conflict
The Gaddang people, known for their intricate beadwork and cultural traditions, have a system
of peace pacts called "Pudon" and trading partnerships called "Kolak". These pacts, reinforced
through rituals and gifts, ensure peaceful coexistence among different Gaddang groups. "Kolak"
is a network of trade that connects different Gaddang groups, fostering economic exchange and
interdependence. These partnerships, based on mutual trust and respect, demonstrate the
Gaddang's understanding that economic cooperation can lead to lasting peace. Despite historical
conflicts over land and resources, the Gaddang's emphasis on these systems has helped maintain
peace and foster cooperation. However, ongoing conflicts from modernization, land grabbing,
and external influences can lead to tensions.

References
https://www.yodisphere.com/2022/08/Gaddang-Tribe-Culture.html
https://www.classace.io/answers/learn-about-gaddang-customs-and-traditions
https://www.csueastbay.edu/museum/virtual-museum/the-philippines/peoples/
gaddang.html

PALAWAN

Palaw-an
 Architecture
The Palaw’an people, who often live in the mountainous
interiors of southern Palawan, build their homes on stilts,
reflecting their connection to the earth and their practical
need to adapt to hilly terrain and heavy rains. These
homes, known as balay, are mostly made of bamboo and
nipa thatch, materials readily available in the lush
environment around them. Living in a house elevated off the ground allows air to circulate
below and within the structure, cooling it naturally in Palawan’s tropical heat. Inside, the
house is an open space, welcoming family members and fostering a close-knit communal
life. This approach to home design shows how the Palaw’an people prioritize harmony with
their surroundings and community cohesion over individualism.

 Economic Practices
The Palaw’an people, primarily in upland areas, rely on a combination of farming, forest
gathering, and hunting. They use the kaingin system, a shifting agriculture method, to
maintain nutrient levels in small forest patches. They grow rice, root crops like cassava, and
bananas, which are staples and essential for their daily activities. They also gather forest
products like honey, rattan, and medicinal plants, using handmade traps and blowguns for
hunting. They value weaving skills, crafting baskets, mats, and traditional garments using
local materials. These handmade items represent their identity and are sometimes sold to
tourists for income.

 Peace and Conflict

The Palaw'an people, primarily in upland areas of Palawan, rely on elders for guidance and
mediate community life. They practice pangayaw, a traditional reconciliation process, to
strengthen ties and establish trust. They practice the kaingin farming system, which uses
forest land for a time and then regenerates, to prevent conflicts over land. They gather for
festivals and cultural rituals to express grievances and honor shared traditions. However, the
Palaw'an face increasing threats from land-grabbing and illegal logging, despite the
Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act providing legal backing. Land speculation has led to non-
indigenous settlers moving into Palawan territories, further threatening their traditional
ways of life. They work with local NGOs and advocates to protect their ancestral lands and
rights.

References
Fox, R. B. (1970). The Tabon Caves: Archaeological Explorations and Excavations on Palawan
Island, Philippines. National Museum of the Philippines.
de Vera, D. E., & Zingapan, K. (2003). "Sustainable Livelihoods and Traditional Knowledge in Palawan."
Indigenous Peoples Rights Act Primer, highlighting local sustainable practices and the role of traditional
knowledge in the livelihoods of Palawan’s indigenous peoples.
Conklin, H. C. (1957). Hanunoo Agriculture: A Report on an Integral System of Shifting Cultivation
in the Philippines. FAO.
Macdonal, B.M. (2007). “Ancestral Land Rights in Palawan,” Philippine Studies, 55(3), 411-439.

Tagbanwa
 Architecture
For the Tagbanwa, living in harmony with the
spiritual world is essential. Their traditional
dwellings, bantayan, are simple yet strategically
positioned within villages near rivers and coastlines.
Made from bamboo and nipa palm like the Palaw’an,
their homes are part of a larger social fabric that
extends beyond mere shelter. For the Tagbanwa,
rituals are a profound aspect of life; thus, they also
construct pangawayan, or ceremonial platforms,
where they practice pagdiwata, a sacred ritual that
invokes communication with deities and ancestors.
These platforms are symbols of their spirituality and
deep-rooted animistic beliefs, standing as bridges
between the physical and spiritual worlds.

 Economic Practices
The Tagbanwa people in the Philippines have a strong connection to land and sea, with
fishing being their primary livelihood. They use techniques like handlines, fish traps, and gill
nets to avoid damaging coral reefs and treat their waters as a community resource. They
have legal rights over ancestral waters in the Calamianes Islands, empowering them to
protect their lands and waters. They also use nipa palms for roofs and mangroves for
firewood and fish shelter, preserving biodiversity. Their crafts reflect their artistic expression
and spiritual beliefs.

  Peace and Conflict

The Tagbanwa, a group based on the Calamian Islands, have a strong cultural system that
integrates spiritual and community leadership. Their babaylan and elder councils oversee
conflicts, ensuring they honor their traditions and community welfare. They are known for
their community-based marine conservation practices, managing marine sanctuaries and
protecting fish stocks. Through rituals and celebrations, they honor their ancestors and
natural spirits, strengthening social bonds and addressing minor conflicts. However, the
Tagbanwa face challenges due to tourism, particularly on Coron Island, where it disregards
their cultural and spiritual sites. Despite legal recognition under the IPRA, pressures from
tourism development and pollution threaten their protected lands. Tagbanwa
representatives advocate for sustainable tourism practices that respect their heritage while
protecting their resources from overuse.

References
Macdonald, C. (2007). From Migrants to Citizens: The Significance of Traditional Dwellings
for the Tagbanua, Palawan Island, Philippines. Asian Studies Review.
Fox, R. B. (1982). Tagbanua Religion and Society. National Museum of the Philippines. This book offers
insights into the social and spiritual life of the Tagbanwa, including their sustainable fishing practices and
resource management.
Fox, R. B. (1982). Tagbanua Religion and Society. National Museum of the Philippines.

Molbog
 Architecture
Further south, the Molbog community crafts homes that reflect their Austronesian roots and
coastal lifestyle. Their homes are also built from bamboo and nipa, with some houses
incorporating wooden planks for extra durability. Molbog homes are known for their
verandas, where families and neighbors can gather to socialize, relax, or even exchange
news. This open-air living style speaks to the communal values the Molbog people hold dear.
Additionally, they build balai, larger communal structures that serve as gathering halls for
community meetings and celebrations. These spaces aren’t just functional, this was where
thestories are told, decisions are made, and traditions are passed down.

 Economic Practices
The Molbog people, primarily on Balabac Island near Malaysia, engage in a blend of farming,
fishing, and small-scale trade. They grow rice, coconuts, and vegetables using kaingin
farming, with coconuts being highly valued for their oil, food, and crafting materials. They
fish for tuna, lobster, and grouper using traditional boats and gear, often working collectively
to prevent overfishing. Their connection to Malaysia allows them to trade goods like textiles
and canned food, enhancing their economic diversity.

 Peace and Conflict

The Molbog people, located on Balabac Island near Malaysia, use a blend of traditional and
cross-border influences to manage their resources. They follow rotational fishing practices,
respecting traditional seasons to prevent overfishing and replenish marine life. Their close
proximity to Malaysia has led to cross-border trade, fostering economic stability and
strengthening social ties. However, historical and ongoing conflicts have arisen due to
territorial disputes, land pressures, cultural mixing, and identity struggles. Non-indigenous
settlers have also led to resource competition, straining local resources. To preserve their
lands and marine areas, the Molbog engage in community conservation efforts, preserving
their resources and cultural practices amidst external pressures.
References
Postma, A. (2014). The Tagbanwa Response to Environmental Changes. Journal of
Anthropological Research.
Conklin, H. C. (1957). Hanunoo Agriculture: A Report on an Integral System of Shifting Cultivation in the
Philippines. FAO. While focused on a different group, this book provides insights into shifting cultivation in
the Philippines, relevant to the kaingin practices of the Palaw’an and Molbog.
Gorospe, L. (2012). "Indigenous Governance in Balabac, Palawan: The Case of the Molbog
People" in the Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 40(2), 99-118.

BATANES

IVATAN PEOPLE

 Architecture
The Ivatan stone house, a masterpiece of natural design, is a traditional home in the Philippines
that serves as a fortress against storms. The houses are made of thick limestone walls and cogon
grass roofs, which are pitched steeply to reduce leaks and damage. The low ceilings retain
warmth, and families gather around small cooking areas, reflecting the Ivatan value of
community. Ivatan villages are not just clusters of houses, but also consist of smaller vahays,
duvuks, and communal huts, such as chivuvuhungs, which are the social heart of Ivatan life. The
Ivatan people's ingenuity is reflected in their use of locally sourced materials like coral rock, lime,
and cogon grass, creating an architecture that respects the land and enhances community
resilience. Ivatan architecture is not just practical but also cultural, representing years of trial,
resilience, and wisdom passed down.

 Economic Practices
The Ivatan people, a group of people from Batanes, have a rich history of agriculture, particularly
root crops like ube and kamote, which are cultivated in terraced plots. The kapayvanuvanuwa
tradition, a communal practice, ensures no one faces the elements alone, fostering a culture of
reciprocity. The Ivatan garlic and white onions are a culinary treasure, cultivated in small,
carefully tended plots to avoid crop loss. Fishing is integral to their life, but the wild seas around
Batanes keep them cautious. The mataw tradition, a sustainable practice that respects the
ocean's resources, guides fishing during calmer months. Livestock farming is small-scale,
community-oriented, raising only small animals like chickens, pigs, and goats. Ivatan
craftsmanship, particularly their woven rain gear, showcases their resourcefulness and culture.
Barter and community trade are a time-honored practice, reducing reliance on cash and
fostering interdependence within the community. Eco-tourism has added a new dimension to
Ivatan livelihoods, attracting visitors to experience Batanes' natural beauty and rich traditions.

 Peace and Conflict

The Ivatan community of Batanes values peace more than formal rules, focusing on the invisible
ties that bind everyone together. They practice inabuyog, lending a hand whenever needed, to
maintain harmony and prevent conflicts. Their tradition of kapayvanuvanuwa, collective
assistance, helps resolve disputes openly and fairly. Traditional Ivatan beliefs, such as anito,
which governed natural forces and punish wrongdoers, have merged with Catholic teachings to
reinforce respect, honesty, and kindness.

Despite facing historical challenges, the Ivatans have adapted by integrating Catholicism with
their customs and relying on mutual support. Today, Batanes attracts tourists, but they maintain
their traditions by controlling the tourism experience and managing the number of visitors. The
community also addresses land-use issues and resource management through open town
meetings, reinforcing the sense of unity and responsibility that keeps the Ivatans at peace.

In conclusion, the Ivatans' approach to peace is a blend of tradition, mutual respect, and
understanding of their interdependence. They maintain peace through everyday acts of kindness
and support, incorporating outside influences without losing their values.

References
Gaspar, K. (2014). Northern Luzon: Stone Houses of the Ivatan People. Philippines Journal of Culture.
Datar, F. A. (2005). The Batanes House: Ivatan Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Resilience.
Philippine Studies.
De Leon, J. (2019). Batanes Traditions: Farming and Fishing Practices of the Ivatan People. Cultural
Heritage Journal.
Llorente, M. G. (2018). Architectural Heritage of Batanes: The Resilience of Ivatan Stone Houses.
de Castro, A. (2005). Cultural Adaptation and the Ivatan Sense of Peace. Philippines Journal of
Anthropology.
Gaspar, K. (2014). Northern Luzon and the Ivatan: Conflict, Resilience, and Tradition. Cultural Studies
Journal.

VISAYAS

ATI
 Architecture
The Ati, an indigenous community on Panay Island,
live a flexible lifestyle with simple, functional
dwellings. Their traditional homes, or balay-balay,
are small and lightweight, made from bamboo, nipa
palm, and wood. These homes are easy to dismantle
and reassemble, reflecting their connection to the
natural environment. The Ati houses are built with
locally available materials, such as bamboo and
thatch, and are grouped together to symbolize unity
and reliance. The close proximity of their homes
encourages a strong support system, essential for
their resilience and collective wellbeing. Living in
harmony with nature, the Ati prioritize community
over material wealth, demonstrating their reverence
for nature and their commitment to sustainability.

 Economic Practices
The Ati people, some of the earliest inhabitants of the Philippines, live primarily in Aklan and
neighboring areas. They are known for their role in the Ati-Atihan festival and lead modest
lives, working closely with the land and sea. Their livelihood is based on small-scale farming,
growing rice, root crops, and vegetables in communal gardens. However, climate change
and unpredictable weather patterns make this lifestyle challenging. Near coastal areas,
fishing is a primary source of sustenance and income, but rapid tourism development has
limited access to coastal waters. The Ati are known for their woven crafts, such as baskets
and mats made from bamboo and rattan, and have started working in eco-tourism,
performing traditional dances and songs.

 Peace and Conflicts

The Ati community, primarily in Panay Island, values cultural identity and solidarity through
traditional ceremonies and festivals. These practices foster a sense of belonging and unity
among members. The Ati have worked tirelessly to assert their rights over ancestral lands,
forming partnerships with organizations to advocate for their interests. However, they have
faced significant challenges, particularly land disputes, due to settlers and agricultural
businesses, as well as displacement from development projects like mining and tourism. This
struggle for land rights reflects a broader issue of indigenous peoples fighting for recognition
and respect.

References
Datar, F. A. (1996). Philippine Indigenous Architecture and its Cultural Significance. University of
the Philippines Press.
Eder, J. F. (1999). A generation later: Household strategies and economic change in the rural
Philippines. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
Ocampo, A. (2020). "The Struggles of the Ati People for Land Rights." Philippine Daily
Inquirer.

BUKIDNON
 Architecture
The Bukidnon people in Mindanao build homes called baláy, which showcase their skilled
craftsmanship and community social structures. These homes are durable and built from
locally sourced materials like hardwood, bamboo, and thatch, raised on stilts for better air
circulation. Carvings and patterns often embellish the wooden frames, blending beauty with
functionality. The Bukidnon also have a unique communal building called a torogan, which
serves as a meeting hall and community gathering venue, representing authority and pride
in their heritage. Architecture for the Bukidnon is an art form and storytelling, with carved
designs carrying meanings related to their ancestors, status, and values.

 Economic Practices
Bukidnon, a Philippines-based indigenous community, is known for its strong farming culture
and deep connection to the forested highlands. They practice both traditional crafts and
sustainable agriculture, blending ancestral knowledge with modern techniques. Their work
revolves around planting staple crops like rice and corn, which they have adopted
organically. However, they face pressure from industrial agriculture and large-scale logging
companies due to lack of land ownership rights. Bukidnon artisans create unique textiles and
wooden items, passed down through families and sold locally. Community cooperatives help
artisans connect with broader markets, giving them more control over pricing and
distribution. Their knowledge of forest plants supports traditional healing practices, but this
knowledge is at risk due to development and illegal logging.

 Peace and Conflict

Bukidnon, a province with diverse indigenous groups and rich agricultural land, maintains
peace through traditional practices and community involvement. Elders mediate disputes,
and local government initiatives focus on education, healthcare, and infrastructure
development. However, historical and ongoing conflicts, particularly regarding land
ownership, persist. Indigenous peoples face land grabbing by agribusinesses and plantations,
leading to legal disputes and violence. Conflicts between armed groups and landowners
complicate peace initiatives and displacement of communities.

References
Jocano, F. L. (2001). The Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines and Their Traditional Homes. Asian
Folklore Journal.
Tauli-Corpuz, V. (2005). The Situation of Indigenous Peoples in Asia. UN Working Group on
Indigenous Populations.
San Juan, E. (2019). "Land Conflicts and Indigenous Rights in Bukidnon." Philippine Journal of Political
Science.
Rola, A. (2021). "Indigenous Practices in Conflict Resolution: The Bukidnon Experience." Asian
Ethnology.

AKLANON
 Architecture
The Aklanon people, residing in Aklan, the
Visayas, build homes called kamalig or payag,
reflecting their practical lifestyle. These
homes are made from bamboo, nipa, and
palm leaves, with walls that allow airflow and
slanted roofs that shed rain easily. They are elevated on stilts, protecting from flooding and
pests, and have minimal interiors. Villages are closely arranged, with homes near each other,
encouraging daily social interactions. Temporary structures are set up during festivals,
showcasing their love for celebration and community gathering. Aklanon homes are
understated but functional, emphasizing togetherness and practicality. Their architecture is
about adaptability and creating spaces where family life can thrive.

 Economic Practices
Aklan, a province in the Philippines, is home to a diverse and vibrant community of
Aklanons, an amalgamation of various indigenous groups. Their livelihoods are based on
agriculture, fishing, tourism, crafts, and handicrafts. Agriculture is the backbone of Aklanon
life, with families tending their rice fields and cultivating root crops like cassava and sweet
potatoes. Fishing is a way of life for many coastal Aklanons, providing sustenance and
income but also facing threats from overfishing and pollution. Aquaculture has gained
popularity, allowing families to have more control over their catch and reduce pressure on
wild fish populations. Tourism, particularly on Boracay Island, boosts the local economy, but
also poses challenges to the environment and local culture. Aklanon crafts, such as weaving
woven products, showcase the artistry and ingenuity of the local people. Despite these
challenges, communities are increasingly advocating for their rights and working towards
sustainable practices. Organizations are helping farmers and fishers implement eco-friendly
methods to ensure the sustainability of their livelihoods.

 Peace and Conflict

Aklan, renowned for its beaches and tourism industry, uses community engagement to
maintain peace. Local leaders facilitate discussions, fostering cooperation and mutual
respect. The economic benefits of tourism encourage collaboration among sectors, reducing
conflicts and building a stronger community. However, historical and ongoing conflicts, such
as resource management disputes in Boracay, and the pressure of commercialization,
threaten the preservation of Aklan's cultural identity and the community's ability to maintain
peace.

References
Manuel, A. (1983). The Ethnohistory of Philippine Traditional Dwellings: Ati, Bukidnon, and
Aklanon. Philippine Journal of Cultural Studies.
Atienza, A., & Garcia, D. (2017). Crafts and Livelihood: The Role of Handicrafts in Aklan's
Economy. Journal of Cultural Studies, 5(2), 45-58.
aldovino, M., Raneses, J., & Pabilona, R. (2018). The Impact of Tourism on Local Communities:
The Case of Aklan Province. International Journal of Tourism Research, 22(3), 123-136.
Delos Reyes, R. (2022). "Tourism and Local Conflicts: The Case of Boracay." Journal of
Philippine Development.

MINDANAO
T’BOLI
 Architecture
The T'boli people, residing in South Cotabato's
highlands, build their traditional houses on stilts
using bamboo and wood. These elevated
structures protect inhabitants from flooding and
pests, promoting airflow. The steeply pitched
roofs, often adorned with intricate carvings,
showcase their craftsmanship. The interior layout
fosters family connections and communal living, with spaces designated for rituals,
celebrations, and gatherings. The vibrant colors and patterns reflect their cultural identity.

 Economic Practices
The T'boli people, residing in South Cotabato's highlands, practice various livelihood
practices that align with their cultural traditions. They primarily cultivate rice, a staple food,
using traditional methods like rain-fed irrigation and crop rotation. They also grow root
crops like sweet potatoes and taro, which provide sustenance and income. The T'boli are
renowned for their T'nalak fabric, made from abaca fibers, reflecting their beliefs and
stories. Fishing and hunting are essential for their livelihood, providing additional food
sources and preserving their cultural identity. The T'boli are skilled artisans, creating
beautiful handicrafts, often for special occasions or rituals, as expressions of their identity
and heritage.


Peace and Conflict
The T'boli people in South Cotabato
face challenges due to historical colonization and large plantations, leading to land
dispossession and ongoing conflicts over ancestral lands. They fight to protect their ancestral
territories and preserve their cultural practices, while younger generations adapt to new
lifestyles, straining traditional values. To maintain peace, they reinforce community bonds
through rituals, storytelling, and traditional gatherings, like the Pahalik Festival. Traditional
leaders mediate disputes using customary laws and dialogue, promoting consensus-building
and allowing for amicable resolution.

References
Warren, C. S. (1993). The T'boli of South Cotabato: A Cultural Profile. Philippine Studies, 41(3),
310-329.

SUBANEN
 Architecture
The Subanen, a group of people primarily from the Zamboanga Peninsula, have unique
architectural styles reflecting their lifestyle and environment. Their dwellings, built from
bamboo and wood, are often built on stilts for ventilation and protection against flooding.
They also build communal structures called "balay" for important events, discussions, and
ceremonies, often decorated with local crafts.

 Economic Practices
The Subanen people, primarily in the Zamboanga Peninsula, have developed diverse
livelihoods based on their cultural heritage and natural resources. They engage in swidden
agriculture, cultivating rice, corn, and root vegetables to maintain soil fertility and support
biodiversity. Some have started cultivating cash crops like rubber and cacao to diversify their
income sources. Fishing and gathering are vital sources of food and income, as are
handicrafts, such as intricate woven baskets and mats, which are sold locally and tourists.
Livestock raising, including chickens, goats, and pigs, contributes to the social and economic
status of the community.

 Peace and Conflicts

The Subanen people, primarily in the Zamboanga Peninsula, have a history of colonization
and marginalization, leading to conflicts over resources and inter-ethnic tensions. They fight
for land rights and maintain unity through communal gatherings and celebrations. Elders
play a crucial role in resolving conflicts, using traditional methods to facilitate discussions
that lead to peaceful resolutions. The ongoing fight for land rights and recognition of their
ancestral domain is a testament to their resilience and determination.

References
Fernandez, D. L. (2006). Cultural Traditions of the Subanen: A Community Perspective. Journal of
Philippine Studies, 54(2), 146-157.

YAKAN
 Architecture
The Yakan people, primarily in Basilan, have a unique blend of indigenous and Islamic
influences in their architecture. Their traditional Yakan houses, made from bamboo, wood,
and palm leaves, feature intricate woodwork and colorful textiles, reflecting their artistic
heritage. Mosques, also important religious and community centers, are a significant part of
their culture, serving as gathering places for religious activities and cultural events.

 Economic Practices
The Yakan people, primarily in Basilan, have developed livelihood practices that reflect their
Islamic faith and cultural traditions. They grow staple crops like rice and corn, and engage in
vegetable gardening. Fishing, particularly net fishing, is a significant part of their livelihood,
catching various marine species to supplement their diets and incomes. Yakan women are
skilled weavers, known for creating vibrant textiles for clothing and ceremonial purposes.
Other crafts, such as wood carvings and decorative items, promote their artistic heritage.
Livestock and poultry raising, including goats, chickens, and ducks, provides food,
investment, and income.

Peace and Conflicts

The Yakan people, primarily from Basilan, have faced significant challenges such as
colonization and the Mindanao conflict, affecting their community stability and cultural
preservation. Current conflicts include political instability, cultural marginalization, and
pressure to assimilate. To maintain peace, the Yakan maintain cultural resilience through
practices like Kagsab, a traditional dance and music festival. Elder mediation, like the
Subanen, plays a crucial role in conflict resolution, ensuring respectful and thoughtful
resolution of disputes.

References
Umar, A. A. (2005). Yakan Architecture: Cultural Symbols and Identity in Basilan. Mindanao State
University Journal of Social Sciences, 3(1), 1-20.