Medieval History by Forum IAS

Medieval History
Forum IAS
INDEX
1. THE CLASSICAL AGE - GUPTA PERIOD

2. EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD
3. THE CHOLA EMPIRE
4. DELHI SULTANATE
5. THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
6. THE SUFI MOVEMENT
7. THE AGE OF DELHI SULTANATE
8. THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
9. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
10. THE MUGHAL AGE
11. THE MARATHAS
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1. THE CLASSICAL AGE
The Gupta Dynasty

The Gupta dynasty is believed to have started as a wealthy family from either Magadha or Prayaga (now
eastern Uttar Pradesh). During the late third century, this family rose in prominence until it was able to claim
the local ruler ship of Magadha. The Gupta Empire during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 to 280 AD) and his
son Ghatotkacha comprised only Magadha and probably a part of Bengal too. It is the third Gupta king,
Chandra Gupta I, who is given credit for founding of the dynasty in 319 AD, which also starts the Gupta Era
(319 AD).
Samudragupta (335 - 375 AD), Chandragupta I’s son who ascended the throne next, was a military genius and
he continued the growth of the kingdom. He was an able Administrator, a very successful General, a
philanthropist, poet, musician and a benevolent King. The large number of gold coins circulated by him
showcases his multifaceted talent. An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings,
known as Prayag Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar) is most eloquent about his humane qualities. Prayag Prashasti,
composed by Harishena, gives a detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, where he won over
hundred battles, especially his victory march to Southern India.
Chandragupta II (380 - 414 AD) took care to strengthen the navy. The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara
consequently became busy hubs of maritime trade. He was a great patron of art and culture too. Some of the
greatest scholars of the day including the Navaratna, i.e. nine gems (not to be confused with Navratna of
Akbar) graced his court. Numerous charitable institutions, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his
generosity. Rest houses for travellers were set up by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle
during this time and unprecedented progress marked all areas of life.
Kumaragupta (415-455 AD) succeeded his father Chandragupta II, and expanded the empire in western
India. Although prosperous, his rule was marked by the Hun (Indo-Hephthalites) attacks. Although open to
debate, he is identified as the Gupta Emperor who established a Buddhist Mahavihara at Nalanda (Huen
Tsang mentions the name Shakraditya)
His son Skandagupta (455-467 AD) was perhaps the last powerful Gupta monarch. During his time Huna
(Indo-Hephthalite) invasion from northwest became the regular feature. Although he successfully repulsed
them, however, these recurring wars adversely affected the economy, and the gold coinage of Skandagupta
bears testimony to that. In comparison to the gold coins of the earlier rulers the types of gold coins minted
by Skandagupta were limited. More importantly, his coins were also debased (had less gold in them than
earlier coins).
Decline of Gupta Empire

Empire slipped into decline after the death of Skandagupta. He was followed by a long and uncertain list of
rulers. At the end of 5th century AD, the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula overran much of
the Gupta Empire in northwest. Although Huns were defeated by mid-6th century AD, Gupta Empire
remained a shadow of its own past.
A number of smaller Indian kingdoms like Aulikara dynasty (malwa), Maukhari dynasty (kannauj),
Pushyabhuti dynasty (Haryana) emerged from the ruins of Gupta Empire. The Huna invasions stopped the
trade surplus coming to India due to disruption of Uttarapatha trade route connecting India with Europe and

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Central Asia. Due to trade disruptions and political fragmentation, Urban centres started declining after a
millennium of growth.
A recent study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma found that one of the causes of decline was a devastating
flood in mid-6th century in the region of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Administration
• During Guptas, there was a considerable change in the character of monarchy. King was expected to
follow a righteous path, and had certain duties along with protecting his kingdom and his people,
therefore was called Chakravarti Samrat. Gupta Emperors adopted high sounding titles like
Paramabhattaraka, Parama-devata, Chakravarti, Paramesvara etc. For example, the Allahabad
Prashasti of Samudragupta describes him as "equal to the gods like Kubera, Varuna, Indra and Antaka
etc.
• Inspite of divinity, the King was also expected to follow the path prescribed to him and to support the
Brahmanas, Sramanas and all others who needed his protection. He was also supposed to venerate the
learned and religious people and give them every possibIe help.
• An important political development of this period was the continuity of Samanta system, ie. various
kings in their regions once they had accepted the suzerainty of the Gupta King. And the Gupta King
would not interfere with the administration of such regions, therefore, the infeudation of the King’s
territories, which began during Kushana rule was strengthened and began major feature of the Indian
Polity (feudalism from above).
• The minister's office by now became mostly hereditary, eg- the Udayagiri inscription of the time of
Chandragupta-II informs that Virasena Saba, the minister for war and peace, was holding this office by
inheritance.
• Though the supreme judicial powers were vested in the King, he was assisted by the Mahadandanayaka
(Chief Justice).
• The land grant inscriptions often mention Dutaka who were associated with the task of implementing
gifts when gifts of land were made to brahmans and others.
• The whole empire was divided into Desas or Rashtras or Bhuktis. The Bhuktis were governed by
Uparikas directly appointed by the King. The Province or Bhukti was again divided into Vishayas
(districts) under an official called Ayuktaka or Vishyapati. The lowest unit of administration was the
village. In villages where there was a headman called Gramapati or Gramadhayaksha.
• The Gupta inscriptions from Bengal show that there were other units higher than the village. In some
cases, we find references to Ashta-kuladhi-karana. Different categories of villages sent representatives
like Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras to these offices which on various occasions functioned above
the level of the village.
• The Guptas must have had a big Military organisation. At the time of war, the King led his army but
ordinarily there was a minister called Sandhi-Vigrahika (Minister in charge of peace and war) who was
helped by a group of high officials. Officials like Pilupati (head of elephants), Asvapati (head of horses),
and Narapati (head of foot soldiers) possibly worked under him. The army was paid in cash, however,
the higher officers in many instances were paid via land grants. From the Kushans, the Gupta kings
learned the benefit of maintaining a cavalry which became important part of warfare replacing
chariots.
Economy
Agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society produced and that the major part of the
revenue of the state also came from agriculture.

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• Land revenue was the main source of the state's income besides the fines. Land under cultivation was
usually called Kshetra. Lands not under cultivation were variously called as Khila, Aprahata, etc., and the
uncultivated land was being regularly brought under cultivation. The role of the state was only marginal
in providing irrigation facilities to farmers. The farmers depended mainly on rainfall.
• In some areas Nivartana was the term used for a measure of land whereas in the inscriptions of Bengal
use terms like Kulyavapa and Dronavapa are used to measure the land.
• Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti state that one-sixth of the produce should be
claimed as the revenue.
• Besides this there was the Uparikara (levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another),
Shulka (commercial tax- non-payment of which resulted in cancellation of the right to trade)
• The King had a right to Bali (tribute), Visthi (forced labour), a kind of tax, where non tax payers were
obliged to provide to the king or landlord by their unpaid labour.
• Crafts production covered a very wide range of items. There were items of ordinary domestic use like
earthen pots, items of furniture, baskets, and metal tools for domestic use and so on.
• A mechanism possibly known before the Gupta period, was to tie a number of pots to a chain. The chain
with the pots reached down to the water of the hull, and by making the chain and the pots rotate, it was
ensured that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty it. This mechanism was known as
Ghati-yantra as ghati was the name used for a pot. Later with some changes this mechanism was evolved
as Araghatta (Persian Wheel).
Trade
• The movement of items for trade continued as in the earlier periods and the commercial activities of
preceding centuries continued in the Gupta period. India continued the extensive trade links with
Central, West and Southeast Asia and with the Roman world in the preceding period, and trade routes
connecting different regions within the country had been developing over centuries, especially in the
early part of Gupta Empire.
• Main exports were- luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl, and
pepper from centres such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, and Benares.
• The system of Shreni continued, and the State was expected to provide the guilds protection and to
respect their customs and norms. The Dharmasastras now suggests that each group of Shreni formed a
jati or caste.
• In some regions of the Gupta Empire, the merchants held a high position in society. For example, two
types of representatives of merchants, the Nagarasresthi and the Sarthavaha were associated with the
administration of the district headquarters in north Bengal.
• Crafts production and commercial activities started declining in the mid Gupta period and according
to some historians, this resulted in the decline of towns and cities and in greater dependence of society
on agricultural production. By the end of the Gupta Empire, the towns of the second urbanisation were
in obvious decline.
Coinage
• After Indo Greeks, portrait-coinage style was followed in India for several centuries. The coins of the
Gupta Kings took the portrait style coinage to the new heights.
• The coins of Gupta Emperors were chiefly in Gold. The number of coins were so great, that
contemporary authors calls it ‘rain of gold’. No silver coin is issued by early Kings and it was
Chandragupta II who issued first silver coin. Copper coins are issued only by Samudragupta,
Chandragupta II and Kumargupta.

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• The most common gold coins follow the tradition of Kushana gold coins where King is in standing pose
holding Spear or in some cases bow or sword at the altar, wearing trouser in earlier coins and dhoti in
later coins. Nearly all the coins carry Gupta insignia of Garuda headed standard, ie. Garuda-dhwaja. On
the left side of the portrait, the name of King is written in vertical (Chinese style) and a brahmi inscription
at the circular edge. The Gupta coins are identified to follow 16 other themes, apart from regular pose.
On the back side, in earlier times, Godess Adroksho is pictured in seated pose which was replaced by
Godess Lakshmi in the later coins. In all the coins Godess appears, seating or standing. This style became
characteristic feature of gold or silver coins in today’s times.
• By the time of Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, the King is shown in various activities apart from the
regular pose described above. In many coins, King and Queen appear together, whereas many other coins
depict King in a pose not identified with his Imperial persona like Samudragupta playing Veena.
• The coins are original in content and excellent in their appearance. The coins retains their purity and it
was only after Kumargupta the purity falls and debasement begins.
• The Kings during Gupta times were raised to divine status with titles like Parmeshvara and Devadhideva.
Their portrait in coins reflects their quest to stay at the top of system where intermediaries were
emerging.
• Since Gupta times, in many cases the salaries of the officers were given in land insteadmof cash. This was
cause as well as effect of the scarcity of coins. The practise intensified during the later kingdoms with
low resources.
Land Grants
• The practice of gifting land to religious donees had become quite common by now.
• Even otherwise, remuneration for serving rulers in different capacities was received in the form of land
by officials of different categories.
• All this was not absolutely new, but by now the number of ruling families had vastly increased and thus
the number of persons who received land but did not cultivate themselves went on increasing.
• The virtues of giving land were highly praised and those who took away gifted land were threatened with
many evil consequences.
• All this led to the appearance, in society, of a class of people who enjoyed superior rights over land and by
virtue of these rights and by belonging to higher varnas had high economic and social status.
• Land rights did not belong only to those who received land. The Gupta inscriptions refer to different
types of village residents like Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras who must have been village
landholders, and their participation in land transactions indicates that they too were important members
of rural society.
• It is believed by some historians that because of the practice of land grants, the peasants, Krishibala or
Karshaka, as a whole were reduced to a very low position in society. This is not entirely true.
• The appearance of small kingdoms of new rulers and their official and sections of people who did not
take part in agriculture created great inequalities in society and imposed great burden on actual tillers of
the soil. The number of taxes imposed by the state on the producers also increased in this period.
Society
• By this time the King was expected to recognize and uphold the ideal social order of the four Varnas. The
Brahmans came to exert considerable influence on the kings from the Gupta period and this is quite clear
from the way they received land from the kings and others.

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• The kings, officials and others gave land not only to Individual brahmans but also some times incited big
groups of brahmans to come and settle in remote areas as the number of brahman settlements called
Brahmadeya and Agrahara etc started increasing.
• Varna order was an ideal order, however, there were many groups in society whose Varna identity could
never be determined. The real society was different from the ideal society and this was also recognized
by the brahman writers.
• The Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress. This
means that the varnas take to professions and duties not assigned to them when they found it necessary
to do so. In matters of profession also the Dharmasastras thus recognized that the real society was
different from their ideal society.
• The authors of the Brahmashastras of this time suggested that various jatis or groups originated through
varnashankara or inter-marriages between various varnas. They therefore tried to determine the status
of various castes or jatis in society by giving fictitious explanations of their origins.
• Ideally, although there were four varnas, there were various groups who were kept out of this scheme.
They were the antyaja or untouchables. They were considered impure, even their touch was considered
impure and their physical presence in areas where higher varnas lived and moved was not allowed.
• The position of woman of higher varnas was low. The brahmana texts set down norms which women
were expected to follow. In many Brahman texts, women were even considered, for various reasons, to
be of the same category as the Sudras.
• The various foreign families of the pre-Gupta period were called vratya Kshatriaya (semi-kshatriya
status) because they could not be considered to be of pure Kshatriaya origin. Similarly, fictitious origins
were thought of for the tribal groups who came to he absorbed into the Brahmanic social order.
The Literature of Classical Age

• Guptas were devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the Supreme Creator as Vishnu) themselves, yet
that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist
monasteries received liberal donations. As a pre-eminent site of education and cultural exchange
Nalanda prospered during this time. Jainism flourished in northern Bengal, Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and
Gujarat. Several Jain establishments existed across the empire and Jain councils were a regular
occurrence.
• Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights than
before.
• Majority of Smriti literature in Sanskrit was written and crystallised in this period, especially Puranas
and Up-Puranas.
• Yajnavalkya smriti is the most famous dharmashastra work written in this period.
• Kalidas in the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya created the following work in Sanskrit.
o Plays
1. Malvikagnimitram (Malvika and Agnimitra)
2. AbhijananShakuntalam (identification of Shakuntala)
3. Vikramorvasiyam (Urvashi Won by Valour)
o Poems
1. Raghuvamsa (Dynasty of Raghu)
2. Kumarasambhava
3. Ṛitusamhara
4. Meghadoot (The Cloud Messenger)

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• Bhart’hari (ruler of Ujjain, before renouncing the world and abdicating in the favour of his younger
brother Vikramaditya)
1. Shringar shatak
2. Neeti shatak
3. Vairagya shatak
• Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti.
• Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika.
• Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa.
• Vararuchi and Ishwar Krishna contributed to both Sanskrit and Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and
science.
Mathematics
1. Aryabhata (476-550 AD)- wrote extensively on several aspects of geometry, algebra, number system,
trigonometry and cosmology.
a. Surya Siddhanta
b. Aryabhatiya- on mathematics and astronomy
2. Varahamihira (505-587 AD)
a. Pancha’Siddhantika- encyclopaedia about older Indian texts which are now lost.
i. Surya Siddhanta
ii. Romaka Siddhanta
iii. Paulisa Siddhanta
iv. Vasishtha Siddhanta
v. Paitamaha Siddhanta.
b. Brihat’Samhita- covers a wide range of subjects other than divination. It covers wide-ranging
subjects of human interest, including astronomy, planetary movements, eclipses, rainfall, clouds,
architecture, growth of crops, manufacture of perfume, matrimony, domestic relations, gems,
pearls, and rituals.
3. Brahmagupta (598-670 AD)
a. Brahma’sphuta’siddhanta- work describing important aspects of mathemetics like zero,
negative and positive numbers, square roots, linear and quadratic equations etc.
b. Khanda’khadyaka- manual of Indian astronomy
After Arab conquest of Sind, Caliph of Baghdad received astrologer Kanaka, who introduced works
of Brahmagupta to Arab world. Muhammad al Fazari, translated works of Brahmagupta under the
titles Sindhind and Arakhand. Arab mathematician Al Khwarizm (9th century AD) wrote his own
version of Sindhind, which took the decimal number system and zero to Europe in 13 th century.
• Yashomitra Manuscript or Bower Manuscript- A collection of seven Sanskrit treatises, written in early
Gupta script (variant of Brahmi), dated to 5th century. It includes, Navanitaka and Bheda Samhita, the
famous works on Ayurveda. The manuscript is named after a British officer Hamilton Bower, who bought
the birch barks in 1890 from Tibbet.
• Shanku devoted himself to creating texts about Geography.
• Metallurgy was very developed science during this period. The Mehrauli iron pillar built during
Chandragupta Vikramaditya is one such specimen of this science.
• This intellectual surge was not confined to the courts or among the royalty. People were encouraged to
learn the nuances of Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual debate, music and painting. Several
educational institutions were set up and the existing ones received continuous support.

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The account of Fa-Hien (Faxian)

Fa-hien, a Chinese pilgrim, visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. His primary aim was to visit
the Buddhist religious places and to take with him the copies of the Buddhist religious texts. He, therefore,
travelled through the Gupta Empire and also wrote down his impressions about India. As his main interest
was religion, we know nothing about the political condition of India from his account. However, his account
helps us to know something about the social and religious condition of that period.
Fa-hien started his voyage to India in 399 AD and reached India, via Central Asia, in 400 AD and spent 11
years in India. He went to Ceylon from the sea-port of Tamralipti and remained there for the next two years
and then reached back China in 414 AD.
• Society- The people were prosperous and content with their lives. Public morality was high.
o Mostly the people were vegetarians and avoided onions, garlic, meat, wine and other intoxicants.
o Only Chandalas (Untouchables), who lived outside cities, engaged in hunting and fishing and were
meat eaters.
o The rich people vied with each other in practice of benevolence and righteousness. They
established houses for dispensing charity and medicine and gave large donations to temples,
monasteries, Sanghas etc. suggesting that the people were prosperous, happy, liberal and simple in
morals.
o Charitable institutions were numerous and rest houses for travellers were provided on the
highway.
• Religion- Buddhism and Hinduism were the most popular religions at that time.
o Buddhism was more popular in Punjab, Bengal and the region around Mathura. In Mathura, there
were many Buddhist monasteries and even government servants respected Buddhist monks.
o The Hindu religion was more popular in the ‘middle kingdom’ (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and a part of
Bengal) which formed the heart of Chandra Gupta II’s dominions.
o The Emperor himself worshipped Vishnu but he was tolerant to other faiths.
o Buddhism and Hinduism flourished side by side which suggests that the people observed tolerance
in religious matters.
o Beginning of the decline of Buddhism- Fa-hien described that places like Bodh-Gaya, Kapilvastu,
Sravasti, Kusinagar etc. which were the religious places of Buddhism no longer existed as cities.
This suggests that Buddhism was no more popular in the ‘Middle Kingdom”.
• Polity- He did not mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II in whose dominion he must have lived
for more than five years.
o We can deduce that the administration of the Guptas was liberal, the people enjoyed economic
prosperity and the burden of taxes on them was not heavy.
o People rarely felt the necessity to approach the judiciary.
o Mostly, corporal punishment was avoided and usually fines were exacted from the offenders
according to the nature of their offence.
o Those who attempted repeated offences against the state were punished severely and, in that case,
their right hands were cut off.
o It suggests that the offences were few and minor and capital punishment was absent.
o The primary source of income of the state was land-revenue.
o The people were free to move from one land to another.
o The government servants were paid in cash and they were barred from taking presents or bribery
from the people.
o Monasteries, Sanghas, temples and their property and other religious endowments were free from
government taxes.

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o The public highways were secure and free from the menace of thieves and dacoits.
o Fa-hien did not suffer any trouble during his journey from one place to another in India. The kings
and the rich people had built rest-houses (Dharamshalas) where every convenience was provided
to the travellers. They had also built hospitals for the poor where free medicine was distributed to
them.
o The account suggests that the administration of the Guptas was benevolent and successful. Rulers
maintained peace and security within the empire and looked after the welfare of their subjects.
• Pataliputra- Fa-hien lived in Pataliputra for nearly three years and studied the Sanskrit language.
o He described that there were separate Sanghas both of the Hinayana and Mahayana sects, which
provided education to students gathered from all parts of India.
o The Palace of Emperor Asoka also existed at that time, about which Fa-hien remarked that “it
might have been built not by men but by gods”.
o Fa-hien was also very much impressed by chariot-processions here. He mentioned that on the
eighth day of the second month of every year, a huge procession earning images of the Buddha and
Bodhisattavas was arranged by the people.
o The rich people of Pataliputra had established a big hospital in the city where free medicines and
food were distributed to the poor people.
• Trade- Fi-hien described internal and foreign trade of India as well as its ports.
o Both internal and external trade of India was in a progressive stage and the Indians carried on sea-
voyages.
o He described India’s trade relations with China, countries of south-east Asia and western Asia as
well as with Europe.
o On its western sea-coast, India had ports like Cambay, Sopara and Baroach while on its eastern
coast Tamralipti was a famous port from where Fa-hien went to Sri Lanka on an Indian ship.
Architecture
The Gupta Age, being an age of intense religion interests, saw the construction of large number of temples
and religious architectures. Unfortunately, most examples of the Gupta architecture have been lost in time.
The Gupta monuments were built under the Puranic religious concepts. They represented both balance and
beauty. Built both in stone and brick, they maintained external decorations of a higher order. They were built
in great many numbers, but have been swept away by the tides of time.
• The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, Ellora,
Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya.
• Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice the size of Delhi’s Iron
Pillar), intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of
the metal smiths.
• Practicing vocal music, dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena (an Indian musical
stringed instrument), flute and mridangam (drum) were a norm rather than exception. These were
regularly performed in temples as a token of devotion.
Temple Architecture
Besides the structures in stones, the Gupta temple-architecture was also erected in brick. Among the brick
temples, the most famous one is the temple at Bhitargaon in Kanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. It represents
the new winds of change and the prelude to the architectural renaissance in Temple formation for next few
centuries.

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• Initially, temples were made as small shrines with possibly only the central sanctum sanctorum or the
main cell enshrining the principal deity. Over time, they evolved into bigger temple complexes, with more
sculptures and niches enshrining deities.
• The Gupta Empire was responsible, apart from the continuing tradition of Buddhism, for the initial
development of Hinduism. The architecture of Hinduism demanded a different approach to its form
than earlier Buddhist architecture.
• For following reasons, the earlier tradition of excavating cave temples and monolithic shrines evolved
into the construction of brick and stone temples.
o The temple or place of worship was said to be in direct communion with the gods, and so an open
place away from the ascetic life was needed.
o The early temples, though being simple in their interior plan, to have a form that reflected both,
openness to the air as well as being open to the four cardinal directions.
o There was also requirement for height, with the main objective being to provide to the worshiper
a sense of power as well as ‘closeness’ to the heavens.
o While the architects and sculptors could create a cave temple only where boulders or hills were
available, a structural stone temple could be created at any chosen site by baking bricks or quarrying
and transporting stones.
o There was more scope for architectural and sculptural innovation and experimentation while
constructing a temple.
Major temples during the time are

• Bhitargaon in Kanpur district of Uttar Pradesh (first brick temple of India) - Constructed on a high
pedestal of steps, it deteriorated through age and exposure to the elements.
a. With four entrances or possible doorways, and a space to perambulate around the structure, the
temple is among the earlier examples to contain within itself the feature of a pradakshina path, or
circumferential passage, which embodies the symbolism and the ritualism of making one’s way
across the cosmos.
b. There is also evidence of a rudimentary shikhara, or spire, constructed of stone laid on top of one
another.
c. A possibly new innovation in this temple is found at its entrance, with a vaulted arch being
constructed out of brick to mark the entry.
d. Structurally speaking, the Vishnu temple is rudimentary, but it does contain within its form
powerful early Hindu symbolism.
• Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh.
• Vishnu Temple of Tigawa in Jabalpur district
• Siva Temple of Bhumra in Madhya Pradesh,
• Parvati Temple in the former Ajaigarh state, and the
• Buddhist shrines of Bodh Gaya and Sanchi.
The temple architecture during Guptas marks the break between the dominance of Buddhism in north India
and the emergence of a full-fledged Hindu culture in the subcontinent.
Gupta Sculpture- Sarnath School of Sculpture developed during Gupta Age was further development of
Mathura School and was based on Shilpshastric-Normative traditions.
Caves
Perhaps the most durable contribution in terms of art and architecture during the Gupta period is the series
of monasteries and caves at Ajanta and Ellora.

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Paintings
The fresco-paintings on the walls and ceilings of the Ajanta caves are the brightest examples of that refined
art. Of the 29 Caves, the paintings of 16 Caves continued to exist till last century. The earliest caves date from
the 1 st century BC, with a second phase beginning in the 5th century AD, which is when the art of painting
during the Gupta era really comes into its own. The painters of Ajanta were at work from much earlier times,
perhaps from 1st century A.D. or even earlier. But it was during the Gupta period that most of the paintings
were worked out. More than that, the art came to its perfection during that time. The paintings in Ellora and
Bagh Caves were also of high standard. Good portions of those works have not survived.
• The cave paintings depict tales from the Jatakas in a range of styles and forms, though as time goes
by an increasing lack of quality is shown ranging from inferior materials to dull, lifeless forms.
• The use bright colours dominate the paintings.
• They adopted spiritual themes as well as secular as the subject matter of drawing. The scenes of their
painting look natural, and the figures most life-like.
• They painted the figures of Buddha, depicted his previous births, and showed the various incidents
of his life as taken from the Jataka stories.
• The Ajanta style of art aimed at covering most subjects of religious, spiritual and social values.
• They also worked out other themes to represent the realities of life and existence, like interesting
palace scenes, scenes of gandharvas and apsaras, and scenes of social life.
• The gods and sages, kings and queens, men, women and children, birds and beasts, trees and flowers,
palaces and houses, and the scenes of varying subjects, all painted in appropriate colour, carried their
deeper meaning for men’s thought and imagination.
• Painting fails to resist the weathering of nature and have certainly lost their original charm.
• The Indian art influenced the art outside. The Indian fresco paintings were imitated in Central Asia
and its influence entered deep into Buddhist China.
The Classical Art of Gupta Age was lated adopted all around the subcontinent. The regional variances gave
rise to regional art and languages, forerunners of today’s regional variations across the nation.
Evaluation
• All was not well with the Gupta economic prosperity. After the Huna Invasions, trading activity with
north-west came to a stop. Also goods from the Gangetic region could not be easily carried to the Western
coast. This was one of the causes of the shift of trade towards South-East Asia.
• The administration of the Guptas was not as successful as that of the Mauryas. Autonomy granted to
provinces, districts and villages. The local officials formed into cligues and very often offices became
hereditary. Corruption was known. Officials were expected to be treated with rice, curd and flowers -
the last time perhaps, had its own implications.
• Although Sanskrit drama attained great heights, some of the writings of the day show that they were only
for a select few of society. Good number of legal codes were prepared like that of Yajnavalka, Narada,
Barihaspati and Katyayand. The social system became very rigid.
• In matters of religion, new features started appearing. New cults emerged worshipping female deities.
This became the nucleus for a number of magical rites which later came to be known as Tantricism.
• It was in the social field the institutionalization of difference between the castes had begun. In the
dramatic wrirings of the day, the characters belonging to the upper state of society speak Sanksrit while
those of the lower strata and women speak Prakrit. The status of women declined because of the practice
of early marriages. And most of the legal codes of the day reiterate the Brahmin view-point in all matters
including the status of women. The lot of Shudras which was downgraded in the Maurya period was
legalized. And the institution of untouchability was fully established.

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2. EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Indian Feudalism
Feudalism became an important feature of the political system of North India after the decline of Gupta
Empire. This was because the authority of the rulers had been limited in many ways.
• The landed nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in
turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him
homage, labour, and a share of the produce in exchange for military protection. The feudal lords put
pressure on the peasants and they took a part of the revenue from the land previously assigned to the
king. The aristocracy consisted of the feudatories including the Brahmins. Land grants to the Brahmans
were tax free.
• The whole of a kingdom was not granted to feudal holders. The king retained a sizeable area as crown
land which he directly administered. However, loss of revenue placed the king politically in a
vulnerable position vis-a-vis his feudatories.
• It also led to economic depression of the peasantry. With an increase in the number of intermediaries
the peasant was forced to pay taxes additional to the basic land tax.
• The main developments led to feudalism were-
1. Feudalism from above
a. The land grants given to Brahmans and Temples
b. The land assigned to officers of Bureaucracy and Military instead of paying in cash
2. Feudalism from below
a. The village headmen or kinsmen of Royal dynasty taking control of villages and nearby areas
benefiting from the decline of the Kings(state)
b. The tribal chiefs when assimilated into the mainstream, they gave up the egalitarian tribal set
up and emerged as totalitarian lords
Landgrants
• Landgrants led to hierarchical rights over land and sub-infeudation. The same piece of land had
multiple claimants over it with different rights. The Mahipati (the king), Kshetrasvamin (the master of
the land), Karshaka (cultivator) and the sub-tenant. This practice gave rise to a hierarchy of landlords,
which lived off the surplus produced by the actual cultivators.
• The landlord was empowered with the right to evict the peasantry at will and to replace them with
new peasants. The donated land or villages were exempted from the interference of soldiers and royal
officials.
• Landgrants resulted in a relatively closed economy. The residents of donated villages were asked to
comply with the order of the beneficiary, besides making over the various kinds of payments. Peasants,
artisans and merchants were tied down to their habitations to serve the local masters. In the Deccan
and South India, artisans were made over to the temples and monasteries. The attachment of peasants,
artisans and merchants to their respective settlements and restrictions on their movements, led to the
emergence of a closed economy.
• There were regular conflicts between the king and his vassals or between landlords and the peasants over
land ownership or tax collection. According to Dharmashastras, the claim based on Rajasasana (royal
charter) would override every other claim (based on custom, agreement and religion etc). In other
words, a Rajasasana would prevail over dharma, vyavahara and charita.

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Economy
• The trade and urban settlements, which were so much prominent features of Indian society started
declining from the mid-Gupta period onward. Many important cities (such as Taxila, Kausambi and
Pataliputra) ceased to exist after the Gupta period. This decline of urban settlements was not an isolated
phenomenon, it seems to have been quite widespread. Trade activities suffered a setback because of
various reasons. This is perhaps most clear from the fact that minting and circulation of coins were on
a much more limited scale than before.
• However, the decline of towns may not mean the immediate overall contraction of the economy but the
localisation of economy centred in self-sufficient regions. The base of economy, which earlier was
agriculture and urban activities of crafts production and trade, now reduced to only agriculture.
• Decline of Trade
o Both internal and external trade registered a peak during the early-Gupta Age, when India traded
with the Roman Empire, Central Asia and South East Asia. The trade decline set in during the mid-
Gupta period, decline of these empires added to the emergence of the Arab and Persian
merchants as competitors in trade affected Indian merchants.
o Silk and spices were important export items in the Indo-Byzantine trade. The Hellenistic world
learnt the art of growing silk worms in the middle of the 6 th century AD, resulting in the decline
of silk road trade.
o Till early Gupta period, India had carried on trade in beads and some other items with some areas
of South-East Asia, but after the fourth century A.D. there is no evidence for trade with South
East Asia.
o The trade contacts with Central Asia and Western Asia via Uttarapath, were disrupted by the
Hun invasions.
o Domestic Trade- Long distance internal trade suffered owing to the weakening of links between
coastal towns and the interior towns and further between towns and villages. The decay of
towns and shrinkage in urban production and the decline of trade were related problems.
o The rise of numerous self-sufficient villages dominated by landed intermediary also had adverse
effect on trade. The rise of self-sufficient areas (especially villages) was feature of this age, where
local needs came to be met locally.
o Obviously, trade in basic necessities such as salt, iron artefacts etc. continued. For quite a few
centuries large-scale, organised trade was replaced by petty traders, pedlars and trickle trade.
• Paucity of Coins- The decline of trade and the grant of land to high functionaries in lieu of money
payments reduced the amount of coins in circulation. Use of metallic currency declined in most parts
of India. The post Gupta period is marked by the decline of Second Urbanisation (which began in
Mahajanpada Age), therefore, the urban trade-based economy gave way to Agrarian rural self-sufficient
economy where coins lost its importance and trade was local and in many cases barter, like Jajmani
system or in some other currencies like cowries (shells).
o The Post Gupta coins, especially in Northern India portrays a very dismal numismatic picture. We
find very few silver coins and even rarer gold coins (which were so abundant during the periods
of the Kushans and Guptas). Copper coins are found but less in number than earlier periods.
o The numismatics, which was prime art form in Gupta Age, seems to have lost its importance and
Kings did not resorted to it for glory (however they continued other measures like land-grants etc)
o Majority of Post Gupta kingdoms were relatively smaller in size and many did not issued coins at
all. Different metals were used in different parts of the country and even in the same area
different metals were used, therefore, we do not find any contiguity in the coinage system.

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o The Age of Guptas was the Classical Age in many aspects as the artforms were later copied by
different regions, giving birth to the regional styles. This happened in coinage too as many
Kings tried to imitate the Gupta coinage art of King Portrait on one side and Goddess Portrait on
the other, however, the quality of art as well as metal could not match the Gupta coins. Eg- coins
of Shashank Gauda and Samachardeva in Bengal.
o In Southern India, many dynasties followed the Punch mark style of pre Mauryan era with
symbols of lotus, elephant etc. Eg- coins of Chalukyas, Cholas etc. Although Cholas under Rajaraja
and Rajendra issued many portrait coins, however, the coins are much inferior in carving and
design than Gupta coins.
o There are evidences for prevalence of barter and the use of cowries (shells) as a medium of
exchange in daily transactions across India.
• Decline of Towns- Decline in trade, paucity of coins and commercial seals indicate economic decline
in the urban centres. Therefore, Towns which were active centres of craft production experienced
decay and desertion.
o The Kushan and Gupta towns in northern India and those associated with the Satavahanas in the
Deccan began to decay from the middle of the third or the fourth century.
o However, all settlements did not turn rural. In the post-Gupta period seats of administration,
military garrisons and religious or pilgrimage centres continued their urban features. Many
towns continued to survive as a result of their conversion to centres of pilgrimage. Also, owing
to the convergence of several factors some villages converted into towns, owing to their placing
as meeting points for a group of rural settlements and develop into larger settlements.
• Agrarian Expansion- The evidence suggests late-Gupta and post-Gupta agrarian growth and rural
expansion on an unprecedented scale.
o Decline of towns led to the migration of a number of skilled artisans into the countryside. Some
of them even changed their vocations. This dispersal of technical skills of artisans and craftsmen
stimulated agrarian growth in the rural economy.
o This period period saw considerable diversity of crops (including cash crops), extended role of
metal (especially new iron tools), improved knowledge of manure, better irrigation
technologies (like Ghatiyantra), assimilation of tribals in agriculture (via land grants etc)
• New type of villages emerged on a large scale during this period.
o Brahmadeyas villages- which were inhabited by brahmins.
o Agrahara villages- although inhabited by brahmins and non-brahmins, the proprietary right of
such villages belonged to the brahmins only, ie. tax of such villages goes to respective Brahmins. In
South India such villages were also known as Mangalams.
o Devedana- donated to temples and generally, inhabited by non-brahmanas. The proprietary right
of such villages, however, belonged to the Temples. Such villages were more prevalent in South
India.
o The administrative body/assembely in villages
o Mahasabha or Sabha- in Brahmanic settlements.
o Ur- in Devadana villages and ordinary villages
• Economy of early Medieval times was characterised by-

o Negative changes
1. The emergence of a class of landlords and a class of subjugated peasantry in a rural-agrarian
economy.
2. Decline of trade

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3. Decline of towns
4. Paucity of metallic money.
o Positive Changes-
1. The growth of new crops.
2. The widespread construction of irrigational facilities.
3. The increasing awareness about plant and animal diseases
4. The improvements in other aspects of agriculture
Society
• Incongruity of Varna hierarchy and social hierarchy- The major economic forces of the period were
large scale land grants, decline of trade, commerce and urban life, paucity of metallic money, growing
agrarian character of society and the emergence of relatively closed local units of production and
consumption.
o On this basis evolved a social structure broadly characterised by a sizable ruling landed
aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of impoverished peasantry. This unequal
distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and ranks
which cut across Varna divisions.
o Importance of land in social status- Land grants and the emerging landed intermediaries,
wielding economic power and political authority, modified the varna divided society. The new
social groups did not fit in with the four-fold varna system.
o The brahmin landlords gave up their priestly function and diverted their attention to the
management of land and people and they started resembling more with the ruling elite than
with those who performed only priestly functions.
o The inclusion of the foreign ethnic groups and indigenous tribal chieftains in the Kshatriya varna
and the acculturated tribes in the Sudra varna not only swelled their ranks but also transformed
the varna divided society. How much land one possessed emerged as the basis for differences
in social status which was not homogenously divided between people of same varna. One's
position in society did not simply depend on the varna to which one belonged. His social rank
came to be connected with his position as a landholder, among different categories of
landholders. Therefore, varna hierarchy remained only as a model scheme for the society and the
occupational castes came to constitute the functioning social reality. However, the ‘Varna model’
remained relevant because it determined the "purity" and the "impurity" of the castes.
o Social position of Brahmins was further elevated- Brahmins attained various privileges like
freedom from death-sentence, exemption form taxes, precedence on the road, lesser punishment
for certain offences in comparison with other castes. Many writers have documented the
exemption of the Brahmins from capital punishment. The most severe punishment for a Brahmin
was banishment. When a Brahman killed a man, the former had only to fast, pray and give alms.
On the other hand, if somebody killed a Brahmin, he was ought to be greatest sinner and performed
the worst crime. No punishment or remorse could wipe off the Brahma’hatya, the greatest crime
of those periods.
• New Castes- The Gupta and post-Gupta times were characterized by the emergence and spread of new
jatis (castes) like the Kayasthas (the scribe castes to record new land titles).
o The norm that the kshatriyas alone could rule forced new ruling houses of various backgrounds
to seek kshatriyahood through brahmanic support so as to win popular acceptance and legitimacy
for their rule. These new Kshtriya became patrons and the performers of Vedic rituals. Many

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ruling dynasties in the post-Gupta period emerged from humble origins and subsequently
graduated to kshatriya status, most famously Rajputs. Pallavas and Chalukyas of peninsular India,
Palas of Bengal and many sub-regional dynasties in Orissa had tribal origins. Bactrian Greeks,
Sakas, Parthians, Hunas etc. were accommodated in the varna system as Vratya Kshitriyas (semi
Kshatriya).
o Shreni (Guilds), due to their living (organised in bands or confined hamlets) and being
endogamous groups, transformed themselves into Jatis (castes)
o By 9th century AD, traders and members of the rich dominant peasantry were also conferred
ruling titles such as ranaka, nayaka and so on. They constituted a part of the upper section of the
society and ruling landed elite.
o New castes by assimilating Tribes- The other important changes in the social structure involved
the emergence of new castes and acculturation (cultural assimilation) of Tribes by land grants
to Brahmins in remote areas and emergence of strong Tribes as regional kingdoms who assimilated
Brahmanic ways for legitimacy. This acculturation and incorporation of tribes and backward
peoples as sudra castes significantly added to the number of new castes, especially mixed castes
and untouchable castes.
o By modem estimates, today there are about five thousand castes in India, with around three
hundred castes, on an average, in each linguistic state. The beginnings of the formation of many
of these castes would certainly go back to the early medieval times.
• The Varna-Caste confusion
o Hierarchy emerged within each varna because of the acculturation and incorporation of various
groups of people and communities at varying levels. There are also examples of earlier single
communities breaking up into many varna and castes. Many a time, a single caste was
incorporated into different varna at different parts of country, therefore, one caste is found in
one varna at one place and in different varna in different place. This confusion could be traced
in the modern times as one can see a same caste is identified with more than one varna or have
ambiguity in varna.
o Emergence of Varnasamkara is an important phenomenon, which meant the inter-mixing and/or
union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the emergence of mixed castes.
However, more than social reality, it is the symbolic and explanation of social disorder.
• Change in the position of Vaishyas and Shudras- A sizable section of the shudras were rising in social
and economic status after their association with land owning agriculture, and sections of the vaisyas,
particularly those at the lower end, underwent fall in their social position.
o Many shudra castes were no longer slaves and servants and emerged as tenants, share-croppers
and cultivators.
o During the peak of Indian foreign trade in the post-Mauryan times the vaishyas got identified with
urban occupations and towns. In a predominantly agrarian society of the post-Gupta period, the
vaishya traders and merchants suffered economic loss and social degradation.
o The social distinction between the vaishyas and the shudras got blurred as the differences in
their occupations and standards of living faded away.
• The Untouchables- From around the 4rd century AD onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to
have intensified and the number of untouchables registered a rise.
o During this period the decline of urban centres resulted in several groups of artisans and
craftsmen losing their earlier status and many of them even came to be regarded as untouchables.
The backward agriculturists were also condemned to the status of Untouchables. Along with

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them, hunters, fishermen, butchers, executioners, scavengers and accultured tribesmen appear
as untouchables.
o There appeared some Shudra castes also whose position was lower than other castes. There were
eight Shudra castes called Ashtashudras, Vyadha, Bhada, Kola, Koncha, Haddi, Doma, Jala,
Bagatita, Vyalagrahi and Chandala. These Ashtashudras were called the Antyajas (Vedvyasamriti
includes all those who eat cow’s flesh as Antyajas), however, later the number of Antyaja caste
increased with time. Chandalas were lowest of the Antyaja. These untouchables were claimed to
be removed from Varna society and were labelled as Panchamvarna. Interestingly, a caste
hierarchy emerged among Panchamvarna (untouchables) as well.
o In this context of the growing demand for labour the presence of the untouchables as a depressed,
dispossessed group of people was an enormous advantage to all other sections of rural society.
o The untouchables did not normally hold land, settled outside the villages and were condemned
to menial jobs during slack periods of the year and were available for work during peak periods of
agricultural activity. The untouchables thus provided labour and were socially condemned and
segregated.
• Position of Women- The women's position in society during this period was that of progressive decline.
o The law-books of this time provide for the marriage of women at an early age, most preferably at
pre-puberty stage.
o Formal education was denied to them in Shastras and also in practise, however, not in all cases.
o They were generally denied property rights. However, in the case of widows there was some
improvement in proprietary rights. The provision for stridhana (wealth of women) introduced in
this time means their ownership of movable property like personal jewels, ornaments and gifts.
o Women and property came to be bracketed together with adverse consequences for women's
status.
o The joint references to women and sudras in contemporary literature such as the Brihat’samhita
amply demonstrates the plight of women. They were debarred from various sacrifices and
ceremonies.
o The practice of Sati gained social acceptance during this period. The earliest references to sati
date to the later Gupta period and the times of Harsavardhana.
Decline of Buddhism
By the 9th century AD, the decline of Buddhism was very evident, which was although noted by travellers of
past centuries but became irreversible by this time. The decline of Buddhism in India, the land of its birth,
occurred for a variety of reasons. The decline is first registered by Fa Hien and by the time of Turk arrival it
had considerably declined. Although it continued to attract financial and institutional support during this
time period by Kings like Harsha, Pallavas and Palas etc. However, Buddhism made a comeback in India in
20th century.
Following are the major reasons behind the decline of Buddhism
• Sectarian conflicts within Buddhism- Early Buddhism had numerous sects, each with its own version
of canonical texts and all claiming to be the original word of the Buddha. The texts with the same title
show a lot of difference, some minor and some so major that they are different works. Earlier schisms
were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about
1st century AD, schisms between sectarian Buddhist Sangha were being caused by doctrinal
disagreements too, making them almost different religion following same God.
• Loss of public and royal support for Buddhism- In case of Buddhism, this support was particularly
important because of its high level of organisation and the reliance of monks on donations. State

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patronage of Buddhism took the form of land grant foundations. The rise of the Brahmins and their
influence in socio-political process cut the revenue supply needed for Buddhism to survive.
• Gains by competing Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism- Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other
Hindu traditions became increasingly popular, and Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state.
As the system grew, Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. Gradually, Hindus and
Jains occupied sites abandoned by the Buddhist sangha.
• Invasions of India from central Asia- Chinese scholars travelling through the north eastern India began
to speak of a decline of the Buddhist Sangha in the north-west parts of Indian subcontinent, especially in
the wake of the Hun invasion from central Asia. Huen Tsang wrote that numerous monasteries in north-
western India had been reduced to ruins by the Huns. Mihirakula, who ruled in 6 th century in north-
western region suppressed Buddhism and destroyed monasteries as far away as Kaushambi.
• Decline of Urban Centres where Buddhism gained majority of Patronage and the decline of Trade
routes which were the arteries by which Buddhism spread into exterior regions
• The rivalry between Hinduism and Buddhism, however, the existence of religious violence between
Hinduism and Buddhism in ancient India has been disputed.
• The decadence of Buddhist Monastries- By mid of 1st millennium AD, Buddhist monks owned property
and were actively involved in trade and other economic activity. Monastries many a times became too
rich involved in many vices of the society. I-tsing, the Chinese pilgrim wrote about declining discipline
and indulgence in earthly pleasures such as rich foods, sex and wealth by Buddhist monks inside
monasteries.
o However, this point contradicts the theory of cutting of revenue supply or loss of state patronage was
behind decline of Buddhism. Many historian opines that the decline of Buddhism may be related to
internal organisation and discipline than the economic reasons, wherein the Buddhist monasteries
with large land grants focussed on non-material pursuits, self-isolation of the monasteries, loss in
internal discipline in the sangha, and a failure to efficiently operate the land they owned.
• The adoption of elitist iconography- Writing in Sanskrit and Chhanda style began in Buddhism, which
made it as elitist as Brahmanism was in the age of Buddha.
• The waning difference between Buddhism and Hinduism- With the the growth in ritualistic
Mahayana Buddhism, and the adoption of Buddhist ideas into Hindu schools, the differences between
Buddhism and Hinduism blurred. The devotional cults of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism likely
seemed quite similar to laity, and the developing Tantrism of both religions were also similar
• Re-energised Hinduism via philosophers and Bhakti Movement- Scholars such as Adi Shankara re-
energized Hinduism while borrowing Buddhist ideas, also published influential reviews and original
texts, established monastery networks, and explained the key differences between Hinduism and
Buddhism. He stated the difference to be that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while
Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self". The rise in competing Hindu philosophies such as
Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, from growth in temples and from innovations of the Bhakti movement,
cutting into Buddhist patronage and popular support.
• Turk raids- The iconoclast Muslims gave the final blow to Buddhism in India. Al Beruni talks of
Buddhism’s disappearance from Ghazni and medieval Panjab. The Chach Nama records many instances
of conversion of stupas to mosques. Hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and shrines were destroyed,
Buddhist texts were burnt by the Muslim armies, monks and nuns killed during the 12th and 13th
centuries in the Gangetic plain’s region. Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji famously destroyed the Panch
Mahaviharas of Buddhism.

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Temples
• Temples assumed a central place in predominantly agrarian economy of medieval India, especially in
South India. Pallava period saw the rise of importance of Temples, the process which further grew under
Cholas.
• This period saw the construction of large number of Temples patronised by regional kingdom across
India, supported by land grants for their regular working. Therefore, these Temple not only had the royal
support but also the vast amount of agricultural surplus at their expense.
• These temples assumed central role in the social systems.
o They served the banking needs of the people via usuary.
o Due to their enormous size, temples offered various employments to a substantial amount of
population. The non-Brahmin staff consisted of musicians, dancers, singers, masters of ceremony,
carpenters, potters, washer men, garland-makers, palanquin-bearers, administrators, guards and
cleaners.
o This led to the multiplication of castes among temple servants, including the devadasis who were
dancers and singers.
o Dancers, musicians and other functionaries attached to the temple were given lands and houses
for their services. Menial servants were paid wages again in the form of food grains or other
consumable items, depending on the importance of their service and rank in the hierarchy.
o In the absence of separate educational institutions, Temples played a great role as the centre of
learning which was not only theological in nature but also dealt with the secular studies.
o Devadasi system- Devadasis are also known by various other local terms, such as jogini. It is
known as basivi in Karnataka, matangi in Maharashtra and Bhavin and Kalavantin in Goa. It is
also known as venkatasani, nailis, muralis and theradiyan in other parts of India. During colonial
times, reformists worked towards outlawing the devadasi tradition on grounds that it supported
prostitution; however, it is a topic of debate whether it was system of prostitution or its decadent
form was prostitution.
o The temple thus stood at the centre, creating physical and active space for every aspect of life in
the early and medieval periods of Indian history. Above all, it was a symbol of authority, status,
political power and social influence.
The emergence of Rajputs

• At the age of rising feudalism, war became an important tool of polity where warriors and rulers came
from different backgrounds like Central Asia, Indo-Aryans, Aboriginals and Brahmins etc, got
assimilated into Hindu religion as Kshatriyas but known as a sub type of Kshatriyas called Rajputs.
• There is no agreement among scholars regarding the origin of Rajputs. Traditionally Rajput families
hold the view of descent from Solar and Lunar families, however early inscriptions find them to be of
varied descent like from Brahmins, like Guhilots of Mewar are of foreign origin, like a Rajput clan named
Hun. Their change of occupation led to the change of caste (and Varna), which was not a novel feature
in Indian history and happened before. A brahmin family called Mayur-sharman became Kshatriya,
Mayurvarman, upon installation as Kings. Such Brahma-Kshatra dynasties (tracing origin from
Brahman and Kshatriays) existed in Peninsula in the earlier times.
• The four Rajput clans of the Pratihara (Parihars), Parmara (Pawars), Chahmana (Chauhans) and
Chalukya (Solankis), not to be confused with the Chalukyas of Deccan, are said to be emerged from a
Sacrificial pit near Mt. Abu, therefore called Agnikula. This indicates their purification before
becoming Rajputs, maybe from foreign origin or local aboriginal origin (Chandellas are said to be Gonds

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converted into Kshatriyas). Bardic tradition holds that there are 36 Rajput clans in total, but the list
varies from source to source.
The Socio-economic factors
• A new feature of the land distribution and territorial system in the area of Rajasthan emerged where land
is distributed among the royal kinsmen, ie the core estate belonged to the eldest son, but younger sons
and other members were also given estates for their maintenance (the earliest mention of this was
found during the period of Harshavardhana). Therefore, political power was increasingly started to
fragment benefitting from weakening of the sovereign above them.
• The appearance of Fort system also coincides with the rise of Rajput during the second half of the 1st
millennium AD. This fort system was later to become the lynchpin of Rajput polity and defence system
along with the focal centre of the surrounding territory.
• The areas where the Rajput spread in late 1 st millennium AD did not have a long history of the
Monarchy or Agrarian economy. In early stages, the control of Rajput kingdoms over the resources was
not centralized. The alliances between the emerging clans, in marriages and other political collaborations
consolidated the Rajput structure.
• The four Agnikula clans dominated early Rajput polity. Their kingdoms arose from the ruins of
Pratihara kingdom. The new Pratihara Rajputs ruled in southern Rajasthan, the Chahamans at
Shakambhari(north east Rajasthan), Chalukya in Guajarat and Paramaras in Malwa.
Development of local cultures

• The foundation of various kingdoms and fiefdoms whose people were generally confined to them only
led the development of localized culture, making India a diverse geographical area.
• The Hunas and other foreign elements were absorbed into the larger defined units such as Rajputana.
Similarly, Bengal, which was earlier divided into two parts viz. Gauda and Vanga, later the whole region
was named after Vanga (subsequently became Banga).
• Though the Sanskrit continued to be used by the ruling class at the higher administrative levels, this
language later become complex, verbose and ornate. The Apabhramsha, spoken by folk, started to
differentiate into proto-Hindi, Proto-Bengali, Proto-Rajasthani proto-Gujarati, Proto-Marathi, Proto-
Assamese, Proto-Ordya, Proto-Maithili languages. From the 6th century AD onwards, the linguistic
variation became very fast because of lack of inter-regional communication and mobility. In the tribal
areas, the Brahmins imposed various forms of Sanskrit on the existing Aryan and Pre-Aryan dialects.
This consequential interaction gave further rise to regional languages. The migrating Brahmins also
enriched the regional languages. This resulted in the development of regional scripts and regional
grammar.
• The inhabitants of the different regions differed in customs, clothing and language. For example, the
Kavalayamala (8th century AD) notes the existence of 18 major nationalities and describes the
anthropological characters of 16 types of peoples.
Regional Artforms
• In the field of art and architecture, this period ushered in a new age marked by regional styles in
sculpture and temple architecture, which became particularly prominent in south India from the eighth
century onwards. The post-Gupta iconography prominently displays a divine hierarchy, which reflects
the pyramidal rank and feudal nature of society, eg- Panchayatana style of temples. The Brahma,
Vishnu, Shiva and Durga became the supreme deities, lording over many other divinities of unequal sizes,
ie reflection of Feudalism on religion was clearly visible.

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• The Mahayajnas and danas (donations) were gradually replaced by a system known as Puja as the prime
mode of worship. Puja was interlinked to the doctrine of Bhakti, which became a distinct feature of
medieval religion. Along with puja and Bhakti, the tribal acculturation brings tantricism, all of which
assimilated into one to give modern Hinduism.
Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj
• During the middle first millennium AD, the focal point of the Northern plains shited westwards from
Pataliputra to Kannauj (Kanakubjya), especially since the rule of Harshavardhan, and making it a prized
possession. Situated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, it was one of the best irrigated areas in the
subcontinent. It was closer to North-west which had the trade routes linking India to the Central and
West Asia, an important advantage over Patiliputra. Kannuaj was also better linked to the land routes
going into the Southern Indian markets and to the water routes going into the Eastern India.
• In the Post Gupta times, Kannauj was flocked over by traders and Brahmins alike, looking for centres
of exchange and wealthy patrons respectively. The agrarian surplus provided the base for a bustling urban
society. The prospect of control over it would not only provide considerable wealth but also legitimacy of
being supreme power, situation very similar to that of Delhi during later times.
• From 8th to 10th Century AD, various regional powers made recurring attempts to control the doab,
however, no one could rule over it for a substantial amount of time making it a bone of contention among
them. A long struggle ensued between the three kingdoms of India, ie Rashtrakutas, Gurjara-Pratiharas
and Palas.

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o Rashtrakutas, tributary vassals and later successor of Chalukyas, on the other hand were interested
in both North as well as in Peninsula. According to Arab sources, Rashtrakutas were the most
powerful among the three contesting parties but their multiplicity of interests prevented them
being as strong a power as they could have. Apart from the traditional sources of income, they had
very profitable Arab trade at their expanse which supported their territorial ambitions.
o The origin of Pratiharas could not be traced exactly. They are said to be descended from Gurjara
pastoralists of Rajasthan or from Hunas or from the administrators of regional kingdoms who
established their own rule. Later the Pratiharas amalgameted themselves into the Rajputs.
o Palas, ruling over the eastern Ganges plains, had their economic base in the agrarian society of the
fertile Ganges delta. The land grants had vastly expanded the lands available for agriculture,
providing vast surplus to Palas, which was not available to any former power ever ruled over the
area. Apart from this, trade was a major source of income for the Pala kings. They had extensive
trade relations from South East Asia. The ports of Pala kingdom acted as midway stops for Chinese
traders going to Africa and Arab traders going to South East Asia.
• All three kingdoms held Kannuaj with recurring success and failure, but no one could rule it permanently.
• The bitter rivalry between Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas took heavy toll on both the powers. Rashtrakutas
were ousted by later Chalukyas, a branch of Chalukyas who were uprooted by Rashtrakutas few centuries
ago. Rashtrakutas tried to be the power of North and South both, which was not backed by their resources
and polity of the time, something which Marathas did with more success in later times.
• In north, Pratiharas lingered throughout the 10th century. A Turkish raid to Kannauj in 1018 ended the
Pratihara rule. The decline of the Pratihara rule resulted in the emergence of numerous Rajput states.
• Palas could not benefit a lot from the decline of Pratiharas as they found themselves under attack of the
advancing Chola King Rajendra, in a bid to control the rich trading posts on the Ganges delta. The
weakened Pala dynasty was soon uprooted by the Sena dynasty.
Of all the three kingdoms of late first millennium AD, no one had substantial edge of revenues over the other.
Therefore, the resources to back the military powers more or less matched in the long run. They were evenly
matched, which can be seen in their rapid rise and fall in the relative power dynamics. The obsession of
Kannauj did not let them consolidate their own kingdoms in the times when local governors and
feudatories possessed territorial ambitions of their own.
Kannauj itself could remain as significant for very long time. In the absence of a strong, unchallenged
Kingdom ruling over it, and emergence of various smaller imperial centres of regional kingdoms it receded in
its economic and political importance. Before its further decline, it was part of Gadhawala kingdom till the
end of 12th century, when it will be assimilated to Delhi Sultanate.
Literature
However, the quality of the content was not as high as earlier periods. It was of imitative and reproductive
character.
• Naishadhiyacharitam of Shriharsha is the most outstanding epic of this period.
• Rajatarangini of Kalhana is unique as the only known attempt at true history in the whole of surviving
Sanskrit literature.
• The Gita Govindam of Jayadeva is known as the most musical song ever written in Sanskrit.
• The famous mathematician Bhaskaracharya flourished in the south in the twelfth century. His
Siddhanta-Shiromani comprises four parts- Lilavati, Vijaganita, Grahaganita and Gola.

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The account of Huen Tsang (Xuanzang)

He came to India during time of Emperor Harsha Vardhana. The primary aim of the visit of Huen Tsang to
India was to gain knowledge of Buddhism and collect its religious texts. After returning to China, he wrote a
detailed description of India during the reign of Harsha in his book Si-yu-ki (Record of the Western
Countries). His description, many aspects is contrasting to the details given by Fa-Hien.
• His description has been accepted as the best available source of knowing the administrative, social and
cultural condition of India at that time. However, his account of India is not entirely dependable. While
mostly it is biased because Huen Tsang used his description as a means to glorify Buddhism and Harsha
as its follower. Therefore, it needs to be corroborated and checked with the help of other contemporary
sources.
• He gave such a detailed description of political, social, religious and economic life of India as has not
been given by any other Chinese traveller.
• He stayed in India for nearly fourteen years and visited places like Taxila, Kashmir, Mathura, Kannauj,
Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilvastu, Kusinagara, Sarnath, Vaisali, Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Bodha-Gaya and
Nalanda (where he spent about five years).
• He had been a guest to Bhaskara Varman, ruler of Kamarupa. From there he was called to the court of
Harsha. Harsha called a religious assembly at Kannauj to honour him. Huen Tsang presided over that
assembly.
• He also participated in one of the religious assemblies called by Harsha at Prayag after that and left India
in 644.
Cities of India
• He tells us that the houses were of varied types and were constructed with wood, bricks and dung. The
city-streets were circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins while new cities had grown up.
• Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj. Sravasti and
Kapilvastu had lost their religious importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the centres of Buddhist
learning.
Economy
• He gave a long list of Indian fruits and agricultural products.
• India produced the best cotton, silk and woollen cloth at that time and prepared all sorts of garments from
them.
• He praised very much the quality of Indian pearls and ivory.
• The Indians prepared and used all types of jewellery and ornaments.
• India had a brisk trade with foreign countries and there were prosperous city- ports on its sea-coast both
in the East and the West.
• India exported cloth, sandal-wood, medicinal herbs, ivory, pearls, spices etc. to foreign countries and
imported gold, silver and horses.
• He described India as a rich and prosperous country.
Society
• He described caste system to be rigid.
• There was no purdah-system and women were provided education.
• The practice of sati prevailed.
• Common people were simple and honest. They used simple garments and avoided meat, onions and
liquor in their food and drinks.

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• They observed high morality in their social and personal lives.

• He described that Indians used cotton, silk and wool for their garments and these were of varied types.
Education
• He described Indians as lovers of education, literature and fine arts.
• Indians received education between nine and thirty years of age and, in certain cases, all their life.
• Mostly the education was religious and was provided orally.
• Many texts were put in writing and their script was Sanskrit.
• Debates and discussions were the most important means of providing education and also that of
establishing superiority over rivals in knowledge.
• He describes Nalanda as a leading University of its time.
Religion
• He agreed that Hinduism was more widely popular in India at that time as compared to Buddhism.
• He described that Brahamanism, Buddhism and Jainism were all popular religions in India. There was
complete tolerance among people of all religious faiths and people changed their religions voluntarily.
• Though he did not write that Buddhism was on decline, yet, his description of cities indicates that
Buddhism was, certainly, on decline and Brahamanism was progressing.
• Huen Tsang gave description of religious assemblies also which were organised by Emperor Harsha at
Prayag (Allahabad) and Kannauj.
Rule of Harshavardhana
• He described Harsha as a perfect devotee of Buddha.
• Huen Tsang praised emperor Harsha and his administration in detail.
• He described him as a laborious king who travelled far and wide and contacted his subjects personally to
look after their welfare and supervise his administration.
• He described that the kingdom was well-governed, free from revolts with very few cases of law-breaking,
offenders were given physical punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth from them while the
traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom.
• The burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects, they were free from the oppression of the
government servants and were, thus, happy. The state used to record its every activity. The main source
of income of the state was land-revenue which formed 1/6th of the produce.
• He, however, described that travelling was not very much safe at that time.
• Huen Tsang described that Harsha divided his income into four parts. One part of it was spent on
administrative routine of the state, the second part of it was distributed among government employees,
the third of it was given to scholars and the fourth part of it was given in charity to Brahamanas and the
Buddhist monks.
• Huen Tsang wrote that the army of Harsha consisted of 60,000 war elephants, 50,000 strong cavalry
chariots and a 1,00,000 strong infantry.
Other Travellers
• I-tsing (671 - 695 AD)
Chinese traveller came to India for Buddhism.
• Al-Masudi (957 AD)
Arab Traveller, who gave extensive account of India in his work Muruj ul Zahab.

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The Third Urbanisation

The third phase of urbanization was represented by the rise of towns and cities in the early medieval period,
in some parts of the India from the 9th century CE.
• Major factors leading to urban growth-
o Mainly due to agrarian expansion and increase of surplus due to new crops and better knowledge
of manure and irrigation (eg. Arghatta/Persian wheel)
o Increased craft production which went beyond the confines of temples or monasteries.
o Emergence of religious centres
o The holding of regular fairs
o Commercial activities centred around ports
o The expansion of rural settlements into of urban centres.
o Initiatives taken by kings and ministers in the establishment of urban centres.
• The centre of the commercial activities was the mandapika, a term used for a pavilion though its
contextual meaning is derived from the word mandi in Hindi and mandai in Marathi.
• There was an emergence of markets and merchants, as reflected in the holding of weekly hatts and rural
fairs that became nodal exchange centres, as also a revival of long-distance trade.
• There also emerged several grades of traders, such as purasreshthi and rajasreshthi, while merchants, such
as vanik, sarthavaha (caravan leader who was the head of the corporation of merchants) and sresthi (chief
merchant of the nigama), continued to operate.
• Second Urbanisation had an epicenter (upper Ganges and middle Ganges basin), whereas the early
medieval urban centres did not have any such epicentre and spread throughout the country.

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3. THE CHOLA EMPIRE
In Southern India, Cholas raised themselves to the political prominence in the ninth century and established
an empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their main capital was Tanjore. They also extended
their reign Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as the Imperial Cholas.
Major Kings
• Parthiba Chola (7th century) is one the earliest rulers of dynasty. He accepted the Pallava suzerainty.
• Vikrama Chola (late 7th century), son of Parthiba Chola, married a Pallava princess.
• Vijayalaya- founder of the Chola Kingdom, captured Thanjavur in 848, making use of the chaotic
struggle between Pandyas and Pallavas.
• Aditya Chola (succesor of Vijayalya)- put an end to the Pallava kingdom, making Chola dynasty
independent.
• Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He was a great builder of temples and took
Chola rule to Sri Lanka.
• Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 AD)- It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power reached
its highest point of glory. He attacked and annexed entire Sri Lanka. Rajaraja’s last military
achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldives Islands which were conquered. He completed
the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 AD.
He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
• Rajendra I (1014-1044 AD)- Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his
father’s campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion. His most
famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by
defeating a number of rulers on its way to commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign
Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple
in that city.
In 1025 he launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia which was a unique
event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia.
Several places in Malaysia and Indonesia were invaded by Rajendra Chola and the invasion furthered
the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar
into Southeast Asia. The Chola invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya.
At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire was at its peak. The river Tungabadhra was
the northern boundary. The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed part of the
empire.
• Kulottunga I (1070-1120)- the grandson of Rajendra. He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united
the Vengi kingdom of Eastern Chalukya with the Chola Empire. During his reign Sri Lanka became
independent.
• Kulottunga III (1178-1218) the central authority became weak. He had to fight recurring wars against
Pandyas, Hoysalas, Telugu Chodas in Kanchi, Velanadu Chodas at Vengi and Kakatiyas, Eelam (Sri
Lanka) and Cheras. In 1216, Pandyan King Maravarman Sundara, waged war on Cholas to avenge the
defeat (in 1205) of his elder brother Jatavarman Kulasekhara. Kulothunga III was old and without the
support of his feudatories and allies. Driven into exile, he could get the throne back only after the
intervention of his Hoysala relative King Veer Ballala II.
• Rajendra III (AD 1270-1280) After over 60 years of Pandyan dominance, during Rajendra III, Cholas
were lost in the history and no mention of them is found after 1280, making Rajendra III, the last Chola
ruler.

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The rise of the feudatories like the Hoysalas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge to Chola
supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the Chola Empire. The Chola country was ultimately
absorbed into the Pandya Empire.
Conquests
• During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and
Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Eelam (Sri Lanka), the Maldives and parts of Southeast
Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century.
• Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and
the Malabar Coast. In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the
Burmese kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which have
been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others.
• A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the
late 11th century.
Military
• The Chola navy was formidable one in South India. With the help of their navy the Cholas controlled
Coromandal and Malabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola Lake.
• The Chola army and navy together had 1,50,000 trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary chiefs also
joined Chola army at crucial times.
• The basis of Cholan Army was elephants. The Chola army had about 60,000 elephants.
Polity
Central Government
• The Chola system practiced a monarchical government. Uraiyur, Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda
Cholapuram served as the imperial capitals, while both Kanchipuram and Madurai constituted regional
capitals where courts occasionally convened.

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• The Central Government was under the headship of the King. The higher officials were called
Peruntaram and the lower officials were called Siruntaram.
Provincial division
• The Chola Empire was divided into nine provinces, called Mandalams. The head of the province was
called viceroy, generally a close relative of kings.
• Each mandalam was divided into number of Kottams or Valanadus.
• Each kottam/valanadu was sub divided into Nadu or Kurrams. Large townships formed a separate
kurram by themelves, known as taniyur or tankurram.
• Each nadu was further divided into Ur (villages) which form part of the last unit of the administration.
• Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income.
• The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper, however, some punch marked coins are
also discovered.
• Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta constituted a major port town. Nagappattinam as the
most important centres of Cholas. The two towns were the hubs of trade and commerce. Thanjavur,
Urayur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam, Mamallapuram represent the other major towns.
Local Self Government

“The most striking feature of the Chola period was the unusual vigour and efficiency that characterized the
functioning of the autonomous rural institutions”- Nilkantha Shastri
• There was continuity in growth and development at the local level, reasonably free of the effects of the
political changes at the upper level. This is also the reason behind the general cultural continuity that
is a characteristic of the Tamil country as compared with other regions of India. Every village made a
self-governing unit as the villages were remarkably autonomous for their times.
• In the larger villages with a number of rural organizations, there were a number of assemblies and a
villager could be a member of any number of these subject to the conditions of membership.
• The general assemblies were of three types
o Ur- comprising of the tax-paying residents of an ordinary village. The larger villages had two urs.
o Sabha- membership was open only to the Brahmans of the village or else was found exclusively in
villages gifted to brahmans. The ur and the sabha were found together in some villages while.
o Nagaram- generally found in centres of trade and commerce, since it was devoted entirely to
serving the interests of the mercantile community.
• All adult males of a village were eligible to become members of the Ur, but in effect only elder residents
took active interest, some of them forming a committee to look after routine matters.
• The sabha worked in the same manner and had the power to constitute subsidiary committees for works
of a specialized nature.
• A village would be further divided into wards, each ward having an assembly of its members some of
whom could also be members of a professional body such as smiths or carpenters or part of a group
looking after other village functions like the maintenance of the local temple.
• A tenth century inscription on a temple wall of the brahman village, called Uttaramerur inscription,
gives the details of how the local Sabha worked. Inscriptions found elsewhere also describe similar
procedures with a different set of requirements and qualifications for the candidates.
o “There shall be thirty wards. In these thirty wards those that live in each ward shall assemble and
shall elect each person possessing the following qualifications for inclusion for selection by lot. He
must own more than one-quarter of the tax- paying land. His age must be between 35 and 70. He
must know the mantras and brahamanas. There follows a list of the relations who cannot contest

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and then the five sins debarring candidature: killing a Brahman, drinking alcohol, theft, adultery
and associating with criminals. The debarred list also includes fools, one who has taken forbidden
dishes, etc.”
o "Of the thirty men thus chosen, those who had been previously on the Garden Committee, and on
the Tank Committee, those who are advanced in learning and those who are advanced in age shall
be chosen for the Annual Committee. The great men of these three committees shall hold office
for full 360 days and then retire.”
• Tax for the government was collected by the assembly from its members, in some instances it was the
tax for the entire village taken as a whole.
• The assembly also had the power to impose a tax for a particular purpose say, for the construction of a
water tank. Such collections were kept separate from the amount obtained for the state.
• Records, particularly of taxes and charities, were maintained by the assemblies and they intervened and
mediated in matters relating to agricultural land holdings, disputes over irrigation rights, etc.
• Feudatories like the Pallava chiefs and other minor rulers were there in the Chola kingdom, but the
assemblies were not involved in any manner in the relationship between the king and his feudatories.
• The assemblies were independent to such an extent that the changes in the relationships at higher levels
had no effect on the life of the village, perhaps because of the economic and political self-sufficiency of
the village.
Economy
• The Chola economy was based on three tiers
o At local level, largely autonomous agricultural settlements formed the foundation of Economy
o Nagaram (commercial towns), acted as redistribution centres
o Samayam (elite merchant groups) who organised and dominated the regions international
maritime trade.
• Towards the end of the ninth century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial
activity. The Cholas were at the forefront of this foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their
influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. They excelled in maritime activity in both military and
the mercantile fields.
• The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras and
the Abbasid Caliphate at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
• Cotton cloth was the main article of export to foreign countries. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola
rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets.
• During this period the weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. Saliyar and Kaikolar were the
important weaving communities during this time.
• Trade was also carried on by merchant guilds. These guilds described sometimes by the terms Nanadesis,
a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their
trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise.
• There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organised mercantile
corporations in various parts of the country.
• Since Pallavas, Silk weaving activity was on rise, which became a vibrant activity during this time and
Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk. The silk of Kanchipuram was exported out of
Chola country by nearby port of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).
• The manufacture of sea salt was carried on under government supervision and control.

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Society
• Under the Cholas, Southern India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature.
Religious monasteries/Temples, supported by the government, emerged as centres of learning. Many of
the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe
much to the legacy of the Cholas.
• In all of those spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an
earlier age under the Pallavas.
• During the Chola age (10th to 13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration and
land ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin elements in the temple administration.
This can be attributed to the shift in money power.
• Texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the
warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam (Nine Cuts). A heroic soldier
ritually cuts himself in nine places and dies in front of Goddess Durga also known as Kotravai just before
a war. He does it for the welfare and success of the king and kingdom.
• Skilled classes like the weavers, traders, merchant class etc had gained prosperity, due to the emergence
of towns, ports and links with the other parts of South east Asia.
Agrarian Expansion
• There was a great agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty, all over Tamil Nadu
and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. To a large extent, it was the result of the facilities provided for
irrigation by state.
• There was a well-developed and highly efficient system of water management from the village level
upwards.
• The increase in the royal patronage and also in the the number of devadana and bramadeya lands which
increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field.
• Most of the Vayakkal (canals) of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g., Uyyakondan canal,
Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal.
• Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as
also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money.
• The tank irrigation that came up in large numbers during this period. They were of varied size, ie from
small tanks to dam or canal size.
• Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Cholagangam/Solagangam (described as the liquid pillar of
victory) which was about 16 miles long and was provided with canals for irrigating the lands in the
neighbouring areas. There were several such lakes in the time which irrigate the lands even today.
• The Vellalars (landowner farmers) occupied one of the highest positions in society and were
economically a powerful group. They provided the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks
of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry. These Vellalars were also sent to northern Sri
Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers.
• The peasants were known as Kalamar, who must have seen dual effect of their status, ie rise for those
who would have got the land ownership and fall for those who became the part of land grants and tied to
the lands.
• The vellan-vagai (peasant proprietorship) was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having
direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time.
• In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the iraikudigal (land-tax) and those who did
not was clearly established, depicting the importance of land tax and revenue for state.

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Art
• The Cholas continued the temple building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly
to the Dravidian temple design.
• Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son
Rajendra.
• The remarkable sculptures (especially in bronze) sets the Chola period apart.
• The age of the Imperial Cholas represented the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance
of literature.
• A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers.
Temples
All Chola kings-built temples and endowed great wealth to them. The temples acted not only as places of
worship but as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community (see “Early Medieval India”
for detail). According to some historians, Temples were also used by state as an instrument of political power.
• The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly
to the Dravidian temple design.
• They built a number of Shiva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. Historian James Fergusson says
that "the Chola artists conceived like giants and finished like jewellers ".
• The temple was looked upon and functioned as a "superordinate" instrument of the political apparatus
from the ninth century.
• Under the Cholas its role progressively increased and diversified, thereby forging institutional links for
territorial sovereignty. This is well illustrated by the imperial temples such as those at Thanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram.
• In the redistribution of resources, the temple assumed a more direct role than even the brahmadeya.
• Its economic outreach became phenomenal with a widening orbit through huge temple endowments
land and money grants. Gold deposits, merchant interaction through gifts and the luxury trade of larger
merchant corporations.
• Its social function was the integration of various ethnic and professional groups through ritual ranking
within the brahmana varna order.
• A new development in Chola art that characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the
addition of a huge gateway called Gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had gradually taken its
form and attained maturity under the Pandya Dynasty.
• The Chola School of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of
Southeast Asia.
Chola Bronze Sculpture

• Though Cholas were prolific builders of temples and generous patrons of arts, their art is identified with
the magnificent bronzes.
• Chola inherited the art of Bronze sculpture from the Pallavas and took it to new heights. The latter half
of the ninth century marks the transitional toward the Chola type of bronzes.
• These great pieces of workmanship were made primarily for processions on festive occasions in
temples, though some were also made for private worship.
• Derived from earlier clay images, this form while deemed to be folk art incorporates all aspects of classical
art. The early bold forms gradually change to slender rounded ones that are delicate and more refined
with the contours of the figures being softer.

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• These bronzes are cast in lost wax process. The image is first made in wax, it is then given several coats
of fine clay and then dried in the shade. The two holes are made on the top and the bottom, and next the
whole is heated so that the wax melt away leaving a hollow mould into which molten metal is poured. The
clay mould is broken off after the metals solidified. Final dressing is done by hand with a chisel and
abrasive material.
Purpose of Bronze Statues

• Temple worship under the Cholas largely followed Shaiva Siddhanta ritual. A dual form of worship was
practised, intimate communion with the pillar-like stone linga representing Shiva in the sanctum, and
public worship of metal deities (utsava murtis), such as the dynamic dancing Shiva, outside the sanctum
during festival processions.
• The Chola period saw elaborate festivals with music dance and processions. The bronze images are
intended as manifestations of the main deity enshrined in the garbha-griha when taken out in procession
were worshipped with adoration as changing religious concepts during the period around the 10th century
demanded that the deities take part in a variety of public roles similar to those of the King himself.
• It should be noted that when in worship, these images are covered in silk costumes, garlands, and jewels,
befitting the particular avatar and religious context.
Style
• The forms of Chola bronzes are very plastic. They are devoid of intricate ornaments and designs in
comparison with the subsequent bronzes of the Vijayanagar and Nayaka period.
• By means of the facial expressions, the gestures or mudras the overall body posture and other
accompanying bronzes we can imagine the surroundings and the religious context of the figure of the
god or goddess, what instrument or weapon they are holding, what they are leaning on and what they are
doing or about to do.
• Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptor
could also exercise the imagination within the boundaries of the canonical Hindu iconography and
worked in greater freedom during the eleventh and the twelfth centuries. As a result, the sculptures and
bronzes show classic grace, grandeur and perfect taste.
• Besides Hindu icons, Buddhist and Jain images were also cast in bronze during the period.
• The Chola bronze tradition continued to inspire artists well into the medieval period as is attested by
Vijayanagar bronzes.
Nataraja Specimen
• The most famous of all the bronze icons is that of Nataraja or Adavallar.
o The symbolism presents Shiva as lord of the cosmic dance of creation and destruction.
o Surrounding Shiva, a circle of flames represents the universe, whose fire is held in Shiva's left rear
palm.
o His left front arm crosses his chest, the hand pointing in "elephant trunk" position (gaja hasta) to
his upraised left foot, which signifies liberation.
o His right foot tramples the dwarf Apasmara, who represents ignorance.
o Shiva as Nataraja or Adavallar is also accompanied by his consort Sivakami.
• In Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, Shiva as Nataraja is considered the supreme lord of dance. Tandava is the
divine dance performed by Nataraja and is the theme of majority of Chola bronze statues. Tandava
symbolizes the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction, as well as the daily rhythm of birth and death

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• Austrian-born American physicist, Fritjof Capra noted that “Modern physics has shown that the rhythm
of creation and destruction is not only manifest in the turn of the seasons and in the birth and death of
all living creatures, but is also the very essence of inorganic matter, therefore, for the modern physicists,
then, Shiva’s dance is the dance of subatomic matter .” On June 18, 2004 at the European Center for
Research in Particle Physics in Geneva (CERN), a 2m tall statue of Nataraja was unveiled to acknowledge
the connection.
Literature
• The construction of numerous temples generated Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional literature.
• Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.
• The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam.
• Commentaries were written on the great text Tolkappiyam which deals with grammar but which also
mentions ethics of warfare.
• Periapuranam is considered today as national epic of the Tamil people because it treats of the lives of the
saints who lived in all parts of Tamil Nadu and belonged to all classes of society, men and women, high
and low, educated and uneducated.
• Kamban’s Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature, and
although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is
not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. He imports into his narration the colour and
landscape of his own time as his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola
country.
• Jayamkondar's masterpiece, Kalingattuparani (describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I's war in
Kalinga) is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious
conventions. This and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of
the field.
• Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.
• Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar.
• The arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who
lived close to the end of the 10th century.
• Relatively less Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the
rulers' apparent animosity towards them.

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4. DELHI SULTANATE
Mahmud of Ghazni
In political and military terms, the invasions of Mahmud of Ghami were the actual precursors of the Delhi
Sultanate. From a Persianized dynasty of Turks, his capital of Ghazni (Afghanistan) bacame a cultural,
commercial, and intellectual metropolis of its time. He built upon the expoilts of his maternal grandfather
Alaptigin and father Subuktgin.
• Beginning in 1000 AD, when the Hindu Shahi king, Jaypala was routed, the incursions became almost an
annual feature of Mahmud till his death in 1030 AD.
• After taking Multan, he occupied Punjab. Later, Mahmud made incursions into the Ganga-Yamuna
doab.
• The major interest of Mahmud in India was its fabulous wealth, vast quantities of which (in the form of
cash, jewellery, and golden images) had been deposited in temples.
• From 1010 to 1026, the invasions were thus directed to the temple-towns of Thaneshwar, Mathura,
Kannauj and Somanath.
• The ultimate result was the breakdown of Indian resistence, paving the way for Turkish conquests in the
future. More importantly, the aftermath of the campaigns had exposed the inadequacy of Indian politics
to offer a united defence against external threats.
• Within a short time'of Mahmud's death, his empire met the fate of other empires. Newly emerging
centres of powers, formed around growing clusters of Turkish soldier-adventurers, replaced the older
ones.
• The Ghaznavid possessions in Khurasan and Transoxiana were thus annexed. In Afghanistan, their
hegemony was brought to an end by the principality of Ghor.
• The faltering Ghaznavid rule survived in Punjab and Sind till about 1175 AD.
• His court had two great authors namely Al Beruni and Firdowsi (author of Shahnamah)
Account of al Beruni
Abu Raihan Alberuni was born in 973 AD at Khwarizm (Afghanistan), where he was an astronomer at the
royal court. Upon the capture of Khwarizm by Mehmud Ghazni, who assembled many prominent
intellectuals and artists of the conquered lands to his capital of Ghazni, Alberuni too was taken to Ghazni
where he spent the rest of his days. Alberuni completed his book on India, Kitab ul Hind, in 1030 which he
wrote during his travels to India with the campaigns of Mehmud.
• His work on India gives new height to the interaction between the Indian knowledge and Sciences and
the Muslim world, which was under process for the last few centuries before him but was complete
bogged down in the meantime.
• For the Indians of later times, the book provides and deep insight into the causes of the stagnation of the
advancements of Indian sciences and knowledge and a review of the Indian society from an outsiders
perspective.
• The remarkable quality of his work is the scholarly focus in spite of the recurrent wars and the victories
his side achieved, perhaps he could never forget the triumph of Ghazni over his own land and therefore
never took glory in Mehmud's successful campaigns in India, devoting himself to his work.
• His work describes the Indian sciences like Geography, Geology, Astronomy, Medicine etc in great
details. He quotes extensively from the Sanskrit sources
Indian Knowledge
• His knowledge of India was primarily based on the literary sources which he dwelt in great details.

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• According to him the ancient Indian literature and Science on Astronomy, Mathematics, Poetry etc was
highly advanced, however, the Astronomy overwhelmed all other sciences.
• Cosmology was an important part of Indian science.
• The calculation of various eclipses were accounted in Surya Siddhanta.
• He rates book of Charaka as the best work of medicine available in the whole world.
• He observes the stagnation in the Indian sciences and the recent advancements could not keep up with
those of the earlier centuries.
• The most adept observation was that Indian science was confined to an elite class, whereas the majority
of the population was kept intentionally ignorant and superstitious.
• In Indian literature of recent centuries, the emphasis is laid more on poetic rhyme rather than the
suitability of the words.
Astronomy
• Being a student of Astronomy himself, he devoted a large part of his book on the topic, where he
describes the theories of Earth and Heavens in Indian scriptures.
• He analyses the Indian calendars and time and the related terminologies like Kalpa, Yug etc.
• He also compared Greek and Indian astronomy and pointed out parallels and differences.
• He was impressed by the application of astronomy in the Hindu religion and made himself well aware of
prominent Indian works on astronomy like Vayu Purana and Virat Samhita and even translated Laghu
Jatak of Vaharmihira into Arabic.
• He gives details about the five books of Indian Astronomy- a. Surya Siddhanta b.
Vasishtha Siddhanta c. Pulisa Siddhanta d. Romaka Siddhanta e. Brahma Siddhanta
Geography
• He describes Geography of India and its features and with great accuracy reports the river system and
soils of India along with the important towns and routes connecting these towns.
• He mentions the traditional Indian system of 10 directions which in all likelihood were taken from the
Puranas.
• He describes the Indian concept of Madhyadesha (area around Kannauj), ie. middle of India and its
political and historical importance.
• He gives an account of Varshakala (monsoon) and various rivers described in the Puranas and the
mythical Mount Meru, from where these rivers originate.
Society
• In Indian Society, he decries the domination of Brahmins, who in spite of being well aware of scientific
causes of the natural phenomenon, usually misleads the masses and push them deeper into the
ignorance and amplify the superstitions.
• He describes how Indians looked down upon anything foreign, were belligerent against foreigners
whom they called 'Malecchas' and their conversion to Hinduism was not permissible.
• However, this may be due to the fact that his contacts remained largely confined to the Brahmanical class,
therefore his description of Indian society is more or less a description of the Indian Brahmanical class.
• Brahmins in many cases were seen to attain the office of King which was not the monopoly of the
Kshatriyas.
• He describes the ordeal of the Shudras in great detail and the use of theology to keep their position of
subordination.

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• He repeatedly pointed out the incongruity of the scientific knowledge in literature and superstitions
and ignorance in society.
• According to him the Indian knowledge is full of baseless beliefs and therefore one should be watchful
to avoid superstitious knowledge while gaining the required one.
• He quotes Purushsukta to describe the origin of the Chatur Varna system of the Indian society. He
describes 'Antyaja', the lowest of the Indian social pyramid who are out of the Chatur-Varna system.
• In relation to women, he finds no practice like Purdah system in India, however, social segregation of
the sexes was strictly observed.
• Women have not had any right of inheritance, but he observes the presence of the concept of 'Streedhan'.
• The majority of marriages were at an early age and he finds no doctrine of Divorce. Widows were not
allowed to remarry and obviously inter caste marriage was very rare.
• His observation of Indian customs was that they are not only very different from his country but also
defies the common sense.
• People allow nails to grow so long that it makes them unable to work, they drank wine before meals and
used cow dung over the body as disinfectants, used to spit and blow their noses regularly, even in public
meetings.
• The majority of the population had red teeth as eating arecanut and betel leaves was most common habit.
• Men generally used turbans instead of trousers whereas dress of women was blouse and saree with
ornaments, even men used to wear ornaments of women.
• In all consultations, Indians seek and work on the advice of their women.
• He gives a detailed list of the Indian festivals, but writes that majority of the festivals are celebrated by
children and women.
Religion
• His research on Hindu religion was exemplary where he studied the Puranas, schools of philosophy and
other scriptures in great detail and quoted them very frequently in his book.
• The religion was exclusive domain of Brahmins, who recited the Vedas without knowing its context or
meaning.
• Kshatriyas could attain the knowledge of the Vedas, but were not allowed to officiate the Vedic rites but
only Puranic rites.
• He asserts that 'Reincarnation' is the basis of Hindu religion. He strikes out the fact that the beliefs of the
educated upper class, who were interested in finding principles out of abstract happenings, were
different from that of the uneducated lower class, who never looked for the facts behind whatever told
to them.
• According to him, Hindus believe that God (Ishvara) is the cause of existence of everything, he is
formless, limitless and gives without receiving. They believe the identical nature of spirit and soul.
• For Hindus paradise is ‘loka’(where everyone lives in bliss) whereas hell is ‘nagaloka’(world of snakes)
or ‘patala’. It’s the middle world where they live.
• Salvation (Moksha) is the unity of man with God, however, the Indians seemed to differ on the question
of who can attain the moksha.
• One section claims that only Brahmins and Kshatriyas could attain it, whereas others claim that all the
castes can attain the Moksha. The plurality of Hindu religion is so wide that every Cult has its own theory
of salvation and methods to attain it.

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Limitations of Alberuni's account

• His work is based largely on his readings of the Indian literature rather than his own travel experiences.
Therefore, in the absence of first hand experiences, he miscalculated at many places and could not
present the customs or practices in the spirit.
• He was silent on many issues, for eg. he made no mention of Rajputs, the ruling class of those times and
hardly mentions Muslim rulers of the time or Shaivite-Vaishnavite rivalry. May be he was indifferent
towards these issues or perhaps he did not make himself socially active enough to reach out to such issues.
However, a scholar of his consciousness and intellect, not making references to these happenings is very
striking and interesting.
• He, from the outset marks 'Hindus' as very different from his own. Such difference hasn't seems like for
the need of observation but in a prejudiced way.
• Although he appreciates Hindus (Indians) as good in mathematics and astronomy, however, throughout
he maintains his own knowledge as much superior to "them".
• He denounced Hindu sciences as unscientific, unlike Greek ones. He declares Indian sciences like
alchemy (rasayanshastra) as witchcraft and practitioners of it as sorcerers.
Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan

In 1163, Ghiyasuddin Muhammad assumed the throne of Ghur.
• Ghori’s first expedition against India was launched in 1175 when he attacked and captured Multan.
• The following year Ghori captured Uchch. In 1178-79, he marched through Multan and Uchch to
Neharwala in Gujarat.
• However, the Chalukyas under the regency of Naikidevi (widow of Ajaypala) inflicted a crushing defeat
on Ghori near Mt. Abu. We are told that the Chaulukyas had requested Prithviraj for help, which he
declined.
• The most famous among the Chauhan rulers was Prithviraj III who ascended the throne at Ajmer at the
young age of eleven, in or about 1177. He immediately commenced a vigorous policy of expansionism at
the cost of smaller states in Rajasthan.
• Between 1182 and 1187, Prithviraj attacked Chaulukyas of Gujarat. Gujarat ruler, Bhima II, who had earlier
beaten off an invasion by the Ghori, defeated Prithviraj also.
• According to tradition, there was a long-drawn-out tussle between Prithviraj and the Gahadvalas of
Kannauj, who had the most extensive kingdom in the area. The point to note is that by leading expeditions
against all his neighbours, Prithviraj had isolated himself politically.
• After the failure of his Gujarat expedition, Ghori changed his whole plan of operations. Conquering
Peshawar from the Ghaznavids in 1180s, he marched on Lahore in 1187. Ghori continuously expanded his
control over the Punjab, including Sialkot, and also consolidated his control over Sind up to the coast.
The collision of two ambitious Kings was now inevitable.
• The First Battle of Tarain (1191) In the battle, Prithviraj attained a complete victory, Ghori being saved
by a Khalji horseman who carried the wounded Sultan to safety. After his victory, Prithviraj did not try to
pursue the dispirited Ghurid army, either because he did not want to venture into hostile territory far
away from his base, or because he thought that, like the Ghazanavids, the Ghurids, too, would be satisfied
to rule over the Punjab.
• The second battle of Tarain (1192) Ghori had made careful preparations whereas Prithviraj had already
alienated all his powerful neighbours by his militaristic policies. Prithviraj suffered a complete defeat and
fled, but he was pursued and caught near Sarsuti or modern Sirsa in Hissar district. He was taken to Ajmer
and allowed to rule. Delhi became the main base of Turkish operations in India.

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• Battle of Chandavar (1194) The Turks were now poised for attack on the Gahadvalas of Kannauj, reputed
to be the most powerful kingdom in the country. The battle was fought at Chandawar in the modern
Etawah district. Jai Chand, who is not known to have been a great warrior, suffered a disastrous defeat.
• In the west, Ghori's slave invaded Anhilwara in Gujarat
• Rumours of Ghori's death in central Asia led to a rebellion by the Khokhars in the Punjab. Ghori marched
to India to suppress it.
• On his way from the Punjab, Ghori was killed on the banks of the river Indus (1206) by a band of
Karamatias which, as we have seen, were a fanatical sect which had absorbed many features of
Hindu/Buddhist beliefs and which Ghori had persecuted in his life time.
Reason of sweeping victories of Turks over Indian rulers-

1. Lack of political unity in the country, which prevented them to make a join front against the
aggressor.
2. The Indian kings never kept themselves updated with latest technology and military techniques of
the time.
3. The scarcity of able cavalry made the armies heavy and lethargic whereas Turks with their mounted
archers were too fast and agile.
4. The major problem with Rajputs was that they staked everything on a single battle and made no
distinction between battle and war. They will ruin themselves after a defeat with no retreat. Jayapal
burned himself after a defeat, Ghori on the other hand came back even stronger the very next year.
5. Hindu rulers were devided into many castes while one fighting and others doing nothing which
fragments the resources.
6. The slave system of Turks provided them battle hardened Generals who started their careers as a foot
soldiers and rise through the ranks. Indian armies were controlled by Aristocrats born in high blood.
7. Indian Kings never saw a danger coming until it struck them. Mahmud of Gaznavi came 17 times but
no one prepared his kingdom or forged any alliance against him. None of the King ever tried to learn
the superior techniques of war or technology even they kept loosing for centuries.
The Slave Dynasty

• The year 1206 is therefore taken as the start of the Delhi Sultanate.
• All the Muslim rulers that ascended the throne of Delhi after the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 till
1290 were ‘Ilbari Turks’.
• This dynasty is called ’Memluk Dynasty’ (or Slave Dynasty) as Sultans were either themselves slaves or
the descendants of these slave rulers.
• However one should not think of them as the slaves in its general meaning. These slaves are different
from ‘domestic slaves’ and although bought in similar manner in slave markets but due to their
prodigious talent for military warfare and similar skills.
• They rise through the ranks and reach as far as General of the military and as in this case to become
Sultans.
• Muhammad Ghori had left his Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
who on the death of his master, severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his independence and laid
foundation of Memluk dynasty.
Iltutmish
• Before becoming the king, he was (governor) Subedar of Badayun.

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• He was real founder of Delhi Sultanate as he secured a letter of investiture from the Caliph which
bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan.
• He gave Sultanate legitimacy, capital, currency, administration, a centralised army. He took lead in a far
off land when no precedent was in front of him.
• He conquered many new Rajput states and reconquered the lost states and brought much of the North
India under his control. Instead of Lahore, he made Delhi the capital.
• During his rule the sultanate acquired stability and he made the post of King hereditary.
• He nominated his successor without consulting Ulema and that too his daughter, a significant leap in the
authority of the office of King.
• Turk e Chahalagani (Chalisa or Corps of Forty)- In the absence of effective bureaucracy, he installed a
new nobility, which was based on a confederation of Ilbaris, other Turks and a few Mawali (new
Muslims of Hindu origin). They formed a council of forty (Chahalgan) which was very powerful and
became the de facto rulers and Kingmakers behind the majority of his heirs.
• Coinage
o The Rajput coins (before Delhi Sultanate) were called Dehliwala in this time, a silver-copper alloy
of 3.38 grams, of which 0.59 gm was Silver.
o Iltutmish introduced Silver Tanka (11 gm silver) and Silver-Copper Jital (0.25 gm silver), “totally
Arabic Coin” in India.
o Later Balban issued Gold Tanka of 11 gm (the same weight as silver Tanka, however Tanka meant
silver Tanka in common parlance)
• Qutub Minar- The Foundation of the Qutub Minar was laid by Qutb-ud-din as victory tower. The first
storey was built by Qutub-ud-din and rest of the work was completed by Iltutmish.
• Hauz Shamsi- Iltutmish is known to have built the Hauz-i-Shamsi near Mahrauli in Delhi. On the edge
of this reservoir, the Jahaz Mahal was built by the Lodhi Rulers. His eldest son when died he made built
the First Islamic Mausoleum Sultan Garhi in Delhi.
• Iqta System-
o The Iqta system was a practice of Tax farming that was introduced by Iltutmish in Delhi
Sultanate. It was basically grant of revenue from a territory (Iqta) in lieu of salary. This grant was
not hereditary and was subject to passing from officer to officer (later Feroz Shah Tughlaq
made many iqtas hereditery).
o The system shares some similarities with the contemporary European custom of Feudalism
(dedicating the profits of a certain land to warlords in payment of their martial service and
political loyalty). It was basically grant of revenue from a territory instead of a salary. Iqta system
linked the farthest part of the Sultanate linked to the Central Government.
o The land reserved by King was Khalisa land, from which tax goes directly to the Central
Government.
o Another category of land was milk (proprietary right), inam, idrarat (pension) and waqf
(endowment), these were given as rewards or gifts or pensions or religious endowments and
they could be made hereditary. Although the Sultan could theoretically revoke such grants, in
practice it was not really done
• Organization of Army- Iltutmish organized the army of the sultanate and made it the “King’s army”
which was centrally recruited and centrally paid.
Ghiyasuddin Balban
• He ascended the throne in February 1266. He was father in law of sultan and rose to become deputy sultan.
He changed his lineage and connected himself to Persian Shah Afrasiyab.

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• Among first thing he does was the annihilation of the Turk e Chahalgani, executed the survivors of the
Chalisa and relieved himself of the dangers of rivalry.
• He introduced strict court etiquittes, Sajda (kneel and touch the ground with their head to greet the
Sultan) and Paibos (kissing the feet of Sultan), called himself Zill e Illahi (shadow of God), a declaration
that the Sultan was the representative of God on earth, forwarding the Iranian ‘Divine Right Theory’ of
Kingship.
• He deployed a large number of spies to keep the nobles and officers in check and ensured security by an
efficient system of espionage and severely punished spies for their defaults.
• He issued a royal instruction to the Ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs.
• Before his time, power of Finance and Military was concentrated in the post of Wazir. He took military
power from Wazir and created a seperate department of Military 'Diwan e Arz'.
• This also increased efficiency of Military. He made a strong frontier line at the strategic locations around
the Indus river system.
• He also made diplomatic friendship with Mongol ruler Halagu Khan, the annihilator of Abbasid
Caliphate.
• He made almost no expansion of the Sultanate and devoted all the resources to consolidation and to
impose the authority over Rajputs.
• Law and Order problem in Doab areas and Mewat plains was a big issue for the sultanate. He got rid of
them and suppressed them with the iron hand.
• He cleared the forests around Delhi and at a sacrifice of 100,000 men turned a haunt of bush-rangers
into a peaceable agricultural district. He freed the roads from brigands by killing and burning without
mercy. He built forts and established Afghan garrisons to guard communications with Bengal.
• The signature of his rule was the deep racialism adopted by him. He only promoted the Turks and never
gave any important office to Indian Muslims. He was very cruel in his policies and very racial in his
conduct making Sultanate only of Turks.
• He increased the centralization manifolds by establishing law and order which did not only helped in the
workings of state bureaucracy in tax collection etc but it also helped in the development of trade and
commercial activities as safe travel and peace are prerequisites for economy to prosper. Also he tightened
the grip of state by mending the feudal and centrifugal actors across the empire
• He was precursor of Allauddin and prepared the way for his state system.
Allauddin Khilji
• The ‘Absolute State” is the ideal for which Alauddin worked all his life, a state beyond the reach of
Ulemas, unhampered by the ambitions of Nobility and unchallenged by the dominion states of Rajputs
etc in his empire.
• His policies towards nobility were harsh and cruel. He was devoid of any racialism and free of any
fundamentalism.
• He was the first Muslim ruler of Delhi to create an empire embracing the larger portion of India, political
unity was restored after many centuries of disintegration. He gave some sort of administrative cohesion
to the Sultanate which for so long was little more than a collection of military fiefs.
• He was a bold innovator in respect of the relation between the state and the Shariat or Islamic law. He is
the only Sultan who surpasses Balban in both the parameters. His empire was so totalitarian that one
could take it as antecedent of 20th century Socialist states.
• The feudal elements were under a strong grip, the clerical elements were not only neglected but also were
given warnings from time to time.

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• The most important measure to centralize the state was the elimination of intermediaries in revenue
collection and administration of Iqtas by bureaucracy.
• Market control-
o The most important experiment undertaken by the Alauddin was the attempt to control the
markets.
o Alauddin sought to control the prices of all commodities, from foodgrains to horses, and from
cattle and slaves to costly imported cloth.
o The check on markets was kept by two officers-diwan e Riyasat and shahna e Mandi.
o The price control policy was implemented in at least all the towns and cantonment areas around
the empire and obviously not in every part of the empire.
o This was the most enterprising of his reforms which aimed to control the price of everything. This
enabled the state to employ a large number of soldiers at a consistent pay. Barani stamps the success
of his price control policies by calling them “wonder of the age”.
• Land Revenue- He was the first monarch of the Sultanate to establish direct relations with the peasants
to know the actual amount they paid by way of land revenue.
o He extended the administration to rural areas. He was the first King on record to introduce the
policy of ‘Land measurement’ by introducing the Biswa system.
o The land measurement system not only modernized the tax collection but also gave an estimate of
the future collection. This helped him in fixing the accountability of the bureaucracy.
o He fixed the land revenue at 50% of the produce, vastly eliminating the intermediaries (we don’t
know the extent of elimination). He totally eliminated (atleast the best state of that time could
have) the intermediaries who now could not levy the extra cesses and cannot keep a part of taxes,
so his high tax rate of 50%, was indeed burdensome but was not as cruel as it seems .
o According to Barani, the village landlords Khut, Muqaddams and Chaudharies came on par with
poor peasants and state now collects taxes directly via bureaucracy.
• Military Reforms- He introduced the system of Dag and Chehra.
o Dag- Branding of Horses
o Chehra-identity cards cum muster roll for Soldiers.
o This not only curbed the corruption in the lower rungs of military but also created a strong and a
centralized army. His General Malik Kafur led a large army towards Deccan and even crossed
Kaveri, successfully returning with the unimaginable war booty.
• Mongol Threat- He strengthened the defense line setup of Balban, he not only modernized it but also
increased the force deployed there.
o He built many new forts at new places of strategic importance. Also made Siri his capital to protect
it from Mongols invaders.
o He almost crushed the Mongol threat decisively and converted many Mongol prisoners to Islam.
o Many of them settled in Delhi and were called Naya Mussalmans (New Muslims).
• Controlling the Ulema class-
o He did not applied for the investiture from Caliph and openly announced that he was not willing
to be directed by Ulemas.
o He worked for the seperation of state and theology to the extent possible during the age.
o His conversation with Qazi Mughisuddin makes clear about his secular visions about
administering the state.
o He even changed the ratio of distribution of Khums (war booty) which earlier was ⅕ to state and
⅘ to the soldier to ⅕ to soldier and ⅘ to state, which was un-Islamic.

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Muhammad bin Tughlaq

By far the most controversial Sultan of Delhi Sultanate and perhaps of the Indian history.
• He is best remembered as a ruler who undertook a number of bold experiments, and shown keen interest
in agriculture, created Diwan e Kohi (department of agriculture) and formulated the ‘Famine code’ for
relief to the famine affected people.
• Like Alauddin he too re-established and re strengthened the frontier line of Balban.
• He was also prepared to give high offices to people on the basis of merit, irrespective of whether they
belonged to noble families or not.
• Vastly increased and diversified nobility by assimilating Indians. This indeed was resented by the old
nobility but instead of grouping against Sultan they were busy competing the new nobles.
• He introduced dinar (gold coin) and adl (silver coin). Gold dinar of weight 202 grains while compared
to the then standard weight of 172 grains. The silver adls weighed 144 grains weight and was his
innovation aiming to adjust the commercial value of the metal with respect to gold. Seven years later, he
discontinued it due to lack of popularity and acceptance among his subjects.
• He established the city of Jahanpanah.
• Taxation in the Doab He made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganga and
Jamuna.
o He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or
cessess. Although the share of the state remained half as in the time of Alauddin, it was fixed
arbitrarily and not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for converting the
produce into money.
o Ghari or house tax and the Charai or pasture tax were levied. Rich became rebels, lands were ruined
and cultivation arrested.
o The inflation soared and famines became common phenomena in which thousands perished.
• Transfer of Capital (1327) He wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control
South India better. Deogir was named Daulatabad, however, after a couple of years, Muhammad Tughlaq
decided to abandon Daulatabad largely because he soon found that just as he could not control South
India from Delhi, he could not control north from Daulatabad. It gave unimaginable hardships to the
people as he the migration was made mandatory for everyone. The net result was that Delhi lost its former
prosperity and glory.
• Introduction of Token Currency (1330) He decided to introduce bronze coins, which were to have the
same value as the silver ones. Muhammad Tughlaq might have been successful if he could have prevented
the people from forging the new coins (as in modern times where only Central banks have the technology
to create banknotes). He was not able to do so, soon the new coins began to be greatly devalue in markets.
Finally, Muhammad Tughlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver
pieces for bronze coins. The technology of the age did not let him succeed in this too visionary a plan.
• Khurasan and Quarachil Expeditions He had a vision of universal conquest. He decided to conquest
Khurasan and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose. But his expedition proved a failure. The
Quarachil expedition was launched to counter Chinese incursions. It also appears that the expedition
was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon-Garhwal region with the object of bringing them
under Delhi Sultanate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy season set in, the invaders
suffered terribly. Both the expeditions resulted in great loss of trained soldiers and cavalry.
• The revolts and discontents aroused in all the parts of the empire and much of the state machinery was
deployed to counter that.
• His transfer of capital was so hectic that control of state over the empire was affected for more than 2
years.

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• The historians are deeply divided in his assesment, they consider him either too visionary or too
impatient and lacking in practical understanding.
• With every failure of his schemes he grew bitter and recluse. He was a keen intellect and accomplished
scholar, free of bigotry and fundamentalism.
• However he did not bothered about sentiments of his people and was very cruel many a times.
• Unlike his predecessors he had no animosity against Hindus or Jains.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 AD)

At coronation, a large part of the nobility considered him not fit to be Sultan as his mother was a Hindu.
Complete chaos in the revenue administration had already overburdened the population, since the time of
his cousin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The famines and policies of his predecessor brought many hardships to
rural agriculture.
The nobles and ulemas at the court selected Muhammad’s cousin Firoz Shah as the next Sultan. He gave a
number of important concessions to the theologians. He tried to ban practices which the orthodox
theologians considered un-Islamic. He tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true
Muslim king and the state under him was truly Islamic. In order to keep them satisfied, a number of them
were appointed to high offices. To win over people to his side he remitted all their debts, he even made no
efforts to recover the money from those who got it from state treasury by Khwaja i jahan in the bid to
succession.
It was during the time of Feroz that Jaziya became a separate tax. He prohibited the practice of Muslim
women going out to worship at the graves of saints. He persecuted a number of Muslim sects which were
considered heretical by the theologians. He refused to exempt the Brahmans from the payment of Jaziya since
this was not provided for in the shariat. Worse, he publicly burnt a Brahman for preaching to the Muslims,
on the ground that it was against the shariat. He rejected the old tax system and introduced the Quranic
taxation of four taxes ie. Kharaz, Jakat, Jaziya and Khums. He established Diwan-i-Khairat (department for
poor and needy people) and Diwan-i-Bundagan (department of slaves).
Feroz made Iqtadari system hereditary and extended the principle of heredity to the army. Soldiers were
allowed to rest during peace time and to send in their place, their sons. The soldiers were not paid in cash but
by assignments on land revenue of villages. This novel technique of payment led to many abuses. He relaxed
the people who took credit by forgiving it (Takan). Firoz also took a number of humanitarian measures. He
banned inhuman punishments, such as cutting of hands, feet, noses, etc., for theft and other offences.
However, his rule is marked by peace and tranquility and credit for it goes to his Prime Minister, Khan-i-Jahan
Maqbul.
He cancelled all the Taqavi loans and ordered that peasants should not be harassed by the officers, He also
cancelled 24 cesses levied during Muhammad bin and decreased the tax rate. He was the builder of cities and
founded many new cities like Firozabad, Jaunpur and Firozpur etc. He started a lot of irrigation projects like
canals from Setluj and Yamuna and many others. A lot of wells were dug and he even introduced superior
crops.
The centralization of the state suffered as never before, so much so that he shares a lot of blame for the
weakening and collapse of the Delhi Sultanate itself. Making Iqtas and army hereditary puts dagger in the
heart of the very spirit of a centralized state. He granted very big jagirs which had created power zones. His
largesse in the financial matters and policies of appeasement made state unable to channelize enough
resources to support state bureaucracy and its defenses.
Firoz Shah died in 1388. His successors were weak and incompetent. They were merely kings in name and
acted as puppets in the hands of their ministers. Consequently, the Tughlaq Empire went rapidly down the
path of decay.

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Timur invaded India in 1398 which left Delhi in ruins and almost depopulated. The whole of northern
India was in disorder and confusion.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 AD)

Khizr Khan, a lieutenant of Timur, was a Sayyid and so his dynasty is called the Sayyid Dynasty. Khizr Khan
ruled till 1420, but his whole reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder. He was succeeded, after his death,
by his son Mubarak Shah (1421–1434). During his reign the subedars of Punjab, Bhatinda and Doab broke out
in revolt and the whole of his period was spent in trying to suppress them. He died in 1434 and was succeeded
by his son Mohammad Shah (1434–1443). During his reign, the ruler of Malwa invaded Delhi, which was
however, saved by the valiant Subedar of Lahore, Bahlol Lodhi. After Mohammad Shah’s death, his son Ala-
ud-Din Alam Shah (1443–1451) proved incompetent. He himself handed over the reins of his kingdom to
Bahlol Lodhi and retired to Badaun.
Emerged as a principality of Multan it ended as a principality of Badaun. The dynasty has insignificant
contribution to the culture and polity of medieval India. The study of this dynasty is also hindered by the
scarcity of the primary sources and given its nonexistent clout and resources to rule, the absence of court poets
and uninterest of travelers, it’s too obvious.
Lodhi Dynasty (1451–1526 AD)

The Lodhi dynasty ruled for a substantial period but throughout was marred by conflicts between crown and
the nobility, zamindars and hakims. The main enemy of the Lodhi kingdom was the tribal polity of Afghans
and its concept of partnership in Government. The army was also much like a tribal militia with no central
command. A notable change during this time was that centre of power shifted from Delhi to Agra.
Under all three rulers of the dynasty, it was a feudal state where centralization of state was of much diluted
nature. King was considered a partner and equal and theories like ‘divine rights’ are unimaginable. The only
point worth noting is that first King Bahlol Lodhi not only accepted these tribal tendencies but also
encouraged them. Later Sikandar and Ibrahim fought very hard to curb these tendencies but only partially
succeeded and it became the main cause of fall of first Afghan empire in India.
Bahlol Lodhi (1451–1489 AD)

Lodhi Sultans were the members of the first Pathan dynasty in India (Sher Shah Suri founded the next).
Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the Lodhi dynasty by usurping the throne from the last of the Sayyid rulers,
Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah.
He was a kind and generous ruler who never exhibited his superiority while dealing with his nobles but also
strong enough to sudue the recalcitrant ones. He was always prepared to help his subjects. Though he was
himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning. He was a strong and brave ruler and an able
motivator who very successfully rallied the Afghan nobles. There was no tinge of racialism or
fundamentalism in his policies.
He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories around Delhi and after continuous wars for 26
years, he succeeded in extending his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Etawah, Mewar, Sambhal, and Gwalior
etc. However due to his recurring wars he could not establish any civil administration and state bureaucracy
and his kingdom was run by feudal lords on tribal conventions. He died in 1488 leaving throne for his son
Sikandar lodhi.
Sikandar Lodhi (1489–1517 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi was succeeded by his son Nizam Khan who ascended the throne in 1488 as Sikandar Lodhi. Like
his father, he was a brave and able ruler. He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic and lacked religious

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tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus. He was a great lover of art
and learning. Was just and believed in the well-being of his subjects. An able administrator, he was considered
most able of all three afghan sultans.
He extended the empire by conquering Dholpur, Chanderi and Jaunpur. He shifted his capital to Agra (1506).
He took strong actions against Afghan nobles and jagirdars and kept strict vigilance on them. He exalted the
position of the office of King. He introduced several reforms and provided an efficient administration.
During his reign, prices were low and people were happy, he made special efforts to re-establish law and order
along the remote areas and highways. He levied 'Jaziya' on non-muslim. Introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari
(Sikandar’s yard) of 39 digits 32 inches, for measuring cultivated land.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1516-26)

Sikander Lodhi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodhi who ascended the throne in 1517.
• He was obdurate and haughty and adamant to change the tribal conventions.
• His ill-treatment turned the loyal Afghan noble against him. They hatched a conspiracy to declare his
uncle, Jalal Khan, as the ruler of Delhi, but failed.
• He defeated Rana Sanga in the ‘battle of Gharoli’ (1517–18).
• Thereafter, Ibrahim crushed his nobles with cruelty. He was so whimsical that the honour of his nobles
was never safe.
• There is no doubt he was brave and courageous but short tempered and lacked the political acumen. He
demanded too much obedience and humility from his nobles.
• Tired of his continuous ill-treatment, Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab, invited Babur to
invade India. Possibly he thought Babur, like Timur, will return after plundering.
• Babur took advantage of the opportunity and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526 in the First Battle of
Panipat. Ibrahim Lodhi was killed in the battlefield and Babur founded the famous Mughal Dynasty.
• Ibrahim was unique in chivalry, courage and determination but master in turning loyal allies into enemies
and failed to maintain authority over generals and officers and on the eve of Babur’s arrival he was
surrounded by enemies on all sides.
• No Sultan of India except Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field.
• The reason of defeat of Ibrahim were the treachery of nobles, Babur’s scientific and advanced methods
of warfare and his battle-hardened generals and most importantly his powerful artillery.

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5. THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The background of the growth of Bhakti movement in India

• The bedrock of the Indian social system during the later ancient period was the ‘Varna’ system which
stratified the society into 4 groups and the vertical mobility of an individual across these groups was
virtually impossible (however one cannot reject it completely).
• The system of various ‘Jatis’ made the social structure lot more complex. The jatis were not the simple
sub division of Varnas but can be seen more as an occupational group.
• The most oppressive feature of the social system was ‘Untouchability’ and the victims were obviously
willing to adopt anything that can help them out of it.
• The various sects across the country were tied from the different religious books which were followed
by the sect to the last word. The rituals and ceremonies of such sects were not only burdensome but also
were devised to concentrate the wealth in the hands of elites of the society.
• The later ancient period was marked with the changing economic position of the jatis and communities
at the lower stratum of the society. Among them were the weavers of south India who were associated
with the temples.
• This improvement in the economic conditions encouraged their social aspirations too. However, unlike
the traditional elitist groups they cannot and did not tried to place themselves at exalted positions in the
scriptures and therefore a more socially mobile way grew popular among them which was Bhakti.
• A caveat is needed in understanding the Bhakti that it did not remained a movement free of varna
rigidities and with the incorporation of Brahmanic ‘Acharyas’ this movement too was not as utopian as
one may think it to be.
• The widespread popularity of the monotheistic movement of Kabir, Nanak, Dhanna, Pipa etc. can be
explained fully only in the context of certain significant socio-economic changes in the period following
the Turkish conquest of Northern India.
• The Turkish ruling class, unlike the Rajputs, lived in towns. The extraction of large agricultural surplus
led to enormous concentration of resources in the hands of the ruling class. The demands of this
resource-wielding class for manufactured goods, luxuries and other necessaries led to the introduction
of many new techniques and crafts on a large scale. This, in turn, led to the expansion of the class of urban
artisans in the 13th and 14th centuries.
• The growing classes of urban artisans were attracted towards the monotheistic movement because of its
egalitarian ideas as they were now not satisfied with the low status accorded to them in traditional
Brahmanical hierarchy.
• It has been pointed out that some groups of traders like the Khatris in the Punjab, who benefited directly
from the growth of towns, urban crafts production and expansion of markets, were also drawn into the
movement for the same reason.
• The popularity of the monotheistic movement was the result of the support it obtained from one or more
of these different classes of the society. It is one or more of these sections which constituted the social
base of the movement in different parts of Northern India.
• In Punjab, the popularity of the movement did not remain confined to urban classes, it acquired a broader
base by the incorporation of the Jat peasants in its ranks. The support extended by the Jats of the Punjab
to Guru Nanak's movement ultimately contributed to the development of Sikhism as a mass religion.
The historiography of Bhakti movement

The scholars are deeply divided on the origin of Bhakti movement. Was it born out of the Aryan and non-
Aryan belief system (Hinduism) or was it the direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in India.

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• The former view states that the movement had started from the time of Shankaracharya who established
a logical monistic system and laid emphasis on attaining salvation through knowledge. Also the
Upanishads contains a lot of philosophical discussions over the monism and futility of social segregation
and rituals. Earlier Bhakti saints of south India too precedes the arrival of Islam.
• The other view says it was both the outcome of the penetration of Islamic ideals and the reaction of the
growth of Islam in India. To escape from tyranny of caste system, a large number of lower caste Hindus
were embracing Islam. The saints reduced the rigors of caste system to pave the way for retention of such
groups in Hinduism. It was the monotheistic Islam which was the inspiration behind the Bhakti
movement. Islam did influence the Bhakti cults, especially later ones.
• Nirguna Bhakti saints such as Kabir and Nanak picked up some of their ideas from Islam. These include
their non-compromising faith in one God, their rejection of incarnation, attack on idolatry and the caste
system. But they did not uncritically borrow from Islam and rejected many elements of orthodox Islam.
• The Saguna Bhakti movements, on the other hand, cannot be taken as influenced from Islam as they
neither denounced idolatry and the caste system nor the theory of incarnations.
• Though the Sufism and the Nirguna (monotheistic) movements were historically independent of each
other, they grew remarkable similarities in many of their basic ideas, including their common rejection
of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies. The interaction between them, however indirectly, must have given
impetus to both of them.
• Max Weber even claims that the idea of Bhakti as means and condition of salvation was borrowed from
Christianity.
• It is safe to say that the Bhakti movement started more due to social and economic changes rather than
due to contact with some other religion. However, the changes in the meantime are certainly due to
inspiration and reaction from other religions.
The Southern Indian Bhakti movement

The Alvar saints (Vaishnava Saints) and Nayanar saints (Shaiva saints) of South India spread the doctrine of
Bhakti among different sections of the society irrespective of caste and sex between 7 th and the 10th century.
• The Alvar Saints through their hymns worshipped Vishnu and his avatars in love and ecstasy. The
collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha which they sung at Divya Desams (sacred
shrines).
• The Nayanars Saints were a group of 63 saints devoted to Shiva. Their hymns were later compiled in a
twelve-volume compendium called Thirumurai.
• Some of these saints came from the ‘lower’ castes and some were women. Women like Andal (Alvar) and
Karaikal Ammaiyar (Nayanar) composed many songs in praise of Gods.
• They dispensed with rituals and traversed the region several times, singing, dancing and advocating
Bhakti.
• The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil language and not Sanskrit for preaching and composing
devotional songs. All these features gave the movement a popular character.
• In South Bhakti movement was not divided into Nirguna and Saguna streams (in fact it was totally
Saguna Bhakti)
The South Indian Bhakti movement had following limitations.

• It never consciously opposed Brahmanism or the Varna and caste systems at the social level.
• The ideological and social foundations of caste system were not challenged by the South Indian saint
poets.

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• It was integrated with the caste system and the lower castes continued to suffer from various social
disabilities.
• There was no elimination of Brahmanic rituals such as the worship of idols, recitation of the Vedic
mantras and pilgrimages to sacred places.
• The Buddhists and Jains were its main targets, not the Brahmans.
• The Brahman dominated temples played an important role in the growth of South Indian Bhakti
movement.
• Ultimately, after the movement reached its climax in the tenth century, it was gradually assimilated into
the conventional Brahmanic religion.
However, South Indian Bhakti movements made many achievements on social front.
• The South Indian Bhakti movement succeeded in championing the cause of religious equality and,
consequently, the Brahmans had to accept the right of the low caste to preach, to have access to Bhakti as
a mode of worship and to have access even to the Vedas.
• They won over many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism both of which by then became rigid and formal
religions.
• These saint-poets simultaneously resisted the domination of the orthodox Brahmins by making bhakti
accessible to all without any caste and sex discrimination.
• It stressed on bhakti as the superior mode of worship, which made religion lot less cumbersome.
• The inclusion of women in religion was a significant step, however, it was more ritual than social.
Bhakti Movement in Northern India

Bhakti as a religious concept means devotional surrender to a personally conceived Supreme God for
attaining salvation.
• The origin of this doctrine has been traced to both the Brahmanic and Buddhist traditions of ancient
India and to various scriptures such as the Gita.
• However, it was for the first time in South India between the seventh and tenth century that Bhakti
grew from a mere religious doctrine into a popular movement based on religious equality and broad-
based social participation.
• The next spurt of the movement arrived in the Eleventh century, when it was revived as a
philosophical and ideological movement by a series of wandering scholars or Acharyas, beginning with
Ramanuja.
• The Bhakti movement had a great bearing on Indian society, culture, religion and literature. A large
number of mystics and saint-poets took to writing and social reform.
• Almost all of them were Sadhakas (meditators) and wanderers in the name of God and in the service of
the people. They were often opposed to the establishment, and all authoritarian monastic order.
• All of them claimed relevance for religion in social life. Their discontent against the contemporary
society, priests, ruling class and their sincere effort for scholarly inquiry are clearly discernible in their
writings.
• They generally protested against authority of the "four pillars" of the contemporary society.
1. Social structure (i.e. caste, untouchability, low status of Sudras and women and their deprivation
of knowledge).
2. The intellectual hegemony of the Sanskrit language (almost all of their works are in vernacular
literature).
3. The religious impositions and its various externalities like priesthood, rituals, pilgrimage and
idol-worship.

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4. They raised their voice against the political authority and exploitation of the ruling class.
• The nature of their protest can be understood better with a socio-cultural background of the period. The
scriptures remained entirely under the domination of Sanskrit, which served the official and professional
language of a minority group in society that had monopolised education.
• It has been pointed out that as the popular Bhakti movement could not take root in Northern India before
the Turkish conquest because the socio-religious milieu was dominated by the Rajput-Brahman alliance
which was hostile to any heterodox movement. The advent of Islam with the Turkish conquest caused a
setback to the power and prestige commanded by the Brahmans.
• The Turks deprived the Brahmans of their temple wealth and state patronage. Thus the Brahmans
suffered both materially and ideologically. The loss of power and influence by the Brahmans and the new
political situation ultimately created conditions for the rise of the popular monotheistic movements and
other Bhakti movements in Northern India.
• The Brahmins, besides performing religious ceremonies, acted as the foci of culture. It was they who held
out to the people the immense benefits of listening to the Puranas.
• The Bhakti cult was extremely popular as it laid stress on issues like egalitarianism, unity of God, dignity
of man's actions, simple devotion and protest against ritualism and priest-hood. All the schools of
thought belonging to the genre of Bhakti believed in the existence of a God supernaturally revealed to
man. The chief attribute of this movement was the attitude of the soul with regard to the Supreme Being.
• Each one of the Bhakti movement movements had a historical context of its own and its own
peculiarities. In view of these wide and basic differences among various Bhakti movements, they must
be discussed individually in order to clearly bring out the characteristics of each one of them and also to
discover elements of unity and diversity among them.
• Bhakti movement was never a single movement except in the broad doctrinal sense of a movement
which laid emphasis on Bhakti and religious equality. Each one of them had its own regional identity and
socio-historical and cultural contexts.
Prominent Vaishnava Acharyas

• In the 11th century, Ramanuja revived the waning Bhakti movement started in South India. He gave
philosophically tried to establish a careful balance between orthodox Brahmanism and popular Bhakti
which was open to all.
• Though he did not support the idea of the lower castes having access to the Vedas, he did advocated Bhakti
as a mode of worship accessible to all including the Sudras and even the outcasts. While propagating
Bhakti, he did not observe caste distinctions and even tried to eradicate untouchability.
• Nimbarka, a Telugu Brahman (lived in Vrindavan), a younger contemporary of Ramanuja, believed in
total devotion to Krishna and Radha.
• Another South Indian Bhakti philosopher was Madhava (13th century). Like Ramanuja, he did not dispute
orthodox Brahmanical restriction of the Vedic study by the Sudras. He believed that the Bhakti provided
an alternative mode of worship to the Sudras.
• The next prominent Vaishnava Acharyas were Ramananda (late 14th century) and Vallabhacharya (late
15th century). Both of them lived in North India during the Sultanate period and gave a new orientation
to the Vaishnava Bhakti.
• Ramananda was described as the bridge between the Bhakti movement of the South and the North. He
opined that Islam is in action against Hindu society, not only politically but also religiously and Hindu
society is seeking refuge in the shell of orthodoxy.

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• His movement offered generous recognition to the spiritual and social needs of the common people. As
a reformer, he was nearer to the spirit of age than Ramanuja. He made considerable relaxation of the caste
rules in respect of religious and social matters.
• He popularized religion by using vernaculars instead of Sanskrit, which socially and linguistically takes
religion to the common people. He also preferred regional gods over the traditional gods.
• He avoided both ‘Karma-marg’ and ‘Gyana-marg’ and held that forms of worship are superfluous and
Bhakti-marg (supreme devotion) is to simply keep uttering the God’s name. Therefore, he paid no
emphasis on rituals and pilgrimages. Many of his disciples were cobblers, weavers and peasants.
The ideology and principles of Bhakti movement

There arose during the Sultanate period (13th to 15th century) many popular socio-religious movements in
North and East India, and Maharashtra.
• Emphasis on Bhakti and religious equality were two common features of these movements.
• Almost all the Bhakti movements of the Sultanate period have been related to one South Indian
Vaishnava Acharya or the other (exception being, monotheistic movements of Kabir, Nanak and other
low caste saints). For these reasons, many scholars believe that the Bhakti movements of the Sultanate
period were a continuation or resurgence of the older Bhakti movement.
• The saints of Bhakti movement were generally non-sectarian and had no desire to set up a separate sect
of their own.
• They had no blind faith in any sacred scriptures, rituals and ceremonies. The majority of them
condemned idolatry and emphasized on the loving relationship between the devotee and his personal
god. Bhakti for them was single minded, uninterrupted and extreme devotion to God without any
ultimate motive. The approach to God is to be made by personal love and it requires a purification of body
and mind from all sins which could not be done without the help of a Guru.
• It was a reformist movement by purging all evil practices like the rigors of caste and image worship in
Hindu religion.
• They discarded rituals and sacrifices as modes of worship. Instead, they emphasized the purity of heart
and mind as also kindness and love to all as the simple way to the realization of God.
• They also discarded the castes, creed and gender-based discrimination in the society.
Similarity in Southern and Northern Bhakti movements

• There are undoubtedly striking similarities between the older Bhakti tradition of South India and various
Bhakti-movements that flourished in the Sultanate and Mughal periods.
• Like the South Indian Bhakti movement, the Vaishnava Bhakti movements of Northern and Eastern
India and Maharashtra, though egalitarian in the religious sphere, never denounced the caste system, the
authority of Brahmanical scriptures and the Brahmanical privileges as such.
• Consequently, like the South Indian Bhakti, most of the Vaishnava movements of the later period were
ultimately assimilated into the Brahmanical religion, though in the process of interaction, the latter itself
underwent many changes.
Various streams of Bhakti Movements

• Kabir's notion of Bhakti was not the same as that of the medieval Vaishnavism saints such as Chaitanya
or Mirabai.
• The historical context of Maharashtra Bhakti was different from that of the Bengal Vaishnavism or
North Indian Bhakti movement of Ramanand, Vallabha, Surdas and Tulsidas.

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• Among all the Bhakti movements, the popular monotheistic movements of Kabir, Nanak, Raidas and
other lower caste saints stand out fundamentally different.
• Popular Monotheistic Movement and Vaishnava Bhakti Movement arose in Northern India at the same
time, that is, in the centuries following the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and advent of Islam in
that part of the country. However, the causes and sources of the two movements and the factors exerting
influence on them were quite diverse.
Nirguna Bhakti and Saguna Bhakti- The Bhakti exponents can be divided into two broad groups on the basis
of the conception of God.
Nirguna Bhakti
• The Nirguna Bhakti believes that God does not have any form and therefore do not believe in idol
worship or reincarnations and emphasis on individual penance etc.
• The Nirguna Bhakti had its base in towns and qasbas and rarely in villages.
• The lower castes on the arrival of the Turks and urbanisation and resulting improvement of economy
benefited most, therefore instead of imitating the orthodox elements of religion, moved towards a more
democratized form of worship which is Nirguna Bhakti. This is the reason it was more practiced in newly
settled social centers and the urban centers.
• Nirguna Bhakti emerged due to the improvement of the economic conditions of the traditionally
disadvantaged castes.
• Therefore, the Nirguna Bhakti advocated for the domestic life and the participation in production
instead of ascetic life.
Its basic tenets are-

• Belief in one Supreme god.
• Self-surrender to god.
• Faith in guru (master).
• No belief in caste system, idol worship and ritualism.
• No attachment to any particular language.
Monotheistic Movements of Nirguna Bhakti

• Kabir (1440-1518) started the earliest monotheistic movement, spending the greater part of his life in
Banaras (Kashi). He belonged to a family of weavers, who converts to Islam.
• The monotheistic saints who succeeded him either claimed to be his disciples or respectfully mention
him. His verses were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth in large numbers than those of other
monotheists.
• Raidas (or Ravidas) most probably belonged to the generation next to Kabir's. He was a tanner by caste.
He also lived in Banaras and was influenced by Kabir's ideas.
• Dhanna was a fifteenth century Jat peasant from Rajasthan. Other prominent saints of the same period
were Sen (a barber) and Pipa.
• Guru Nanak (1469-1539) preached his ideas much in the same way as Kabir and other monotheists, but
due to various developments later his teachings led to the emergence of a religion, Sikhism. He belonged
to a caste of traders called Khatri and was born in a village in Punjab now known as Nankana Sahib. The
hymns composed by him were incorporated in the Adi Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjan in 1604.

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Features of Monotheistic Movements

The teachings of all the saints who are associated with the monotheistic movement have certain common
features which give the movement its basic unity
• Most of the monotheists belonged to the lower castes and were aware that there existed a unity of ideas
among themselves. In their verses they mention each other and their predecessors in such a way as to
suggest a harmonious ideological affinity between them.
• All the monotheists were influenced in one way or another and in varying degrees by the Vaishnava
concept of Bhakti and the Sufism. The monotheistic movement represents the synthesis of elements
from these three traditions.
• For the monotheists, there was only one way of establishing communion with God, it was the way of
personally experienced Bhakti. They believed in only one God, which is non-incarnate, nirankar
(formless), akal (eternal) and alakh (ineffable).
• The monotheistic Bhakti, was nirguna Bhakti and not Saguna which was the case with the vaishnavites
who believed in various human incarnations of God. The monotheists adopted the notion of Bhakti from
the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition, but gave it a nirguna orientation
• The monotheists followed a path which was independent of both dominant religions of the time,
Hinduism and Islam. They denied their allegiance to either of them and criticised the superstitions and
orthodox elements of both the religions
• The monotheists composed their poems in popular languages. The monotheistic saints preferred this
common language to their own native dialects because they considered it fit for the propagation of their
non-conformist ideas among the masses in various regions.
• The monotheists also made use of popular symbols and images to propagate their teachings. Their
utterances are expressed in short verses which could be easily remembered.
• Most of the monotheistic saints were not ascetics. They led worldly life and were married. They lived and
preached among the people. They had aversion to and disdain for professional ascetics, and continued to
pursue their family professions.
• Despite the widespread popularity that the teachings of monotheists enjoyed among the masses, the
followers of each one of the major figures in the monotheistic movement like Kabir, Raidas and Nanak
gradually organized themselves into exclusive sectarian orders called panths such as Kabir panth, Raidasi
panth, Nanak panth, etc.
Saguna Bhakti
• The saguna Bhakti stressed on the worship of God in human form, mainly Rama and Krishna.
• It emphasises on idol worship, incarnations and singing of devotional songs etc.
• It had a base in both rural as well as urban centres.
• It was popular in the traditionally well off groups, however, did not confine only to them and trickled
down to the masses.
• Later in the 17th century the wave of Saguna Bhakti reappeared with greater force and prevailed over
Nirguna Bhakti.
• Also the orthodox elements of the Hindu religion felt disenchanted with Nirguna Bhakti supported the
Saguna Bhakti.
Its basic tenets are-

• Belief in a particular form of god.
• No belief in caste system and rituals.
• Belief in idol worship.

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• Popularisation of local languages.
Movements of Saguna Bhakti

• The doctrine of Bhakti is fully developed in the most famous of the Puranas, The Bhagvata Purana,
composed around the 9th century.
• Its most important feature is its emphasis on the Bhakti of Vishnu in his various incarnations, especially
in the form of Krishna.
• The Bhagavata accepts the orthodox Brahmanical theory of the origin of the varna system but does not
accept the superiority of the Brahmans simply on the basis of their status or birth. For it, Bhakti is the
main criteria.
• It has been pointed out that Bhagavata Purana is the link between various Vaishnava Bhakti movements
of the medieval period.
• Ramananda (14th century) was the most prominent scholar saint of the Vaishnava Bhakti in Northern
India during this period. He lived in South India in the early part of his life but later settled in Banaras.
He is considered to be the link between the south Indian Bhakti tradition and North Indian Vaishnhva
Bhakti.
• Another prominent Vaishnava preacher in the Sultanate period was Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahman
of the late 15th and early 16th century. He was the founder of Pushtimarg (way of grace) which became the
basis of Shuddhdvaita. He advocated Krishna Bhakti. Famous Krishna Bhakti saint-poet, Surdas (1483-
1563) and seven other Krishna Bhakti poets were believed to have been the disciples of Vallabha.
• Tulsidas (1532-1623) championed the cause of Rama Bhakti while Surdas (1483-1563), Mira Bai (1503-73)
and many others popularised Krishna Bhakti.
• Chaitanya (1486-1533) was the most prominent Vaishnava saint of Bengal Bhakti movement. He
popularized Krishna-Bhakti in many parts of Eastern India.
o The advent of Chaitanya marks the shifting of the focus of the Bengal Vaishnava Bhakti from
devotional literary compositions to a full-fledged reform movement with a broad social base.
o Chaitanya disregarded all distinctions of caste, creed and sex to give a popular base to Krishna-
Bhakti.
o He popularized the practice of ‘Sankirtan’ or group devotional singing accompanied by ecstatic
dancing.
o However, Chaitanya did not give up traditional Brahamanical values altogether. He did not question
the authority of the Brahmans and scriptures.
o He upheld the caste prejudices of his Brahman disciples against the "lower" caste disciples.
o But Chaitanya's movement had a great impact on Bengali society.
o His disregard for caste distinctions in the sphere of devotional singing promoted a sense of equality
in Bengali life.
• Like other Vaishnava Bhakti movements, the Maharashtra Bhakti tradition drew its basic inspiration
from that of the Bhagavata Purana.
• Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer Bhakti saint of Maharashtra. He wrote an extensive commentary
on the Bhagavad Gita popularly called Jnanesvari. This was one of the earliest works of Marathi literature
and served as the foundation of Bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. He was the author of many hymns called
abhanga (devotional poetry sung in praise of the Hindu god Vitthala (Vithoba), incarnation of Vishnu).
He taught that the only way to attain God was Bhakti and in Bhakti there was no place for caste
distinctions.
• Namdev (1270-1350) belonged to the tailor caste. He is considered to be the link between the
Maharashtrian Bhakti movement and North Indian monotheistic movement. He lived in Pandharpur but

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travelled to North India including the Punjab. His Bhakti songs have also been included in the Adi
Granth.
• In Maharashtra other prominent Bhakti saints were Eknath (1533-99) and Tukaram (1598- 1650).
• In Gujarat, Bhakti was preached by the Vallabha sect of Vallabhacharya and another important saint,
Narsimha Mehta. The Vallabha sect became popular among merchants and landowners of Gujarat.
• In Assam, Shankaradeva (1449-1568) introduced Bhakti both in the Brahmputra valley. He preached
absolute devotion to Vishnu or his incarnation, Krishna. Monotheistic ideas influenced his concept of
Bhakti which came to be known as the ‘eka-sarana-dharma’ ('religion of seeking refuge in one'). He made
some significant innovations in the devotional practice such as inclusion of dance-drama-music form in
the preaching of Bhakti. He also founded the institution of ‘satra’ which means a sitting during which
people of all classes assembled for religious as well as social purposes.
• Shaiva Bhakti flourished in Kashmir in the 14th century. Most prominent of the Shaiva Bhakti saints
was a woman, Lal Ded (Lalleshwari).
Limitations
• It has been argued that the Bhakti movements of medieval India represented the sentiments of the
common people against feudal oppression.
• Sometimes the medieval Bhakti movements are seen as the Indian counterpart of the Protestant
Reformation in Europe. However, there is nothing in the poetry of the Bhakti, saints to suggest that they
represented the class interests of the peasantry against the surplus-extracting feudal state.
• The Vaishnava Bhakti saints broke away from orthodox Brahmanical order only to the extent that they
believed in Bhakti and religious equality. Normally, they continued to subscribe to many basic principles
of orthodox Brahmanism.
• The more radical Monotheistic saints rejected orthodox Brahmanical religion altogether, but even they
did not call for the overthrow of the state and the ruling class.
• For these reasons, the Bhakti movements cannot be regarded as an Indian variant of the European
Protestant Reformation which was a far greater social upheaval linked to the decline of feudalism and the
rise of capitalism.
• This, however, does not mean that the Bhakti saints were indifferent to the living conditions of the
people.
• They used images of daily life and always tried to identify themselves in one way or another with the
sufferings of the common people.
• It was a cultural movement, therefore, to blame it for not bringing substantial change in the lives of
masses is an unjust criticism. Unlike Protestantism, neither Indian society had conditions of Southern
Britain to bring any great Economic change, nor did it had the state patronage as given by North German
states.
Legacy
• Many of the current practices of popular Hinduism such as repetition of divine names, emphasis on the
company of saints and community devotional singing can be traced to medieval Bhakti movements.
• The Bhakti Movement resulted in as a great literary wave. The preachers did not preach in Sanskrit, but
in the mother tongues of the common people, therefore contributing to the growth of modem vernacular
languages.
• Emergence of organized religious communities like the Sikhs and evolution of various sects or Panths.
• The Bhakti Movement was not a movement of the wise few, but of the wider mass. It is said that after
Buddhism, the Bhakti cult saw the next most popular religious awakening.

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• The movement supplied the incentive of social reforms in Hindu society. The caste system became less
rigid. Social differences got reduced. Hatred of man for man received a severe blow. A sense of social
unity developed. Orthodox religious practices lost merit and religion received a simpler form as devotion
gave an easier meaning to it.
• The distance between Islam and Hinduism got reduced. Instead of quarrelling over outer things, Hindu
and Muslims understood the inner meaning of their religions. While the Hindus paid respect to the
Muslim Saints, the Muslims enjoyed the Hindu ceremonies.

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6. THE SUFI MOVEMENT
The arrival of Islam in India

There were two currents of Islam, arrived and mixed into the sea of Indian civilization, one from the top and
other from the bottom of the social system of India. Till very recently the primary sources available were very
much written from the top and its study was focused on the upper strata of the society. This elitist approach
is in the core of the communal belief which often fuelled the perception that Islam came only as conqueror
and remained so. The wars and atrocities of Central Asian Turks and Turk-Mongols are projected as the
atrocities of Islam. However, the similar wars and atrocities of the Central Asian tribes and armies who
marched to India well before the birth of Islam, is not taken into the account.
The historiography of Sufism

The scholars are deeply divided on the origin of Sufism. Was Sufism born in the bosom of Islam in total
isolation and later affected the belief system of other religions or was it born under the influence of the beliefs
and mystic practices of other religions, perhaps when Islam was absorbing the people of these religion into
itself or when Islamic mystics came into the contact of such beliefs and practices.
• The former view proposes that the Sufism was born with Muhammad himself and the Arab peninsula
of the time was full of pagan religions which were not known to have such philosophical beliefs. Its main
source is the Holy Quran and the life of Muhammad himself.
• The latter view, however opines that no religion emerges in isolation and with time it incorporates the
ideas of others on one hand and affect other religions with its own ideas on the other. The concept of
unity of God and soul was peculiar to Hinduism and according to Ulemas, run contrary to the idea of
Islam which see this relation as of master and slave. The ascetic practices of starving oneself and torturing
of the body were present in Hinduism, Buddhism and very strongly in Jainism.
• The general consensus is that Sufism is the amalgamation of many religions. The unending debate is
about which religion affected which one and up to what extent.
• In the opinion of many scholars, Sufism cannot be placed under any religion and in itself it is a different
religion altogether.
Origin of the word ‘Sufi’

There are three accepted views about the origin of the word Sufi.
• One says that it is derived from the word ‘Safa’ meaning ‘pure’, the saints who devoted their lives to
renunciation and purity are called Sufi.
• The second says that the word came from ‘Soof’ which means ‘wool’. In those times the rulers and elite
wore silk and fine clothes whereas wearing hand knitted woollen clothes was the symbol of simplicity
and purity.
• Third view suggests that the word is a derivative of Greek word ‘Sofia’ meaning knowledge.
The economic and social background

• The prime social factor for the rise of Sufism was the casteism prevalent in India. Saint figures and
mythical stories provided solace and inspiration to Hindu caste communities.
• The Third urbanization in the Indian subcontinent also helped the rise of Sufism, very much as second
urbanization helped in the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.
• An urban setup demands a life free of rituals and dogmas and the groups carving for vertical mobility in
society is obviously drawn towards such belief system. The attraction of Sufism in trading communities
indicates this.

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• Also the wealthy Khanqahs provided loan and credits for commercial purposes which became a reason
for the congregation of traders in huge numbers around Sufi khanqahs.
• The extreme laws of Sharia in Islam too favoured the growth of Sufism, where the thought of love and
not fear of God must have attracted many.
The history of Sufism

Sufism or Tasawwuf is the name for various mystical tendencies and movements in
Islam.
• It aims at establishing direct communion between God and man through personal experience of the
mystery which lies within Islam.
• Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies in its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In this sense,
Sufism was a natural development within Islam.
• One of the major cause of rise of Sufism in the Muslim world was the reaction towards the corruption,
luxury and pomp crept into the Islamic elite since the Abbasid Caliphate matured in 9th and 10th
centuries.
• The 18th century Indian scholar Shah Waliullah divided Sufism into 4 epochs or stages. These epochs
were not mutually exclusive and there were Sufis who practised the methods of one epoch in the timeline
of another epoch (ie an epoch represents the dominant belief of its time).
o The first began with Prophet Muhammad himself and continued till the early 10th century. The Sufis
of this period devoted themselves to fasting, prayers and chanting the God's name.
o The second epoch began in early 10th century. The Sufis of this period lived in meditation and
contemplation. To stay away from material desires, they practiced self-mortification and many of
them ate grass, wore rags and lived in the mountains and jungles.
o By mid-11th century the third stage began. The emphasis of this stage was to live the life of ecstasy
which leads to “tawajjuh” (spiritual telepathy), by which they overcomes the worldly constraints and
in their union with the supernatural, they ignore their religious practices of prayers and fasting.
o The fourth epoch begins in mid-12th century, when Sufis proposed the theory of the five stages of
descent from 'necessary being'(wajibul wajud). The five stages being the essence of primal one, unity
of god, sphere of infinite forms, similitude or angelic forms and bodies of the physical world).
By the second epoch the Sufis were better organized and were divided into sects according to their distinctive
ideologies and practices evolved. It was this time when many Sufis began to send their disciples to distant
lands and many of them thus came to India.
Growth of Sufism in India

• Al Hujwiri (11th century) was the earliest Sufi of eminence to have settled in Lahore, India. His tomb is
in Lahore. He was the author of Kashf-ul Mahjub, a famous Persian treatise on Sufism.
• However, various Sufi orders were introduced in India only after the establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate. India not only provided a new pasture ground for the propagation of Sufi ideas, but also
became the new home of the Sufis who along with many other refugees fled from the parts of the Islamic
world under Mongol attacks.
• During the 13th and 14th centuries, khanaqahs sprang up in various parts of India.
• By the middle of the 14th century, the entire country from Multan to Bengal and from Punjab to Deogiri
had come under the sphere of their activity.
• Sufism in India originally stemmed from the Sufi thought and practice as it developed in various parts of
the Islamic world, especially in Iran and Central Asia.

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• However, its subsequent development was influenced more by Indian environment than by non-Indian
variants of Sufism. Once the Sufi orders took root in different parts of India, they followed their own
phases of growth, stagnation and revival.
• These were determined largely by indigenous circumstances, though the influence of developments in
Sufism outside lndia cannot altogether be discounted. The main influx of Sufism in India began with the
Turkish invasion and many Sufis settled in Sind and Punjab.
• Few of the early Sufis were Data Ganj Bakhsh (in Lahore) and Moinuddin Chishti (in Ajmer) whereas
Zulekha bibi (mother of Hazrat Nizammuddin) being earliest woman Sufi saint of India.
The ideology and principles

• Sufism strove to achieve the inner realization of divine unity by arousing intuitive and spiritual faculties.
• Rejecting rational arguments, the Sufis plunged into contemplation and meditation.
• It is essentially the love without a creed and dogma. There is no ‘hell’ waiting for men in the Sufi belief
system, in fact, no theory of what happens to a man after his death.
• It emphasizes to make travel from ‘Ishq-Maziji’ (worldly love) to ‘Ishq-Haqiqi’ (spiritual love).
• Sufism as it developed in the Islamic world came to stress the importance of traversing the Sufi path
(tariqa) as a method of establishing direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat).
• A novice has to pass through a succession of stages (maqamat) and changing psychological conditions or
states (haal) to experience God.
• Sufism constitutes of three main components, ie Pir (the spiritual guru/guide), Wali (the successor of
the guru) and Murid (the disciple). The Sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of
a spiritual director (Pir) who himself had successfully traversed it and consequently established direct
communion with God.
• The disciple (murid) progressed through the "stages" and "states" by practising such spiritual exercises as
self-mortification, recollection of God's name to attain concentration (zikr) and contemplation.
• Many Sufi orders organized impassioned musical recital (sama) to induce a mystical state of ecstasy.
• The prominent feature of Sufism is the organisation of the Sufis into various silsilah (orders). A silsilah
consisted of persons who had become disciples of a particular Sufi. It is the spiritual chain in which a Pir
passes on his teachings and methodology to his Wali and he passes to his own wali and so on. These are
the ‘Sufi orders’ like Chishtis, Nakshbandi etc.
• The Sufi orders are basically divided into two. Ba-Shara, those who followed the Islamic law (Sharia) and
Be-Shara, those who were not bound by it.
• The khanqah (hospice) was the centre of the activities of a Sufi order. It was the place where the imparted
spiritual training to his disciples.
• The bedrock of Sufism is 'Ihsan', doctrine which says that Allah should be worshiped with the certainty
that either the worshiper is watching Allah or he is watching the worshiper. Those who practise it are
called ‘awaliya-allah’ (proteges of god) or Sufis.
• Sufis believe in the concept of Fana ie mystical annihilation of oneself, the shedding of “I” as a snake
shed its skin. In 9th century Abu Ali sindi declared, “Glory to me, how great is my majesty. Thy obedience
to me is greater than my obedience to thee” His surname suggests he came from Sind and his ideas may
have been influenced by Hindu or Buddhist mysticism. The theory is accepted by many scholars and
rejected by others.
Few of the main principles of Sufism-

• The oneness of God, ie they believe in Monotheism.
• It believes that this world is real and not illusionary.

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• They accept the concept of ‘aatma’ (soul) and it is confined in the body. That is the reason Sufi saints
welcome death.
• It believes that man is the supreme creature of the God.
• One must not fear the ‘qahar’ (wrath) of God. God is full of mercy and man should try to imitate him.
• Nothing can be achieved without a Pir or Guru and one must surrender himself before his guru.
• They consider God as ‘mashooq’ (lover), therefore always eager to meet him and chant his name in
ecstasy. They place the love of God above namaz and roza etc.
Malfuzat- Written records of audiences and question-and-answer sessions of notable Sufis, providing
historical context, teachings, and attitudes. The texts are typically presented in chronological order and dated.
The Sufi Silsilas

By 13th century the division of Sufis into fourteen silsilas had already been crystallized.
• The Sufis of each silsila guarded their traditions strictly and urged their disciples to refrain from entering
more than one.
• Each of the silsila was named after the name or surname of the founder of the particular order. Such as
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Naqshbandi etc.
• The first to mention about these 14 silsilas was Abul Fazl who acquaints us with all of them in great detail.
For purpose of relevance, the not all of them are mentioned here.
1. Chishti Silsila-
• The Chishti order was founded by Khwaja Abdul Chisti in Herat, it was brought to India by Khwaja
Moin-ud-din Chishti (1142-1236). He arrived at Lahore in 1161 AD and settled at Ajmer in about 1206.
• He worked among the lower cast people and spent his life in the service of the helpless and downtrodden.
Among the most famous of Chishti saints were Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi.
Auliya was generally known as Mahbub-i-Ilahi (beloved of God).
• Chisti saints made themselves popular by adopting musical recitation called Sama to create mood of
nearness to god.
• The Chishti saints lived pure and simple lives and with exception of Nizamuddin Auliya all saints
married and had children.
• They did not accept charity from the state and lives on presents given by disciples.
• They undergo fasting and other ascetic hardships to weaken and control basic desires.
• The later Chishti Sufis made followers from all classes of society but unlike their predecessors most of
them accepted the State patronage.
2. Shattari Silsila
• It was founded in India by Shah Abdullah Shattar, however, it gained popularity under Sheikh
Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior. Among his disciples were the famous musician Tansen. Humayun was
also said to be attracted towards it.
• The Shattari saints sought to synthesize Hindu and mystical Muslim thoughts to practice.
• They tried to bring Hindus and Muslims nearer by putting emphasis on the similarity of spiritual thought
and practices of both religion.
• The Sufis of this order need not go into rigorous self-discipline and led a spiritual life in comfortable
worldly surroundings.
3. Qadiri silsila
• It was founded by Shaikh Qadir Jilani (1077-1166) in Baghdad.

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• This order reached India in 15th century and popularised by Shah Niamatullah Makhdum Jilani.
• This order believes that distinctions between believers and non-believers (kafirs) and heaven and hell are
superficial.
• The Believer is the one who could reach the God and see him and a Kafir is one who fails to do so.
• Dara Shikoh was the follower of this order.
• This order was opposed to music and singing.
4. Suhrawardi Silsila
• It was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. The credit of organizing it goes to Shaikh Bahauddin
Zakariya. Its main centre was Multan and was very popular in Sindh.
• He did not believed in poverty and torturing the body and faithfully followed the rules of Islam.
• In silsilas, one is not allowed to bow down before the Pir or dargah as its considered un-Islamic practise.
• Saints had big Jagirs and had close contact with the state as according to them state is no hindrance to
spiritual progress.
• The saints of this order opined that wealth is not harmful if one knew its right use.
• In many ways this silsila is considered as anti-thesis of Chishti order.
5. Firdausi Silsila
• This sect is a branch of Suhrawardi order. Its most distinguished saints was Sheikh Shamasuddin Yahya
Munair who made it popular in Bihar.
• He believed in pantheistic monism and tried to bring moderation in Islamic laws.
• He wanted his followers to serve the needy by pen, tongue, wealth and position.
6. Nakhshabandi silsila
• This order was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pir Mohammad. It was popularised in India
by Khwaja Baki Billah (1563-1603).
• Of all the orders it was the most orthodox and tried to counteract the liberal religious views of Akbar who
was considered a heretic by them.
• The height of this order was achieved under the leadership of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624), who
was antagonistic to both Hindus and Shias.
• He was strongly in favour of Shariat and rejected the Chishti belief that a Sufi must remain aloof from
King and his court.
The Sufis and the State

• The Sufis, including the great Chishti masters of the early period, never questioned the existing political
system and the class structure. At the most, they advised the state officials to show leniency in collecting
land revenue from the peasants.
• On the other hand, they did not forbid their ordinary followers from seeking state favours and
involvement in the affairs of the court.
• It was perhaps due to these limitations of the otherwise radical Sufi order that the later transition within
the Chishti silsilah to the acceptance of state patronage and involvement in court politics was a smooth.
Sufis and the Ulemas

• The Ulema always shown their disapproval of the Sufis.
• Though orthodox Sufi orders such as the Suhrawardi and the Qadiri, etc. satisfied the Ulema to some
extent. The Ulema were in particular hostile to the early Chishtis and their practices.

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• However, Chishti Sufis such as Shaikh Nasiruddin (Chiragh e Delhi) and Gesudaraz gave an orthodox
orientation to the Chishti order to mitigate the hostility of the Ulema towards the Chishti practice.
Sufis and Conversions

• The Sufis of the Sultanate period have been generally considered as propagators of Islam in India. Several
traditions and legends of the later medieval period also represented the Sufis as active missionaries.
• The first Sufis who entered the Deccan in the late 13th century and early 14th century have been portrayed
in the later legends as militant champions of Islam, who waged a jihad.
• There were certain active evangelists among the Suhrawardis who entered Kashmir in the 14 th century
were also imbued with missionary zeal though they did not achieve much success in their mission.
• However, it must be pointed out that conversion of non-Muslims to Islam was not a part of the activities
of all the Sufis. Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti was not an evangelist and was not actively involved in
conversions. His attitude and that of his spiritual successors towards non-Muslims was one of tolerance.
Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia on one occasion observed that many Hindus considered Islam a true religion
but did not accept it. He was also of the view that every religious community had its own path and faith
and its own way of worship.
• Also, there is little historical evidence to show that the early Sufis in the Deccan were warriors fighting
for the expansion of Islam.
• However, large number of non-Muslims, especially from the low castes were attracted to the Sufis and
later to their dargahs where they belonged to the wider circle of devotees. There they gradually came
under the influence of Islamic precepts which eventually led to their Islamization.
• Later, the descendants of many groups which were Islamized claimed that their ancestors were converted
to Islam by one or another medieval Sufi.
The impact of Sufism on India

• The arrival of Islam in Indian resulted in a unique mingling of cultural traditions. This mingling led to
the growth of a composite culture in the country.
• It was a jolt on the centuries old segregated lifestyle practiced everywhere in India.
• The non-discriminatory operations of Khanqahs were an eye opener for population who were used to a
society where everything was divided into high and low.
• Evidences of this contact can be seen in religion, architecture, literature, music and painting.
Contribution
• Made Islam acceptable in India as the Turk invaders represented Islam in a very cruel face.
• They acted as pressure groups and encouraged Delhi sultans to follow the liberal religious policies.
• They helped in the development of composite culture in India and acted a bridge between Hinduism and
Islam.
• The Sufism contributed a lot to music in India. The ‘Qawwali’ style of singing is the major contribution
of Sufism.
• They enriched the Indian vernaculars and literature by using regional languages, especially Awadhi, Braj
and Punjabi.
• They contributed to the development of a common Indo-Islamic language, Urdu.
• Many of the major khanqahs developed, due to the vast number of devotees, into urban centres and
amassed a huge wealth. Many khanqah started lending money to traders and merchants thus contributing
in the economic activities as well.

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7. THE AGE OF DELHI SULTANATE
Economy
• The Indian population was around 7.5 crore in 11th century, which increased by 50% to 11 crore by the end
of 15th century.
• Economic condition of India was affluent which tempted Mahmud of Ghazni to invade India and
Malik Kafur to southern India. By all accounts, it remained affluent throughout the centuries of Delhi
Sultanate.
• Agriculture was a major occupation at that time. Land was the source of production. The village was a
self-sufficient unit. The husbandman took to the tilling and harvesting of crops, the women folk lend
their hands to various economic functions
• The chief crops were pulses, wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute and cotton and many more. Medicinal herbs,
spices were also grown and exported to a certain extent. Some new crops like tobacco, tea and coffee
were also introduced.
• The State of the Delhi Sultanate collected various types of taxes which fall under the economic system of
the empire.
o Ushraf- tax on land production collected from Muslim peasants, varied from 5 to 10 percent.
o Kharaj- It was a land tax charged from non-Muslims and ranged from one third to half of the
produce.
o Khums- It was one-fifth of the war booty captured in the war (Alauddin Khilji made it four-fifth)
o Jaziya- It was a religious tax on Non-Muslims (Dhimmi/Zimmi) Women, children, beggars,
priests, Brahmans etc. and all those who had no source of income were exempted from this tax.
Firoz Tughlaq levied this tax on Brahmins also.
o Zakat- Religious tax imposed on Muslims (2.5 percent of income)
o Ghari- tax on Houses, introduced by Alauddin Khilji.
o Charai- tax on pasture land used for grazing of animals, introduced by Alauddin Khilji.
o Sharab (Shart)- 10 percent of crop production, levied on farmers to develop and maintain water
supply facilities, introduced by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
o Trade tax- 2.5 percent from the Muslims and 5 percent from non-muslim.
o Horse tax- 5 percent on the sale and purchase of horses.
Industry
• Many industries of considerable size and importance developed during this period, the most important
of which were textiles, various items of metal work, sugar, indigo, and in certain localities, paper.
o Bengal was the main center of textile industry.
o Gujarat rivalled Bengal as supplier of the export trade during the sultanate period.
o The famous centres of cloth manufacture were Deogir and Maha Devanagari in the Deccan, Delhi
in the North, Sonargaon and Dacca in Bengal.
• Next in importance were a number of industries connected with metal work. The manufacture of
swords, guns, and knives, as well as household needs such as trays and basins.
• Manufacture of sugar was also carried on a fairly large scale, and in Bengal enough was produced to leave
a surplus for export after meeting the local demand.
• Paper-making was a minor industry, of which little is known except that Delhi was the centre of a
considerable market.
• These industries were mainly privately owned village and cottage industries. The labour employed was
the family members and the technique was conservative.

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• The government equipped and managed large-scale karkhanas, for supplying its requirements.
Craftsmen were employed under the direct supervision of officials to manufacture fashionable articles.
The royal factories at Delhi sometimes employed as many as four thousand weavers for silk alone. The
example of the sultan of Delhi was followed by the rulers of the regional kingdoms.
• Innovation in cotton industry- The innovations in cotton industry led to led to the expansion in Indian
cotton textile production.
o The worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in India during 14th century (is still in use).
o The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, at the end of 15th century.
o The increased use of spinning wheel (which was invented in India from 6th to 9th century AD)
across India lowered the costs of yarn.
o The introduction of carpet-weaving on the vertical loom appeared at the beginning of 16th century.
Trade
• The imports consisted mainly of certain luxury items for the upper classes, and a general supply of all
kinds of horses and mules, in which India was deficient. Apart from them the main imports were silks,
velvets, embroidered stuff, guns, gun-powder, and some precious metals
• The exports included large quantities of food-grains and cloth. Among the agricultural products were
wheat, millet, rice, pulses, oilseeds, scents, medicinal herbs, sugar, cotton, precious stones, indigo, hides,
opium and spices. Some of the countries around the Persian Gulf depended on the subcontinent for their
entire food supply.
• Cotton cloth and other textiles were especially important items of export, particularly to Southeast Asia
and East Africa, although some reached Europe. They were carried by the Arabs to the Red Sea and from
there found their way to Damascus and Alexandria, from where they were distributed to the
Mediterranean countries and beyond.
• Hindus occupied an important role in foreign, as in domestic, trade, although foreign Muslim merchants,
known as khurasani, also had a large share of it.
• For the internal trade we had the various classes of merchants and shop-keepers. The Gujaratis of the
North, the Chettis of the South, Multanis in west and the Banjaras of Rajputana were the main traders.
Bigger deals in commodities were made in 'mandis.' The Banjaras carried on the business of conveying
agricultural and other products from one part of the country to another.
• Slave system was in vogue. Slaves were of two types, for domestic works and for military service. Both
the Hindu and Muslims used to keep slaves. There were slave markets involved in selling and buying of
slaves.
Society
Muslim Nobility
• Most of the sultans and nobles were Turks and first phase of the Delhi Sultanate was clearly a period of
Turkish supremacy. North Indian society during the period was dominated by the Turkish rulers and
nobles who sought to maintain their dominant position.
• Below Turks were other foreign Muslims, who were appointed in high posts and in lieu of their services,
they received jagirs. As they belonged to different nationalities like Persians, the Afghans, the Arabs, the
Abyssinians etc. they are quite hostile to each other.
• The other section of the society was that of Indian Muslims. They were either of the converted Hindus
or were descendants of such converted Muslims. They were deprived of enjoying social and economic
privileges like other Muslims in the society. This state of condition of the Indian Muslims continued till
the end of thirteenth century. During fourteenth century the attitude of the Sultans underwent a change

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when the migration of the Turks from Central Asia to India subsided. There were some India muslims
rising through the ranks in the Sultanate, like Malik Kafur, an Indian Musalman became general of
Alauddin Khilji and even made a bid for throne after the death of his master. Khwaja Jahan, a brahmin
convert was the Prime Minister of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq. However, the well placed Indian Muslims
always tried to conceal their parentage as they desired to acquire equal footing with their foreign
counterparts.
• Ashraf Muslims- The elite Muslims, called Ashraf, were divided into two classes namely the Umaras or
nobles and the Ulemas or the theologians. The nobles were divided into three groups such as Khaas, Malik
and Amirs. They enjoyed high offices in the state.
o The Ulemas or the thologians were assigned the duties of clergymen, teachers and judges. They
exerted commanding influence on the government. Except Ala-ud-din Khilji, all Sultans accepted
the influence of the Ulema in matters of the state. It is acceptable that the common people wished
to live a peaceful life and they had no religious or political ambition.
o The lives of the Muslim upper classes, especially in Delhi, were modelled on those of their Turkish
and Persian counterparts, with amusements relted to horse, like polo, riding and racing. All classes
enjoyed chess and backgammon.
• Ajlaf Muslims- The cultivators, the artisans, the shop-keepers, clerks, petty traders, servants, slaves etc.
formed the lowest class of the muslim society. During that period a very few muslims lived in villages and
majority of them lived in garrison towns and imperial centres, later spreads across the markets of India.
Pre-existing non-muslim group

• As for the Hindus, their social life was relatively unchanged, although during military operations they
suffered losses in property and life.
• A large number of independent or quasi-independent Hindu chiefs remained after the establishment of
the sultanate. Some of them were rajas, or kings, others were only petty chieftains, controlling a few
villages.
• In rural areas the Hindu landed aristocracy still occupied a position of prestige and power, and the
muqaddam, khut and chaudhary had important roles in the administration.
• Trade and commerce remained largely in Hindu control, for to the Muslim invader from Central Asia,
the complex Hindu banking system would be unfamiliar and unworkable. Even Alauddin Khalji who
made an attempt to curb the power and wealth of Hindu rural chiefs, found it necessary to make Hindu
traders the main instrument of his price control measures.
• Non-Muslim were given the status of zimmi/dhimmis, ie protected people. Although not equal to
Muslim subjects, their own laws and social organization was allowed. The Muslim rulers from the days
of the Arab occupation of Sind accepted the right of the village and caste panchayats to settle the affairs
of their community. This position continued throughout the Muslim rule.
• Historians have differed regarding the relations between the Hindus and Muslims during the period of
the Sultanate. The Muslim rulers over their Hindu subjects according to Islamic-laws, and in no way tried
to shape their administration and judicial system on a secular basis. Therefore, the Hindus could not
expect to get justice or equality from their Muslim masters.
Indian influence over foreigner ruling class

• Local usages and customs influenced social life and behaviour at an early period. The Indian pan (betel
leaf) soon became popular among the Muslims, the use of spices for seasoning food became common and
standard Muslim dishes such as pilau were transformed.

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• The newcomers also adopted Indian headgear but, more significantly, religious ceremonies, especially
those related to marriage and death, showed a definite Indian influence.
• The popularity of music, as well as its forms, reflected the local atmosphere.
• The caste system of the Hindus affected the Muslims, especially the Indian Muslims. They continued to
maintain divisions among themselves on the basis of their previous castes.
• The Hindustani or Hindavi language began to emerge, which was developed from the Indo-Aryan
apabhramsha vernaculars of North India. It was later identified as Urdu (when written in Persian script)
and Hindi (when written in Devnagari script).
Women
• In general, the status of women had deteriorated in the society and they suffered from many social evils.
There was no widow remarriage and the widows either became sati at the pyre of their husbands or passed
their lives as women-hermits. The Purdah system and child marriages adversely affected the education
and position of women in the society.
• Devadasi system was another social evil which was prevalent among the Hindus. Polygamy was
extensively prevalent among the Muslims. Purdah system was strictly observed among Muslim women.
They were devoid of education because of this social custom. Widow Remarriage was not allowed.
Women could not inherit property.
• Muslim women had to live under polygamy (practised by Hindus too). Muslim women strictly observed
purdah system. They were also deprived of education. However, in certain aspects, they were in a better
position as compared to Hindu women. Unlike the Hindu women, they could divorce their husbands,
remarry again and could claim their share in the paternal property. Sati system was not prevalent among
the Muslim women.
Architecture
• During the Sultanate period, architecture made tremendous progress. This period witnessed the growth
of Indo-Islamic architecture. This style of architecture was neither purely Islamic nor purely Hindu,
rather it was influenced by both the styles.
• Several factors contributed towards the synthesis of Indian and Islamic style. Firstly, the Muslim rulers
had to employ Indian Craftsmen, architects and sculptors, who had applied the Indian style of
construction into Muslim buildings. Secondly, the Muslim rulers destroyed the Hindu temples and built
the mosques, palaces and tombs out of the materials of the destroyed Hindu temple. Thirdly, the rulers
converted the Hindu temples and palaces into their mosques and buildings. Besides, there was a nexus
between the two styles with regard to the fact that both the Indian and Islamic art were inherently
decorative.
• The Hindus adorned their buildings with images of different gods and goddesses, whereas the Muslims
decorated them with square, triangular, parallel, rectangular lines, teachings of the Korans inscribed in
the Persian script. Thus, the Hindu style of architecture greatly influenced Islamic style because of these
factors and gave birth to this Indo-Islamic architecture.
• Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak constructed the Quwwat ul Islam mosque of Delhi and Adhai-din ka
jhopara mosque at Ajmer.
• The construction of Qutb Minar was started by Qutb-ud-din but was completed by Iltutmish. The
purpose of this tower was that from it the Muezzin could summon the faithful to prayer.
• Iltutmish, besides completing Qutb Minar, also built a tomb for his eldest son known as Sultan Ghari

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• Sultan Alauddin Khilji had constructed some beautiful buildings like Hazar Situn (thousand pillars), the
fort and the city of Siri, the Jamaat Khan masjid at the dargah of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Alai Darwaza at
Qutb Minar.
• Unlike the buildings of slave and Khilji regimes, the buildings of the Tughlaq period lacked splendour.
The buildings of the Tughlaq period were formal, prosaic and famous for puritanical simplicity. The
puritanical attitude of the Sultans and the financial difficulties were two factors which had influenced
the architecture, Ghiyasuddin built the new city of Tughlaqbad, east of the Qutb Minar, his own tomb
and a palace.
• Muhammad Tughlaq had built the city of Jahanpanah.
• The best specimen of architecture of the Lodi and Sayyid Sultans are the tombs of Mubarak Shah Sayyid,
Muhammad Shah Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi and a mosque known as Moti Masjid by the prime minister
of Sikandar Lodi at Delhi.
• The rulers of provinces were also great patrons of architecture. The provincial style was different from
imperial style in some respects. The imperial architecture was more splendid than the provincial
architecture. This was mainly due to the limited financial resources of the provincial rulers. Secondly, the
existing local styles also influenced the provincial style of architecture.
• In north India particularly in Rajasthan, the Rajput’s could maintain their political existence. Hence in
Rajasthan, the specimens of Rajput architecture are found. Rana Kumbha of Mewar had constructed
the fort of Kumbhal Garh and the Kirti Stambha in Chittor.
• In the south, the rulers of Vijaynagar Empire had built many beautiful architectural edifices, especially
at Hampi. Unfortunately, the battle of Talikota devastated the kingdom and most of the beautiful
buildings and temples of the kingdom were destroyed.
Literature and Languages

• Turko-Afgan rulers were primarily military persons, however, under their patronage literature of high
order was produced during this period. The court of Delhi Sultans were well attended by writers, poets,
scholars, philosophers, logicians, theologians, lawyers and chroniclers.
• The liberal patronage extended by the court of provincial rulers to men of letters has added to the growth
of Hindi literature. The poet Chand Bardai wrote Prithviraj Raso considered as the earliest Hindi poet.
• In Rajasthan, a vast literature rich in heroic ballads and poetry connected with the deeds of Rajput Chiefs
and warriors grew.
• The religious reformers and saints wrote, spoke and preached in languages which could be easily
understood by the masses. The growth of Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Maithili, Punjabi, Gurumukhi and
other provincial literatures, which began in the early medieval period matured in this age. Ramananda,
Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas preached in variants of Hindi like Awadhi whereas Mirabai and some other
preachers and saints of Radha-Krishna cult preached in Brij-bhasa.
• Gorakhnath and Namadeva were the first saint to compose the Bhajans and Pads or Verses in Hindi.
Kabirs verses possessed the charm and force with the sentiment of Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Nanak has also enriched Hindi literature. Similarily Kabir, Dharamadas, Dadu Dayal, Sunder Das, Maluk
Das etc. have created religious literature.
• Marathi literature began from the medieval age. Jnaneswar the famous saint poet of Maharastra in the
13th century composed his commentary on Gita called Janeshwari in Prakrit Marathi. Chakradhar,
Bhaskar, Bhatt, Narendra, and Mukundaray were the early poets and writers of Marathi.
• The early medieval Gujarati literatures was enriched by the bards and jain monks. To preach the doctrine
of Jainism, the Jain monks had composed many works in poetry called Ras. The Bhakti movement in

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Gujarat stimulated the growth of religious literature in Gujarati. Mira and Narsingh Mehta occupy
prominent position among the saints and poets of Gujarat.
• The stimulus to Bengali literature was provided by the works of Vidyapati and Chandi Das. Vidyapati
extended his work to Maithili language also. The Muslim rulers of Bengal also patronized Bengali. They
engaged scholars to translate Ramayan and Mahabharat from Sanskrit to Bengali. Chaitanya enriched
the Bengali literature with his songs and Bhajans.
• Inspite of the abundant growth of the vernacular literature, this period was not entirely barren of work
in Sanskrit, both religious as well as secular. Parthasarathi wrote many works on the Karma Mimansa
and some works which expressed the doctrines of Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika systems of philosophy. The
saints of the Bhakti movement made valuable contributions to the philosophical literature in Sanskrit. In
South India Sanskrit literature did receive sufficient patronage by the rulers.
• Another important achievement in the field of literature was the growth of Urdu out of the mingling of
Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and ideas with languages and concepts of Sanskrit Origin. It has the
words of Arabic, Persian, Turkish languages, Western Hindi dialects of Delhi province.
• The grammatical structure of Urdu is essentially that of Hindi. Various social intermingling resulted in
the evolution of a common language which came to be known as Urdu that turned to be the medium of
expression of many during this period that still continued to be an Indian language, composed and
contributed by many poets and literatures.
Learning
• After the sack of Baghdad in 1258, Delhi was perhaps the most important cultural center in the Muslim
East. Its importance increased when the Mongols destroyed the cultural centres of Central and Western
Asia, and the poets, scholars and men of letters from these areas took refuge in Muslim India.
• Yet despite the cultural eminence of the capital, it cannot be claimed that the sultanate is a period marked
by that solid scholarship and study of sciences which distinguished Baghdad and Cordova. The reason is
obvious. Learned and gifted men had come to India, but without their libraries. The result was that only
those cultural activities gained prominence which, like poetry, belles-lettres, local history, architecture,
and music, were not dependent on accumulated stores of knowledge.
• Probably for the same reason, the lack of libraries, great educational institutions of the kind found in
Baghdad and Cairo did not develop in India. There were, however, schools and colleges in Delhi and all
the important provincial capitals.
• In Muslim society, teaching and the promotion of educational enterprises are regarded as necessary
marks of religious vocation, and the Muslim state is expected to facilitate this by providing teachers with
ample means of subsistence.
• The education was usually on the elementary level, but the system also provided for the maintenance of
scholars who had specialized in different branches of learning. For advanced students, madrasas were set
up by pious and public-spirited rulers, and this activity received special attention during the early period.
Two major madrasas called Muizziya and Nasiriya were established during the beginning of Muslim rule
at Delhi.
• The main subjects taught seem to have been religious were tafsir (interpretation of the Quran), hadith
(tradition) and fiqh (jurisprudence).

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Travellers coming to India during Delhi Sultanate

1. Marco Polo (Italy) 1288-1292
During the reign of Maravarman Kulasekara (Pandya Kingdom), whom he described 'eldest of five
brother kings'.
2. Ibn e Battuta (Morocco) 1333-1342

During the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
3. Tsang Hi (China) 1421-1431

During the reign of Jalaluddin of Bengal
4. Athnasius Niketin (Russia) 1470-1474

During the reign of Mohammad III (Bahmani Sultanate)
5. Bartholomu Diaz (Portugal) 1503-1508

In Southern India (he discovered Cape of Good Hope in 1488, opening route to India encircling Africa)
AKASH BOOK CENTRE

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ADDRESS
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Page 68 of 102
8. THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
• Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, known as Sangama brothers as they were sons
of Sangama, feaudatories of Kakatiyas of Warangal or controlling northern regions of Hoysala
kingdom.They went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned
to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed their independence and
founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River. The decline of the Hoysala kingdom
enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom.
• The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom,over Raichur Doab, lasted for
many years. The region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas of
Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-drawn conflict.
• The capital Vijayanagara was more popularly known as Hampi. The Kingdom officially called itself
‘Karnata Rajya’. Portuguese mentioned it as Kingdom of Bisnegar.
• There were four dynasties ruled over Vijaynagar. Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and
Aravidu Dynasty.
1. Sangam Dynasty (1336-1485)

• Harihara I and Bukka established Vijaynagar kingdom when Tughlaqs lost their power in Deccan.
• Saayana and Madhava were learned commentator on the Vedas, were ministers under Bukka I and
Harihara II.
• During the reign of Deva Raya II, Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Turk ruler Shah Rukh, visited the
Vijaynagara kingdom.
2. Saluva Dynasty (1486-1505)

• Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut in 1498, during the reign of Narasimha Raya II (also called Immadi
Narasimha).
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570)

• The dynasty was named "Tuluva" because they belonged to the Tulu speaking region called Tulunad in
Karnartaka.
• Krishna Deva Raya was the most famous ruler, under whom the empire attained its greatest glory.
o He is regarded as a hero by Tuluvas, Kannadigas and Telugus, and one of the great kings of India.
o He earned the titles Kannada Raya, Andhra Pitamahand Andhra Bhoja.
o His court had Ashtadiggaja, ie eight telugu poets, most famous being Tenali Raman.
o Krishnadevraya himself was a great scholar. His major works wereAmuktamalyada (work in telugu
language, deals with several matters including the art of government) and Jambavati Kalyanam (in
Sanskrit based on the Jambavati, one of the eight principal queen-consorts of Lord Krishna)
o He patronized female writers and poets. His wife, Tirumalamba Devi, penned an account of the
marriage of a Vijayanagar Raya. She followed her husband into the Kalinga War and appreciated
poetry in her court.
• In 1565 AD, all the Sultanates (Ahmednagar, Golconda, Bijapur, Bidar) joined a coalition against
Vijaynagar except Berar. The Battle of Talikota, also known as Battle of Rakshasa- Tangadi, led to the
decline of Empire. Thereafter, the city of Vijayanagar was destroyed and looted.

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4. Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1646)

• Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of
Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara
Empire.
• The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III.
Foreign Travellers
1. Ibn Bututa (1333-1347)
Moroccan traveller, who visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, came to Vijayanagar
during the reign of Harihar I.
2. Nicolo Conti (1420-1421)
Italian traveller, who gave a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar.
3. Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444)
Persian traveller, who stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the
Vijayanagar city, while describing the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles.
4. Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516)
Portuguese traveller, who has given a valuable narrative of the government and the people of the
Vijaynagar Empire.
5. Domingo Paes (1520-1522)
Portuguese traveller, who visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
6. Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537)
Portuguese merchant, who wrote the history of the empire from its earliest days to the closing years of
Acchyutdeva Raya’s reign.
Administration
• For administration, the Empire was divided into Rajya/Mandala(provinces), which weresubdivided into
Valanadu/Kottam/Vishaya/Vente (different names are used in different sources). These units were
further divided into Nadu/Chimai (group of villages) which themselves were divided into
Kampana/Sthala/Isthalam (village).
• As the kingdom expanded, it maintained local traditions in areas annexed into the Empire, therefore,
the Hoysala, Kakatiya, Sena and Pandya administrative machinery was adjusted to current needs and
retained.
• The empire was essentially a war administration. Every aspect of the governance indicated the sole
purpose of repulsing invasion from surrounding sultanates.
• The King’s cabinet was composed of Mahapradhana (Prime minister) and several Pradhanas
(ministers). Other high officers were Karyakartha or Rayaswami (chief secretary) and Adhikari
(imperial officers). All ministers and officers were required to have military training, with military
dutiesand given the title Dandanayaka or Dandanatha.
• The use of paper for administrative purposes was popularised, though about 7000 stone and copper plate
inscriptions (Shasana) have also been discovered so far.
Provincial Administration
• Each of the five main Rajya/Mandala had their own language. Rajya were ruled by a member of the royal
family or a very high ranking official close to the royal family.
• Important towns were overseen by Adhikari (mayor).

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Village Administration
• At the village level, Village Panchayat was basis of local administration, woring under supervision of
officers like Gowda (wealthy feudal landlords), Karanika/Karnam (accountants) and Kavalu
(watchman). Later Ayagars (hereditary village functionaries) took over the entire functions of the village
assembly.
• The central government did not interfere in the internal administration of the villages.
Nayakar System
• The government became more decentralized later with more autonomy given to Nayakas/Nayakaras and
Palyagars(feudal lords).
• Nayakara were military chiefs who were granted amaram lands (Land with a fixed revenue given to
Nayaks) by kings. They had to pay a fixed annual financial contribution to the imperial exchequer and
must maintain troops to assist kings in times of war. They were guardian of law and order and
administration in their areas. Later, Office became hereditary, when the kings became weak.
• Hereditary families like the Pandyas and the Santharas (of Karnataka region) administered their own
territories as feudatories. Some maintained their tag of dependent dynasty whereas many others accepted
the title of Nayakar.
Military
• The army recruited from all classes of society and caste was no bar to rise to high military positions.
• There were two types of armies. The Central army and the feudatory armies which were expected to
contribute in case of war.
• Krishnadevaraya had a standing army of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 horses and 900 elephants. Some
travelogues speak that by adding feudal forces infantry can be expanded above a million.
Economy
• It has been firmly established from foreign accounts and other sources as well that in the Vijayanagar
Empire prevailed unbounded prosperity, where not only king and nobles were rich but even the
common people enjoyed prosperity and could afford to wear ornaments in their ears, necks, arms,
fingers, etc.
• The prosperity of the Vijayanagar Empire was on account of the growth of agriculture, industries, trade
and commerce. Architecture, specially temple-building and civil architecture, provided employment to
a substantial workforce.
• The principal industries comprised of textiles, mining, metallurgy, perfumery etc for domestic
consumption and exports.
Agriculture
• Majority of agriculture was done by tenants although they had certain rights and could even claim of
ownership of the land over time (unlike tenants of Permanent Settlement).
• States pursued a planned irrigation and taxation policy. Taxation was set to encourage the production
of ‘important’ crops like rose cultivation (needed for perfumery), salt production etc was taxed at lower
rate. Canals were provided by states, although not through the entire empire, whereas tanks were
funded by states or privately owned.
• Main crops- jowar, cotton, and pulse (in dry regions), sugarcane, rice, and wheat (in river basins and
deltas). Betel leaves, areca, and coconut, cotton and spices (turmeric, pepper, cardamom, ginger etc) were
main cash crops.

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• The large-scale cotton and spice production supplied the main inputs to export industry.
• Portuguese influence the growth of onion, groundnut and tobacco and into practice.
• Taxes were levied on all land revenues and trading items. Taxes on homes, trader shops, marriage, toddy,
salt and even prostitution has been confirmed. The inscriptions of the time tell that the common people
‘groaned under the weight of heavy taxation that was collected with rigour by the local Governors.
• Shist was land tax, named so as it was one-sixth of the produce. Manyam was tax free land whereas
amaram was the land given to Nayaks (which fetches a fixed revenue/tribute to the state).
Trade
• According to Abdur Razzaq the Empire ‘possessed 300 seaports’, acting as the thriving market centres
and node of imports and exports.
• Main Exports- cotton textiles (famously calicos and muslin), spices (pepper, ginger, cinnamon,
cardamom etc), jewels, iron and steel, diamonds (of kollur mines), semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino
horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes.
• Main Imports
o Coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, coloured camlets.
o Chinese vessels, copper, quicksilver, vermilion and Silk from China.
o Horses from Persia and Arab.
o Sugar from Bengal.
o Rice, millet, pulses and tobacco from Golconda.
o Gold and silver (as utensils, jewellery and mainly as trade surplus)
• Important ports- Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and
Dharmadam. Traders from Arabs, Persians, Gujarat, Khorasan, Portugal etc settled in these port cities.
These ports emerged as centres of Ship building industry.
Coinage
• Both gold and copper types of coinage were prevalent in Vijayanagar Empire. There is only one specimen
of silver coin. The coins had on them the emblems of different gods and animals that varied with the
religious faith of the rulers.
• The gold coins were called Pagodas or Varaha(because the most common symbol was Varaha, the Boar
incarnation of Vishnu).
o Harihara I and Bukka I used the Hanuman symbol in their coins.
o Krishna Deva Raya's coins had the figures of Venkatesh and Balkrishna.
o Achyuta Raya used Garuda while Tirumala maintained the original Varaha.
Capital City
• Many foreign travellers described it as an unprecedented city, larger than Rome or any biggest city in the
western world with beautiful lakes, open gardens, broad and well laid roads and splendid buildings. City
was built in such a way that seven guarding fort gates were built within each other. The circumference
of the city was sixty miles and its walls extended to the hills.
• In the city there was a separate market for every main occupation. The jewellers freely and securely sold
diamonds, pearls rubies etc in burgeoning markets of precious gems and gold.
• About 90,000 people of the city were capable of wielding weapons (soldiers).

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Water Management
• The populace of the city was completely dependent on Tungabhadra River. A dam provided water to
the city via long canal, with sliding gate, which further splits into various channels and water storages
ensuring supply in dry months of this semi-arid region. This cananl system was also used to guide the
river water of Tungabhadra river into irrigation tanks near agricultural fields. The remains of these
hydraulic systems and huge tanks can now be seen in the ruins of Hampi.
• A separate water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple
complexes used sophisticated channels working via gravity and siphons use to provide water to elites,
whereas large water tanks to collect the rain water used to provide water for common masses. Wells
and tanks dug by state or via private charity were main source of water locally.
Society
• The Hindu caste system was prevalent in Vijayanagar Empire and the caste regulations were taken care
of by the elders of each community. However, those who distinguished themselves in war and other
services were promoted to high ranking cadre without caste or religious discrimination.
• Towns and provincial assemblies had representation from all castes, sects and religions, represented
by leaders called Kaivadadavaru. Brahmins, held in high esteem, exercised a great influence not merely
in social and religious matters but also in the political affairs of the State. Their separation from material
wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters.
• The popularity of low-caste scholars (such as Molla and Kanakadasa) and their works (including those of
Vemana and Sarvajna) is an indication of the degree of social fluidity in the society.
• Foreign travellers referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were employed in
the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques.
• In the matters of diet there were no strict restrictions and meat of all kind (except that of oxen or cows
since people had great veneration for them), was taken by the general population.
• Nuniz describes the diet of the Vijaynagar kings: “These kings eat all sorts of things, but not the flesh of
oxen or cows, which they never kill because they worship them. They eat mutton, pork, vension,
partridges, hares, doves, quail, and all kinds of birds even sparrows and rats, and cats, and Lizards”
• The Carnatic music and Classical dance forms assumed their current forms during this period.
• Physical exercises and wrestling were important male preoccupations for sport and entertainment.
Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records. Wrestling matches between men was a common sport
apart from cock fights, ram fights and wrestling between women.
Women
• The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, like Lingayatism, eased social norms for
women, who by this time started crossing the barriers in Southern India. They were actively involved in
matters, generally considered the monopoly of men and took part in trade, clerical work, wrestling
events apart from other activities like music and dance. According to Nuniz, “The king of Vijayanagara
has also women who wrestle, and others who are astrologers and soothsayers and has women who write
all the accounts of expenses that are incurred insides the gates of the palace and others whose duty is to
write all the affairs of the kingdom and compare their books with those of writers outside. He has women
also for music, who play instruments and sing. Even the wives of the kings are well-versed in music”. The
wall carvings show prancing horses with women riders, as well as women taming rider-less horses, as
elephant mahouts, practising archery, sword fighting, hunting, wrestling etc.

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• Some inscriptions highlight the economic independence of certain women, eg- donation provided by
Chinnamamba, for construction of a watertank or Kuppayani, who contributed to the building of
irrigation canals in Tirumala.
• An inscription, dated 1542 AD, mentions entire regions ruled by women, under Achyuta Raya. The
Rayas trusted their administrative capabilities and the women were known to effectively rule their
regions.
• Notable women poets were spread across the Empire in all times. Tirumalamba Devi (wrote
Varadambika Parinayam- the story of the marriage of a Hampi king), Gangadevi (wrote
Madhuravijayam- a poem on invasion and conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by her husband), Tallapaka
Timmakka, Atukuri Molla (both telugu poets) are few notable women poets. The court of Nayaks of far
south patronised several women poets.
• Society had become mostly monogamous though kings and royalty continued to have harems.
• Sati, also called Sahgaman, was prevalent among the royal and soldier families. Various inscriptions have
been discovered in Vijayanagara which are called Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone)
• Devadasi and prostitution as professions thrived. Certain streets in the towns were meant for them.
Prostitution was even taxed by State.
• Women wore sarees and blouses while men wore only a lower garment, though stitched clothes like
shirts were occasionally. Men wore jewellery just as women did, like Finger rings, ear rings, necklaces,
bangles and bracelets etc. Rich men wore the Petha or Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated
with gold.
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9. THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Introduction
Mughals called themselves Timurid or Gurkaniya. They never seek legitimacy from Caliphs, therefore, were
not Sultans but assumed titles like Badshah or Shehenshah.
List of Mughal Emperors

1. Babur (1526-1530)
2. Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556)
3. Akbar (1556-1605)
4. Jahangir (1605-1627)
5. Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
6. Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
7. Bahadur Shah(1707-1712)
8. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)
9. Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
10. Rafi ud-Darajat (February 1719-June 1719)
11. Shah Jahan II (Rafi ud-Daulah) (June 1719-September 1719)
12. Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)
13. Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754)
14. Azizuddin, Alamgir II (1754-1759)
15. Shah Jahan III (1759-1760)
16. Shah Alam II (1759-1806)
17. Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)
18. Bahadur Shah II, Zafar (1837-1857)
Babur
Babur ascended the throne at Farghana (a small principality in Transoxiana) in 1494 at the tender age of
twelve. Expelled from Fargana by his uncle, Babur occupied Kabul in 1504. The rich resources of India and
the meagre income of Afghanistan, was certainly an attraction for Babur. The unstable political situation after
Sikandar Lodi's death convinced him of political discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire. Invitations
from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, might have whetted Babur's ambitions.
Perhaps Timur's legacy also provided some background for his invasion. After the siege of Bhira in 1519, Babur
asked Ibrahim Lodi to return western Punjab which belonged to his uncle Ulugh Beg Mizra.
Much before the final showdown at the battle of Panipat (1526), Babur had invaded India four times. The
first to fall was Bhira (1519-1520), the gateway of Hindustan, followed by Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524).
Finally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur's forces met at the historic battlefield of Panipat. The battle lasted for just
few hours in favour of Babur. Ibrahim’s forces though many times greater in number fared badly.
The battle of Panipat, though, formally established the Mughal rule in India, it was first among the series of
battles in the years to come. For example, to secure this triumph, it was equally important to overcome Rana
Sanga of Mewar and the chieftains in and around Delhi and Agra. Another important opponent in the eastern
India was the Afghans. To add to this, problems were mounting within his own nobility.
Rana Sanga of Mewar was a power to reckon with. Babur blamed Rana Sanga for breaking his promise by not
siding with him in the battle of Panipat against Ibrahim Lodi. Rana expected Babur to return to Kabul and
leave him free to establish his hegemony, if not over whole of Hindustan, at least over Rajputana. Babur's

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decision to stay back must have given a big jolt to Rana's ambitions. Babur was also fully aware of the fact that
it would be impossible for him to consolidate his position in India unless he shattered the Rana's power. Rana
Sanga this time succeeded in establishing the confederacv against Babur with the help of Afghan nobles.
In the battle of Khanwa (17th March, 1527) Babur made use of his artillery well. Rana Sanga got severely
wounded and was carried to Baswa near Amber. The Rajputs suffered a big loss. Babur's disciplined army,
mobile cavalry and his artillery played most decisive role in the battle.
Though the Mewar Rajputs received a great shock at Khanwa, Medini Rai at Malwa was still a power to reckon
with.
Rajputs regrouped themselves soon and fought again at battle of Chanderi (1528), Babur faced little difficulty
in overcoming them. With his defeat, resistance across Rajputana was completely shattered. In quick
succession he humbled the dissenting Afghans too. Babur died soon after in December, 1530.
The establishment of the Mughal Empire under the aegis of Babur was significant. Though the Afghans and
Rajputs could not be crushed completely, a task left to his successors, however he launched the Timurid
dynasty towards the establishment of an all India empire.
Humayun
Unlike Babur, Humayun he did not command the respect and esteem of the nobility. Moreover, the Chaghatai
nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had joined Babur's service,
deserted the Mughals at Humayun's accession.
To sustain imperial power and hegemony, Humayun had to contend against the Afghans both in the east and
the west which was supported by a large social base. But, most dangerous of all, was Humayun's brother
Kamran Mirza. An ambitious Afghan noble named Sher Khan was also heading a noble faction disgruntled
with the ascendence of Mughals in India.
Humayun defeated Afghans at Chunar November, 1531. This resulted in the flight of Afghan nobles to
Gujarat. This created a political vacuum in the east, providing an opportunity to Sher Khan to consolidate his
power. To consolidate his position in the east, he had to tackle with Bengal and Afghan nobles who got shelter
under the Bengal ruler.
Sher Shah had to face two invasions of Bengal rulers. However, Bengal' armies were defeated on both the
occasions. These successes completely exposed the weakness of the Bengal army. This raised the prestige of
Sher Khan. The eastern Afghans who had earlier deserted him now rushed to setve under his banner.
In the turn of events Humayun’s forces met Sher Khan at the battle of Chausa (1539). Showing very poor
tactics, Humayun unnecessarily exposed his army. Sher Shah knowing fully well the paucity of Humayun's
provisions, equipment and transport wasted no time in exploiting the situation. Large number of Mughal
forces were killed. Humayun managed to flee. Humayun reached Agra but by the time, Sher Shah proclaimed
himself an independent King which made the final clash was inevitable. Humayun was defeated badly in the
battle of Kannauj the banks of Ganga (1540). This paved the way for the establishment of the second Afghan
empire in India.
Factors contributed in Humayun's debacle were

• He faced hostility of his brothers. On many occassions he dealt with them too kindly.
• Sometime he reacted lethargically when the situation demanded swift action.
• Humayun also lacked financial resources for continuous warfare. This weakness became very much
evident when in Bengal he got stranded and lacked money and supplies.
• Sher Shah had the courage, experience and organising abilities. He was skilled in exploiting political
opportunities. Humayun could not match his capabilities.

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• Immediately after the death of his father Babur, Humayun divided his empire into four parts among
his brothers. This situation prevented the rise of a centralised state and the political instability was
evident in the first major crisis which the Mughals faced (1538-1540)
The Second Afghan Empire

After defeating the Mughal Emperor, Sher Shah declared himself as the sovereign ruler and started building
the Second Afghan Empire. The fifteen years (1540-1555) of Afghan rule form an interlude in the history of
Mughal Empire. This period was significant for the administrative innovations and reorganisation. During
his short reign (1540-1545), he was busy in fighting for keeping his new Empire intact.
Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah (1545-1553), though kept the legacy of his father intact, failed to
consolidate it any further. He was most of the time busy in suppressing the intrigues within his own camp
which emerged under the leadership of his brother Adil Shah. Besides, his humiliating treatment towards the
Niyazi Afghans specifically and the Afghans in general generated more resentment rather than gaining any
support. The ill effects of which had to be borne by his son and successor. One finds that in spite of all efforts
of Islam Shah to clear the road for the smooth succession of his son after his death (1553) internal strifes
marred the infant Afghan kingdom to the advantage of Humayun. Soon after Islam Shah's death, sedition and
rebellions marred the entire country and the Empire broke into 'five' kingdoms. This provided an ideal climate
for Humayun to strike.
Revival of the Mughal Rule

Trying his luck to win over petty kingdoms of Sind and Rajputana, in 1543 Humayun reached Persia, where
he was received by Shah Tahmasp. Humayun promised him in regaining Qandahar, Kabul and Ghazni and
would surrender Qandahar to the Shah.
Humayun's success at Qandahar won over many nobles. From 1545 to 1553, Humayun spent his energies
mainly in dealing with his brother Kamran who kept Humayun on his toes. Finally, Humayun defeated
Kamran and sent him to Mecca after blinding him (where he died in 1557). Now Humayun could plan for the
re-acquisition of his lost Indian Empire. He started in November 1554 and reached Lahore in Feb 1555. The
final clash took place at Sirhind. Sikandar Shah Sur had to flee towards the Siwalik and the road to Delhi was
thus lay clear. Humayun, in June 1555, occupied Delhi. However, he could hardly accomplish the task of
conquest and consolidation. He died soon after (26 January 1556) leaving behind his minor son Akbar under
heavy odds.
Akbar
Humayun had rescued and restored the Mughal Empire in 1555. But, had it not been for Akbar, the Empire
perhaps would not have sustained. It was during his rule that the Mughal Empire became a political fact and
an important factor in Indian politics.
At Humayun's death, Akbar was only thirteen years old. It was his tutor and Humayun's confidant, Bairam
Khan who served as the regent from 1556-1560. After regaining the control the immediate concern for the
kingdom was not only Humayun's death but also a challenge to the Empire by the Afghan forces under Hemu,
especially when Akbar was a minor. Mughal forces defeated Hemu in the Second battle of Panipat (1556).
Within few years Akbar emerged out from the shadow of his regent and soon dismissed him in 1560. The
tussle between Bairam Khan and the nobility was in fact a conflict between the central authority represented
by the regent and the nobility. Bairam Khan's regency was a period of dilemma for Akbar. While he wanted
to curtail the independence of the nobility, he needed their support for his power. It was not possible for him
to counterbalance this opposition by introducing a new group. The Afghans could not be recruited because
they were the main contenders to the throne. The only alternatives were, therefore, the Rajput chiefs, the

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zamindars or other local chiefs, but this process, if done on large numbers can antagonize the leading nobles,
therefore, Akbar will have to wait for some time to implement this policy.
After overcoming initial problems and consolidating his hold on the throne, Akbar started a policy of
extending Mughal territories. Any policy of expansion meant conflict with various political powers spread in
different parts of the country. A few of these political powers were well organised, the Rajputs, though spread
throughout the country as autonomous chiefs and kings, had major concentration in Rajputana. The Afghans
held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal. In Deccan and South India, the major states were
Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and other southern kingdoms. In the North-west some tribes
held their sway. Kabul and Qandahar, though held by Mughal factions, were opposed to Akbar.
Expansion of the Empire

Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his Empire. The major expansion of Mughal
Empire took place during the reign of Akbar. During the reigns of his successors (Jahangir, Shahjahan and
Aurangzeb), very little was added in terms of territory. The main additions in the later period were made
during Aurangzeb's reign in South India and North-East (Assam).
• In 1559-60, Afghans of Jaunpur were defeated easily and it was annexed to the Mughal Empire.
Malwa in central India was conquered in 1564.
• A calculated policy was devised not only to conquer the kingdoms of Rajputana but turn their rulers
into allies. Akbar with the exception of Chittor's Rana Pratap, managed to secure the allegiance of all
the Rajput kingdoms. A large number of them were absorbed in Mughal nobility and helped Akbar
in expanding and consolidating the Mughal Empire.
• Gujarat, apart from being a fertile region, had a number of busy ports and thriving commercial
centres ruled by various autonomous principalities. By 1572, most of the principalities of Gujarat
were subdued.
• By 1592, whole of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa was brought under the Mughal rule.
• Kashmir was annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1586.
Consolidation of the Empire

Akbar's policy of conquests and territorial expansion was accompanied by consolidating the new territories
into Mughal administrative structure.
In 1580, Akbar djvided the whole territory into 12 provinces which were called subas. After the Deccan
conquest, three new subas were added making them to 15. These provinces were governed by a definite set of
rules and a body of officers.
Akbar gave a new shape to the military administration. He combined the earlier practices and new measures
for organising army and tried to evolve a centralised military structure. He gave Mansabs to both military and
civil officers on the basis of their merit or service to the state. Mansab literaly means an office or rank and
mansabdar means holder of a rank. All mansabdars were paid in cash or in the form of a jagir. The military
administration evolved under Akbar underwent many changes during the rule of his successors.
Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means town of victory) near Agra, starting in 1571.
Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were
built there. It incorporated the tomb of the Sufi saint, whom he revered, Shaikh Salim Chisti (1418-1572), who
had predicted the birth of his son. The city, however, proved short-lived, with the capital being moved to
Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor
quality, or, as some historians believe, that Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and

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therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599 Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra, from where he reigned
until his death.
Akbar adopted two distinct but effective approaches in administering a large territory and incorporating
various ethnic groups into the service of his realm. In 1580 he obtained local revenue statistics for the previous
decade in order to understand details of productivity and price fluctuation of different crops. Aided by Raja
Todar Mal, a Rajput king, Akbar issued a revenue schedule that the peasantry could tolerate while providing
maximum profit for the state. Revenue demands, fixed according to local conventions of cultivation and
quality of soil, ranged from one-third to one-half of the crop and were paid in cash. Akbar relied heavily on
land-holding zamindars. They used their considerable local knowledge and influence to collect revenue and
to transfer it to the treasury, keeping a portion in return for services rendered. Within his administrative
system, the warrior aristocracy (mansabdars) held ranks (mansabs) expressed in numbers of troops, and
indicating pay, armed contingents, and obligations. The warrior aristocracy was generally paid from revenues
of nonhereditary and transferable jagirs (revenue villages).
An astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar
introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus (including Maryam al-Zamani, the Hindu
Rajput mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the majority of the population. He recruited
and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages between
Mughal and Rajput aristocracy; allowed new temples to be built; personally participated in celebrating Hindu
festivals such as Deepavali, or Diwali, the festival of lights; and abolished the jizya (poll tax) imposed on non-
Muslims. Akbar came up with his own theory of "ruler ship as a divine illumination," enshrined in his new
religion Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Faith”), incorporating the principle of acceptance of all religions and sects. He
encouraged widow re-marriage, discouraged child marriage, outlawed the practice of Sati (widows
committing suicide on their husband's funeral pyre), and persuaded Delhi merchants to set up special market
days for women, who otherwise were secluded at home. By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire
extended throughout most of India north of the Godavari River. The exceptions were Gondwana in central
India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast, and large parts of the Deccan. In 1600,
Akbar's Mughal Empire had revenue of £17.5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire treasury of Great
Britain totaled £16 million.
Akbar's empire supported vibrant intellectual and cultural life. A large imperial library included books in
Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmiri, English, and Arabic, such as the Shahnameh, Bhagavata Purana and the
Bible. Akbar sought knowledge and truth wherever it could be found and through a wide range of activities.
He regularly sponsored debates and dialogs among religious and intellectual figures with differing views,
building a special chamber for these discussions at Fatehpur Sikri and he welcomed Jesuit missionaries from
Goa to his court. Akbar directed the creation of the Hamzanama, an artistic masterpiece that included 1,400
large paintings.
The territorial expansion under Akbar gave a definite shape to the Mughal Empire. Very little progress was
made during the reigns of his successors, viz., Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. After Aurangzeb we find
that the process of disintegration of the Empire began.
Jahangir
Jahangir married Mehr-Un-Nisaa, a Persian beauty whom he renamed Nur Jahan (“Light of the World”), who
emerged as the most powerful individual in the court besides the emperor. As a result, Persian poets, artists,
scholars, and officers—including her own family members—lured by the Mughal court's brilliance and
luxury, found asylum in India. The number of unproductive, timeserving officers mushroomed, as did
corruption while the excessive Persian representation upset the delicate balance of impartiality at the court.
Jahangir liked Hindu festivals, but promoted mass conversion to Islam; he persecuted the followers of Jainism

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and even executed Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth saint-teacher of the Sikhs. He did so, however, not for religious
reasons. Guru Arjun supported Prince Khursaw, another contestant to the Mughal throne, in the civil war
that developed after Akbar's death. The release of 52 Hindu princes from captivity in 1620 is the basis for the
significance of the time of Diwali to Sikhs.
Nur Jahan's abortive efforts to secure the throne for the prince of her choice led Shah Jahan to rebel in 1622.
In that same year, the Persians took over Kandahar in southern Afghanistan, an event that struck a serious
blow to Mughal prestige. Intentionally, Jehangir set in motion the demise of the empire when he granted King
James I's ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, permission for the British East India Company to build a factory at
Surat.
Shah Jahan
Between 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent Mughal armies to conquer the Deccan and the northwest beyond the
Khyber Pass. Even though they aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, these campaigns drained the
imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents
multiplied almost fourfold, so did the demands for more revenue from the peasantry. Political unification
and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce
and crafts—such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad—linked by roads and waterways to distant places
and ports. Shah Jahan also had the famous Peacock Throne built with 108 rubies, 116 emeralds, and rows of
pearls. The Mughals were very conscious of their dignity as emperors, and dressed and acted the part.
The world-famous Taj Mahal was built in Agra during Shah Jahan's reign as a tomb for his beloved wife,
Mumtaz Mahal. It symbolizes both Mughal artistic achievement and excessive financial expenditures when
resources were shrinking. The economic position of peasants and artisans did not improve because the
administration failed to produce any lasting change in the existing social structure. There was no incentive
for the revenue officials, whose concerns primarily were personal or familial gain, to generate resources
independent of dominant Hindu zamindars and village leaders, whose self-interest and local dominance
prevented them from handing over the full amount of revenue to the imperial treasury. In their ever-greater
dependence on land revenue, the Mughals unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the break-up of
their empire. Establishing an elaborate court, with bodyguards, a harem and wearing expensive clothes, more
and more tax revenue was needed merely to finance this lavish lifestyle. Meanwhile, the gun-power
technology that had given them military superiority, which remained unchallenged within India, could be
challenged from the outside by armies with more advanced technology. It was the greed and complacency of
the emperors that resulted in their decline, and eventual demise.
Auragzeb
The last of the great Mughals was Aurangzeb. During his fifty-year reign, the empire reached its greatest
physical size but also showed the unmistakable signs of decline. The bureaucracy had grown corrupt, and the
huge army demonstrated outdated weaponry and tactics. Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance
and expanded power southward, at least for a while. A zealous Muslim, Aurangzeb reversed the earlier
policies that had helped to maintain good relations with non-Hindus, imposing Islamic law and dealing
harshly with Hindus. He destroyed many Temples. Aurangzeb had the khutbah (Friday sermon) proclaimed
in his own name, not in that of the Ottoman caliph. Aurangzeb defeated the British between 1688 and 1691.
Aurangzeb was involved in a series of protracted wars against the Pathans in Afghanistan, the sultans of
Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, the Marathas in Maharashtra and the Ahoms in Assam. Peasant
uprisings and revolts by local leaders became all too common, as did the conniving of the nobles to preserve
their own status at the expense of a steadily weakening empire. The increasing association of his government
with Islam further drove a wedge between the ruler and his Hindu subjects. Contenders for the Mughal

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throne were many, and the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were short-lived and filled with strife. The
Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as regional nawabs (governors) broke away and founded
independent kingdoms. The Mughals had to make peace with Maratha armies, and Persian and Afghan
armies invaded Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne in 1739, subsequently
used by the shahs of Persia (Iran).
The Later Mughals

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a war of succession began amongst his three surviving sons, Muazzam
– the governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat, and Kam Baksh-the governor of Deccan. In the tussle
for throne, Muazzam emerged victorious and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur Shah I.
He was also known as Shah Alam I.
Bahadur Shah I (1707-12) was the first and the last of the later Mughal rulers to exercise real authority. He
was learned, dignified and tried to reverse some of the narrow-minded policies and measures adopted by
Aurangzeb. He followed a conciliatory policy towards the Rajput’s and Marathas but a strict policy towards
the Sikhs.
Previously, the contest for power was between the royal princes; the nobles had merely backed and sided with
them. Now they became direct aspirants to the throne and began using the princes as pawns to capture
authoritarian positions.
In another war of succession following Bahadur Shah’s death, his four sons, Jahandar Shah, Rafi-us-Shan,
Azim-us-Shan and Jahan Shah became involved. Jahandar Shah (1712-13) was successful in the war than the
others.
The inglorious reign of Jahandar Shah soon came to an end in 1713 when he was defeated by his nephew
Farrukh Siyar at Agra. Zulfikar Khan was soon executed by the orders of the new emperor.
Farrukh Siyar came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan Barha,
the kingmakers. It was during the reign of Farrukh that Banda Bahadur the Sikh chief was captured and killed.
However, the struggle for power between the emperor and the Sayyid brothers increased and the efforts of
the emperor to overthrow the brothers failed repeatedly. Sayyid brothers followed a policy of religious
tolerance. They abolished the jizyah as well as the pilgrimage tax at many places. In order to maintain
harmony, they advocated a policy of associating Hindu chiefs and nobles with Muslim nobles. In their
struggle against Farrukh Siyar, the Sayyid brothers sided with the Rajput’s and the Marathas. Ajit Singh of
Marwar and Jai Singh of Amber were won over by giving them high positions in the administration. Finally,
Farrukh was deposed and killed in 1719.
The efforts made by the Sayyid brothers did not yield great results because they were constantly faced with
rival factions and conspiracies in the court. The financial position of the empire was also dwindling as the
rebellious elements refused to pay the land tax. This led to increased indiscipline amongst the soldiers.
The hostile nobles united themselves under the leadership of Nizam-ul-Mulk of the Deccan. Further the
murder of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of terror and repulsion against the Sayyid brothers who were looked
down upon as traitors.
They were branded as anti-Islamic for their policies. The anti-Sayyid nobles were strongly backed by
Muhammad Shah who wanted to free him-self from the hold of the brothers. In 1720, Hussain Ali was killed
by the rebellious nobles and Abdullah Khan died in 1722 after he was defeated at Agra. This ended the rule of
the Sayyid brothers in the Mughal Empire.
After the fall of the Sayyid brothers Muhammad Shah had a long reign (1719-48) to save the empire. The
Mughal rule was still held in high esteem by the people. The Mughal army especially the artillery was still the

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most important force, administration in northern India had deteriorated but not collapsed entirely. The
Maratha sardars were still confined to the south and the Rajput’s were loyal to the Mughals.
The already declining Mughal Empire received another fatal blow when the Persian monarch, Nadir Shah
invaded India in 1738-39. Nadir Shah was attracted to India by her fabulous wealth for which she was famous.
The bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy prey in the weak Mughal rule with loose defences on the north-
west frontier and used the golden opportunity.
The invasion affected the imperial finances and the economic life of the people adversely. Ahmad Shah
Abdali, the successor of Nadir Shah invaded the kingdom for the first time during Muhammad Shah’s reign
in 1748.
The death of emperor Muhammad Shah in 1748 saw the beginning of bitter struggles among power hungry
nobles of Turani and Irani factions.
Soon, Azizuddin, Jahandar Shah’s son took the throne, who styled himself after Aurangzeb as Alamgir II. The
military and financial position of the empire during this period became worst to the extent that the emperor’s
household troops carried off the articles from the houses of the wazirs and nobles and sold them into the
market. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi in 1757 and the imperial city was plundered.
Muhi-ul-Milat, the grandson of KamBaksh was placed on the throne as Shah Jahan III by Imad-ul- Mulk. ‘He
was deposed by the Marathas who captured Delhi in 1760.
Ali Gauhar, the son of Alamgir II became the Mughal emperor in 1759 and took up the title of Shah Alam II.
At the time of his father’s death he was in Bihar. Although he was declared the Mughal Emperor, he did not
proceed to Delhi for 12 years.
In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English after Lord Lake defeated the Marathas and Shah Alam became the
British pensioner. David Ochterlony became the first resident.
After the death of Shah Alam II, his son succeeded as Akbar Shah II. Akbar sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to
England to seek a raise in pension. The presentation of Nazrs (gifts involving sovereign status) was ended by
Lord Hastings in 1813.
After the death of Akbar II, Bahadur Shah II became the Emperor. He was allowed to retain the imperial title.
He was fond of poetry and had the title of “Zafar.” He took part in the Revolt of 1857. He was captured and
tried by the British. Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. Thus ended the Mughal
dynasty.
Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire

1. The Role of Aurangzeb
a. The size of the Empire became impossible to govern with available resources and technology-
Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy of extending it further to the farthest
geographical limits in the south at great expense in men and materials. In reality, the existing means
of communication and the economic and political structure of the country made it difficult to
establish a stable centralized administration over all parts of the country. Mughal lines were open to
the attacks of the hostile powers like Marathas and Pathans and it was impossible to collect taxes
from all the Jagirs effectively.
b. The deccan policy of Aurangzeb- His futile, but the arduous campaign against the Marathas
extended over many years, drained the resources of his Empire and ruined the trade and industry of
the Deccan. His absence from the north for over 25 years and his failure to subdue the Marathas Ied
to deterioration of the administration, led to the neglect of the vital north-west frontier, and
encouraged provincial and local officials to defy central authority and to dream of independence.
Later, in the 18th century, Maratha expansion in the north weakened central authority still further.
Instead of annexing Bijapur and Golconda, he should have followed the buffer state policy and to

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help them against the Marathas. This would have saved his lot of resources and efforts which were
needed in other matters of the Empire.
c. The Rajput policy of Aurangzeb- Alliance with the Rajput rajas with the consequent military
support was one of the main pillars of Mughal strength in the past. Aurangzeb himself had in the
beginning adhered to the Rajput alliance, but his short-sighted attempt later to reduce the strength
of the Rajput rajas and to re-extend the imperial sway over their lands led to the withdrawal of their
loyalty from the Mughal throne. Wars with the Rajput rajas further weakened the Empire and
encouraged separation. In particular, they tended to create a wall between the Hindu and the Muslim
upper classes.
d. Religious policy of Aurangzeb- Aurangxeb's religious orthodoxy and his policy towards the Hindu
rulers seriously damaged the stability of the Mughal Empire. The Mughal state in, the days of Akbar,
Jahangir, and Shahjahan was basically a secular state. The Mughal alliance with the Rajput rajas was
a visible manifestation of this policy. Aurangzeb made an attempt to reverse this policy by imposing
the jizyah, destroying many of the Hindu temples in the north, and putting certain restrictions on
the Hindus. However, the role of the religious policy of Aurangzeb in causing the decay of Mughal
power should not be over-stressed. This policy was followed only in the latter part of his reign. It
was speedily abandoned by his successors. As we have seen earlier, the jizyah was abolished within
a few years of Aurangzeb's death. Amicable relations with the Rajput and other Hindu nobles and
chiefs were soon restored. It should also be kept in view that the Rajput, Jat, Maratha, and Sikh
chieftains of the 18th century also did not behave as champions of the Hindus. Power and plunder
were more important considerations to them than religious solidarity. In fact, neither the Hindus
nor the Muslims formed a homogenous community at that time. Sometimes the Hindu and Muslim
nobles and chiefs used religion as a weapon of propaganda to achieve their political aims. But even
more often they formed mutual alliances against fellow co-religionists for gaining power, territory,
or money.
2. Recurring Revolts in the provinces- The strength of Aurangzeb's administration was challenged by the
Satnami, the Jat, the Afghan and the Sikh revolts . Peasants formed the backbone of these revolts and to
a considerable extent, all were the result of the oppression of the Mughal revenue officials over the
peasantry. A view suggests that these revolts were encouraged by the Governers who were secretly hostile
towards the Imperial office in Delhi or were in search of the opportunities they could get in the face of
the breakdown of law and order.
3. Absence of the law of Primogeniture- Every Mughal prince considered himself equally fit to become the
ruler and was prepared to fight out his claim. The Mughal dynasty was always plagued after the death of
a king by a civil war between the princes. These wars of succession became extremely fierce and
destructive during the 18th century. These civil wars loosened the administrative fabric of the Empire.
The nobility, the backbone of the Empire, was transformed into warring factions. Many of the local
chiefs and officials utilised the conditions of uncertainty, and political chaos at the centre to consolidate
their own position, to acquire greater autonomy, and to make their offices hereditary.
4. Weak Kings after Aurangzeb- The weaknesses of Aurangzeb's reign and the evils of the wars of
succession might still have been overcome if able, farsighted, and energetic rulers had appeared on the
throne. Unfortunately, after Bahadur Shah's brief reign came a long reign of utterly worthless, weak-
willed and luxury-loving kings. After all, in an autocratic, monarchical system of government, the
character and personality of the ruler do play a crucial role. At the same time, this single factor need not

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be given too much importance. In a resource depleted economic base, a faction driven court politics,
presence of ambitious nobles and many claimants to the throne always produce weak Kings, not only in
the Mughal Empire of this time but at all places at all times.
5. Degeneration of Mughal Nobility- Apart from the personalities of the Great Mughais, the strength of
the Mughal Empire lay in the organisation and character of its nobility. The weakness of the king could
have been successfully overcome and covered up by an alert, efficient, and loyal nobility. Many nobles
lived extravagantly and beyond their means. Even when they went out to fight, they surrounded
themselves with comforts and frequently took their families with them. They were often poorly
educated. Many of them neglected even the art of fighting. Earlier, many able persons from the lower
classes had been able to rise to the ranks of nobility, thus infusing fresh blood into it. Later, the existing
families of nobles and to monopolise all offices, barring the way to fresh comers. Not all the nobles,
however, bad become weak and inefficient. A large number of energetic and able officials and brave and
brilliant military commanders came into prominence during the 18th century, but most of them did not
benefit the Empire because they used their talents to promote their own interests and to fight each other
rather than to serve the state and society. This gave birth to corruption in the administration and mutual
bickering. Their mutual quarrels exhausted the Empire, affected its cohesion, led to its dismemberment,
and, in the end, made it an easy prey to foreign conquerors.
6. Jagirdari crisis- But the above characteristics were not the monopoly of the Mughal nobility at the centre.
They were found in equal measure among the rising Maratha chiefs, the Rajput rajas, the Tat, the Sikh,
and the Bundela chiefs, the new rulers of autonomous provinces, and the other innumerable adventurers
who rose to fame and power during the troubled 18th century. One of the major causes of the growing
selfishness and exclusivity of the nobles was the paucity of jagirs and the reduced Income of the existing
jagirs at a time when the number of nobles and their expenditure was going up So there ensued intense
mutual rivalry among them for the possession of the existing jagirs, which is described as the Jagirdari
crisis.
7. Unable to satisfy the minimum needs of the people- A basic cause of the downfall of the Mughal Empire
was that it could no longer satisfy the minimum needs of its population The condition of the Indian
peasant gradually worsened during the 17th and 18th centuries. While at no time perhaps was this lot
happy, in the 18th century the life, was "poor, nasty, miserable and uncertain". The burden of land revenue
went on increasing from Akbar's time. Moreover, constant transfer of nobles from their jagirs also led to
great evil. They tried to extract at much from a jagir as possible in the short period of their tenure as
jagirdars. They made heavy demands on the peasants and cruelly oppressed them, often in violation of
official regulations. After the death of Aurangzeb, the practice of Ijaradari took the condition of peasants
to new lows. All these factors led to stagnation and deterioration in agriculture and the impoverishment
of the peasant.
8. The resources were not able to meet the requirements of the Empire- Agriculture was no longer
producing enough surplus to meet the needs of the Empire, of constant warfare, and of the increased
luxury of the ruling classes. If the Empire was to survive and regain its strength and if the people were to
go forward, trade and industry alone could provide the additional economic resources. But unlike in
Europe at this time, Indian industry did not make any new advances in science and technology. Similarly,
the growth of trade was hampered by bad communications and by the self-sufficient nature of the village

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economy. Moreover, the emphasis on land as a source of wealth and government revenue led to the
neglect of overseas trade and the navy.
9. The attacks of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali- The final blow to the Mughal Empire was given by
a series of foreign invasions. Attacks by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, which were themselves the
consequences of the weakness of the Empire, drained the Empire of Its wealth, ruined its trade and
industry in the North, and almost destroyed its military power.
10. Neglected development of the Navy- Mughals did not pay any attention to sea power and left the coast
line completely undefended. It proved fatal as the naval powers of Europe established their mastery over
India.
• The decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire were due to Economic, Social, Political and Institutional
factors.
• Akbar’s measures kept the forces of disintegration under check for some time, but could not bring any
fundamental changes in the structure of the society.
• India lagged behind the world in the field of science and technology and the Mughal ruling class remained
blind to this development.
• The Mughal Empire had already reached the limits of its development possible under the feudal
aristocratic nature of the State and ruling class were putting limits to the economic development of the
country. Therefore the roots of the disintegration of the Mughal Empire may be found in the Medieval
Indian economy which is marked by the stagnation of trade, industry and scientific development within
the limits of the Economy, the growing financial crisis which took the form of Jagirdari crisis and
affected every branch of state activity. It also led to the struggle of factions and the bid of ambitious nobles
for independent dominions.
• Unlike Akbar, no ruler tried to integrate the hostile powers into the Mughal administration and no effort
was made to create a composite ruling class in India. The Empire collapsed of its own weight.
• It was an Empire, which have to keep reformulating the economic base and the administration, however,
by the 18th century it became a kingdom spread over large areas, i.e. it only creamed off the surplus from
the trade and the peasantry and no effort was made to reformulate the economy or widen the resource
base by administrative intervention.
• Finally, the emergence of the British challenge took away the last hope of the revival of the Empire.
1. The Mughal Empire fell by the burden of its own weight. Examine
2. Before Aurangzeb, all the Mughal Emperors were capable rulers, after him all were incapable rulers.
Critically Comment
3. Mughal Empire was Akbar’s Empire. Examine
4. Mughal Empire was an upgrade on Delhi Sultanante in the field of Administration but devoid of its
bigotry and racialism. Comment

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10. THE MUGHAL AGE
Major Offices
Wazir
• The central Asian tradition of having an all-powerful Wazir, in charge of various heads of departments,
was the principal link between the ruler and the administration. Akbar reorganized the central machinery
of administration on the basis of the division of power between various departments with enough checks
and balances.
• The institution of Wizarat (or Wikalat) was present during the Delhi Sultanate which lost its position
during the period of Afghan rulers.
• The position of the wazir was revived under Babur and Humayun.
• Bairam Khan (1556-60), regent of Akbar and with office of wakil-wazir had unlimited powers.
• To curb the powers of wazir, Akbar took away the financial powers.
Diwan-i-Kul
• Diwan-i Kul was the chief diwan and was responsible for revenue and finances.
• The diwan used to inspect all transaction and payments in all departments and supervised the provincial
diwans.
• The entire revenue collection and expenditure of the empire was under his charge.
Mir Bakshi
• Mir Bakshi looked after all matters pertaining to the military administration.
• Recommendations for appointment to mansabs, their salary papers or for promotions, etc. were made to
the emperor through him.
• He kept a strict watch over proper maintenance of the sanctioned size of armed contingents and war
equipage by the mansabdars.
Sadr us Sudur
• The Sadr us Sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical department and his chief duty was to protect the laws
of the Shariat.
• The office of the Sadr used to distribute allowances and stipends to the eligible persons and religious
institutions.
• The promulgation of Mahzar in 1580 restricted his authority.
• According to Mahzar, Emperor’s view was to prevail in case of conflicting views among religious
scholars.
Chief Qazi
• Though the emperor was the highest judge in the empire, he was assisted by the chief qazi at the capital.
• The qazi tried all cases in matters of religious disputes according to the Islamic law.
• Large towns and cities had their own qazis.
• Mufti was an authority on the Quranic law and advised and assisted the Qazi.
Mir Saman
• The Mir Saman was the officer in-charge of the royal Karkhanas.

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• He was responsible for all kinds of purchases and their storage for the royal household.
Provincial Administration
• The Mughals formalized a new territorial unit called Suba. Akbar divided the empire into 15 subas. These
were Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa, Gujarat,
Ahmednagar, Bearar and Khandesh. Later provinces increased to twenty.
• The provincial administration was a replica of Central Government. A Subedar (governor), Diwan,
Bakshi, Sadr, Qazi and Waqia Navis (intelligence officer) were appointed to each of the provinces to
ensure principle of checks and balances to be extended to the provinces.
• Diwan was also expected to increase the area under cultivation. In many cases taqavi (advance loans)
were given to peasants through his office.
• The port administration was independent of the provincial authority. The governor of the port was called
Mutasaddi, directly appointed by the Emperor.
Local Administration
• The Mughals retained many features of the administrative system of the Sultanate and Shershah and
hardly any changes were made by Akbar in the organization of local government.
• Under Shershah the administrative units of Pargana (a group of villages), sarkar (a group of parganas)
were placed under specific offices. The chief officers of the Sarkar were the ‘faujdar’ being in charge of
law and order.
• The Subas were divided into Sarkars, which itself were divided into Parganas.
• The village was the smallest unit of administration.
• At the level of Sarkar, there were two important functionaries, the Faujdar (law and order) and the
Amalguzar (revenue).
• Faujdari was an administrative division whereas Sarkar was a territorial and revenue division.
• At the level of Pragana, the Shiqdar (executive officer) assisted the Amils in the task of revenue
collection.
• The Quanungo kept all the records of land in the pargana.
• The Kotwals were appointed mainly in towns by the imperial government and were incharge of law and
order.
• The Muqaddam was the village head man and the Patwari looked after the village revenue records.
• The services of the Zamindars were utilized for the maintenance of law and order in their areas as well
as in the collection of revenue.
• The forts were placed under an officer called Qiladar. He was in charge of the general administration of
the fort.
Military
• The Mughal army was modelled on Mongol system. An officer called the hazari commanded a unit of
artillery of thousand men.
• Babur began the use of artillery on a large scale in India and his successors continued the practice with
success.

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• Elephants were widely used by the Mughals. These were useful in breaking the enemies’ military
formations. They were used to opening gates of palaces or forts and for transporting goods (beasts of
burden). However, Cavalry (mounted archers) was the basis of army.
• The navy of the Mughals was more useful for river warfare. In lower Bengal there was a flotilla of war
boats carrying artillery up and down the river.
• Foreigners (Europeans and others) were employed in the Mughal navy.
Land Revenue System of Sher Shah Suri

• The devised the system where state kept direct relations with the peasants for the assessment and
collection of the land revenue (however, in areas like Multan, Malwa and Rajasthan Jagirdari system
continued).
• All cultivable land was divided into three categories on the basis of production, ie good, middle and bad.
• The land was measured according to a uniform system using a unit called Sikandari Gaj. (Sikandari Gaj
was introduced by Sikandar Lodi and it was equivalent to 39 inches).
• The state preferred to collect revenue in the form of cash and for that purpose the prices of every variety
of cereals were fixed at different places.
• The peasants were given the facility to pay their revenue in installments in a year according to crop
seasons.
• The peasants were given patta (title deeds) by the state specifying the revenue which they had to pay and
were asked to sign deeds of agreement signifying their acceptance to pay the required revenue. Under
Patta system, the area sown, types of crops cultivated and revenue share was duly written on paper.
• The Qabuliyat system involved a deed agreement between the peasant and the government. Qabuliyat
system aimed at discouraging the Jagir system.
• The peasants had also to pay two more taxes, named the surveyor's fee of 2.5% called Jaribana and the tax-
collector's fee of 5% called Muhasilans, to the state.
• Rai system was used to fix the rate, in which cultivated area was measured, and a Dastur (central
schedule) was created fixing the dues of peasants, crop wise on the basis of the productivity of the land,
ie an average of the produce was estimated in each case and then the cultivators were asked to pay to the
state.
• The revenue administration of Sher Shah also suffered from certain defects.
o The peasants who possessed middle and bad quality of land had to pay more as compared to the
owners of good quality land under this system.
o The annual settlement of the revenue was inconvenient both to the peasants and state officials.
o There was corruption in the revenue department and Sher Shah failed to uproot it.
o The assessment was done on the produce of one year, in case of good monsoon of that year peasant
suffers, in bad monsoon state suffers.
Land Revenue System of Akbar

• For political as well as fiscal purposes Akbar had divided his empire into 15 Subahs, 187 Sarkars and 3367
Mahals.
• He ordered a standardization of measurement unit and the so called Ilahi Gaj was made the unit of land
measurement. This Ilahi Gaj was 29-32 inches, therefore, shorter than the Sikandari Gaj (Gaj as
measurement of land finds its origin during Sikandar Lodi’s times).
• For Paimaish (land measurement), a rope called Tenab was used which was subject to variation in its
length due to dryness or humidity, Akbar made reforms in Tenab also. Akbar ordered the Tenab to be
made of pieces of Bamboo joined together with iron rings.

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• A further change was to fix definite measurement to Bigha of land. A Bigha was made of 3600 Ilahi Gaj,
which is roughly half of modern acre. Several Bighas made a Mahal.
• Akbar followed the system and to make a comparative estimate of the produce of lands and fixed
different revenues for each of them.
o Polaj- the ideal and best type of land throughout the empire. This land was cultivated always and
was never allowed to lie fallow.
o Parauti- the land kept out of cultivation temporarily to recoup its lost fertility.
o Chachar- land allowed to lie fallow for three or four years and then resumed under cultivation.
o Banjar- worst kind of land that was left out of cultivation for five years or more.
• The best lands, Polaj and Parauti were subdivided into three categories good, middle and bad. Average
produce of these three categories, called Mahsul was taken as a normal produce per Bigha.
• One third of this Mahsul (average produce) was fixed as state’s share. The Parauti land also was liable
to pay the Polaj rate (one third of Mahsul) when cultivated. Chachar land was allowed to pay a
concessional rate until it was cultivated again to be liable to pay the Polaj rate. Banjar lands was made tax
free for first five years of cultivation.
• The peasants were given option to pay either in cash or kind, whichever was convenient to them. For cash
payment, the rate list was called Dastur.
• However, the basis of land classification by Akbar was on the continuity or discontinuity of the
cultivation. He had not taken account the soil qualities (clay, loam, irrigated, unirrigated etc) for
ascertaining the produce as done by British Empire later.
• Akbar adopted Sher shah’s Rai system, where the state’s share was fixed one-third of the produce under
the Dastur to be paid in cash. The peasant’s tax was based on annual system of collecting prices and
settlements of revenues for the previous years.
• But there were several problems with this arrangement.
o The prices of crops could not reasonably be applied to the whole empire. Prices were lower in rural
areas which were far away from the urban centres.
o The cultivators found it difficult to pay in cash at the official rate.
o This system was affected by corruption of the revenue collectors, particularly among the Karoris.
o Fixing prices every year and doing settlements of revenues of previous years was a cumbersome
practice.
Improvements on existing system

• Therefore, Akbar ordered that the settlement should be concluded for past 10 years (1570 to 1579) and a
decennial average was fixed as demand of the revenue. This was the so called Ain e Dahsala,
implemented by Raja Todarmal.
• A further improvement was made in form of Zabti system, under which Parganas having same type of
productivity and similar prices were grouped into separate Dasturs (assessment circles). Thus, the
peasant was required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices. Therefore, as soon as the
area sown by the peasant had been measured, the peasant as well as the state knew what the dues were.
• The peasant was given remission in the land revenue, if crops failed on account of drought, floods etc.
Akbar introduced this system in the area from Lahore to Allahabad, and in Malwa and Gujarat.
Determination of Rai
• Among already existing systems, the most common and, perhaps, the oldest was called Batai or Galla
bakhshi or Bhaoli (khet batai or lang batai) The produce was divided between the peasants and the state

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in fixed proportion. The crop was divided after it had been thrashed or while it was standing in the field.
This system was considered a very fair one, but it needed large number of honest officials.
• Another system which was widely used was Nasaq. Some modern historians think that it was merely a
system of computing the peasant’s dues, not a different system of assessment. In this a rough assessment
was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts of the peasant, therefore, do not require actual
measurement of the land and the area was ascertained from past records.
• One more system was prevalent, called Kankut or Dambandi. Kan- grain, kat- estimate or appraisal, dam-
grain while bandi- fixing. In this system revenue officials decided Rai on the basis of an estimate. The
whole land was measured, either by using the jarib or pacing it, and the standing crops estimated by
inspection. Unlike Nasaq, it was a fresh estimate and past errors can be rectified.
Mansabdari System
• Mansab is an Arabic word meaning office, rank, or dignity. Mansab was the measure of status of a
Mughal official which determined rank, salary and office. The system was instituted by Akbar in 1577
A.D.
• Based on the Mongols system of decimal organization of army, this system amalgamates nobility,
bureaucracy and the army into one.
• Every officer was assigned a Mansab (rank) the lowest being 10 and the highest being 10,000.
• The ranks were divided into two, Zat and Sawar.
• Zat was the personal rank and fixed the person’s status, and also the salary due to him. Sawar indicated
the number of cavalrymen (Sawars) an officer was required to maintain.
• Each Mansabdar was assigned an area that was officially estimated to yield revenue equivalent to his
salary. The land so assigned was Jagir.
• A Jagirdar had no permanent rights in the assignment. He merely had the right to collect land revenue on
behalf of the state. Moreover, he was liable to transfers. It was also imperative was Mansabs were revised
from time to time calling for change in Jagirs.
• Only Vatan Jagirs (Jagirs of Rajputs) were inheritable and non-transferable.
• Du-aspa Sihaspa System- Jahangir introduced a system whereby a Mansabdar holding this rank had to
maintain, and was paid for, double the quota of troops indicated by his Sawar rank.
• Introduction of Al Tamgah (inheritable) Jagirs- The jagirs were never officially inheritable, though
under normal circumstances it was conferred upon the sons. Jahangir assigned the Al Tamgah jagirs
which were officially inheritable. Although these were not on a very large scale, however, such jagirs
increases the decentralization and such jagirdars act as hindrance against the authority of King over the
state.
• Shahjahan increased the number of mansabdars (Akbar had 123, Jahangir had 443 and Shahjahan had 518
Mansabdars). However, he reduced the salaries of mansabdars. The reduction in salary was accompanied
by a corresponding decrease in sawar obligations.
• The number of sawars was reduced to cut the salaries of mansabdars, which is called Month Scale, was
introduced by Shah Jahan. The salaries of Mansabdars were put on month scale, ie 10 months, 8 months
and 6 months or even less, and their obligations of maintenance of Sawars were brought down
accordingly.
• The formal acceptance between Jama and Hasil- Ever since the time of Akbar, there was indeed a
difference between the assessed income (jama) and actual income (hasil), however, it was seen as an
aberration and lack of administration under Jagirdar. During Shah Jehan, such deviations grew so
common that it was officially recognized.

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Zagirdari
• The empire was divided into numerous jagir which was distributed among Jagirdars (nobility).
• The remaining land was put under the direct supervision of the sultan maintained by his officials and
came to be called khalisa varied from one emperor to another.
• A large majority of Jagirdars comprised of the immigrants (Turanis, Afghans, Iranis etc) while a majority
was recruited from the local intelligentsia and petty bureaucrats (Shiakhzadas and Khatris).
• Only a small portion of the mansab holders came from zaminder elements e.g. Rajpits, Baluch and
Ghakkar chiefs.
• A jagirdar had no permanent right in his assignment given the provision of regular transfer of Jagirdars.
• Also, his claims were confined to the authorized land revenue and taxes.
• Qazi and Fauzdar, both of them were imperial appointee who divided the jagirdar of judicial and police
powers respectively in many areas.
• Nonetheless, Jagirdars wielded enough power over smaller zamindars and peasants in his capacity of an
imperial officer.
• In the 17th century, Jagirdars came to exploit the peasantry for securing more and more revenue as
insecure of their stay and devoid of any stake in preserving and promoting agriculture.
• Such tendency led to deepening of conflict between Mughal ruling class and the two groups of zamindars
and the peasantry.
• Madad-i-mash grant (also known as suyurghal) were the grants primarily patronized the Muslim
theological and the scholarly class who had an ideological significance.
• The term Zamindar also underwent significant evolution in its connotation. In the 14th century it
referred to the chief of a territory while Akbar’s time onward it referred to any person with a hereditary
claim to a direct share in the peasant’s produce.
• In 17th century, it came to replace or alternate with a large number of local terms for different kinds e.g.
khoti and muqaddums in doab, bhomi in Rajasthan, satrahi and biswi in Awadh.
• However, the zamindars also lavied certain cesses above the land revenue assessment, e.g. In Rajasthan,
the Bhomia levied a tax called bhom upon peasantry. Similarly, there are references to house tax, tax on
forest etc being extracted by the zamindars from peasantry in various regions.
• They can be regarded as a semi military class given their armed retainers and garhi (fort).
• There are instances of selling of zamindari rights, which suggests the high degree of monetization of
Mughal economy.
• One should not be under the impression that zamindari rights covered whole of the area as the existence
of Raiyaiti (peasants hold villages) negates such an assumption.
• According to Satish Chandra, Indian village was highly segmented both socially and economically with
a lot of inequality in terms of the distribution of land though there was a plenty of waste land.
• Two kinds of peasants are described in this time
o The khud-kashta- residents of the village in which they held theirlands.
o The pahi-kashta- non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands
elsewhere on a contractual basis.
• One can infer from such disparity that while the elite led a life of prosperity, the majority of population
led a life of extreme poverty.
Economy
• A striking feature of the economic and social situations during the time was the glaring disparity between
the luxurious life style of the ruling classes, on the one hand, and acute poverty and want of the people,
the peasants, the artisans and the labourers on the other.

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• Babur was struck by the scanty clothes worn by the common people. He observed that “peasants and
people of low standing go about naked”. Similar remarks have been made by other foreign travellers.
• The nobility, along with the landed gentry, the zamindars, formed what may be called the ruling class in
medieval India. Most of them were foreigners such as Turks and Afghans.
• There was tussle between them throughout this period. However, many of them settled down in India
and made it their permanent home. They assimilated themselves into the Indian society and culture,
however, at the same time they retained some of their personal traits.
• From the time of Akbar, the Hindus, particularly the Rajputs were included in the nobility. For example,
mention may be made about Raja Man Singh, Raja Birbal and Raja Todar Mal. Later, the Marathas also
joined the Mughal service and rose to the position of nobles.
• While the wealthy people wore silk and cotton clothes, the poor people wore the minimum cloths. They
suffer from insufficient clothing even during the winter. Nikitin observed that the people of Deccan
were bare-footed.
• Rice, millets and pulses were the staple food of the common people. Fish was popular on the coastal
region. While ghee and oil were cheaper, salt and sugar were more expensive.
• As plenty of cattle were kept by the rural people, milk and milk products were available in plenty.
Trade
• The Indian trading classes were large in numbers and spread throughout the country. They were well
organized and highly professional.
• Seth and bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders were called banik or baniya.
• Another class of traders was known as banjaras, who specialized in carrying bulk goods. The banjaras
used to move to long distances with their goods on the back of oxen.
• The trading community did not belong to one caste or religion. The Gujarathi merchants included the
Hindus, Jains and Muslims. Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis conducted trade with central Asia.
• In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the
most important trading communities.
• Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
• The Coramandal coast became a centre of textile production.
• Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From there, fine textiles and silk were taken to north India.
• The major imports into India were certain metals such as tin and copper, war horses and luxury items
such as ivory.
• The balance of trade was maintained by the import of gold and silver.
• The growth of foreign trade resulted in the increased import of gold and silver in the seventeenth century.
• The Dutch and English traders who came to Gujarat during the seventeenth century, found that Indian
traders were alert and brisk.
Urban centres
• Being predominantly an agrarian village oriented Economic system, the urban population of Mughal
India possessed an economic and cultural significance.
• The largest were the thriving centers of manufacturing and marketing, banking and entrepreneurial
activities, intersection in a network of communications by land and water which crossed and re-crossed
the sub-continent.
• Similarly in a contracted network of regional or sub regional markets, smaller urban centers performed a
more modest role in relation to the local commerce.
• The cities and towns of the continent were the repositories of high culture and learning.

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• One can categorize the towns and cities in four major categories on the basis of their function.
o Administrative centres like Delhi, Lahore, and later Hyderabad and Fyzabad.
o Commercial and Manufacturing centres, like, Patna and Ahmedabad.
o Pilgrimage centers involved with trade and craft activities, like Benaras or Mathura.
o Centers of distinct manufacturing technique, craft skill or local commodity which ensured
their ongoing prosperity, like Bayana (for indigo) and Khairabad and Daryabad in Awadh (For
textiles).
• The activities of most of these urban towns were not sustained only by the agrarian economy of India. In
fact the urban centers were highly boosted by the prevailing inland and overseas trade in the Indian sub-
continent.
• The efficient system of city government under the Mughals encouraged trade. The pivot of urban
administration was the kotwal, the city governor. Akbar had decreed (probably following Sher Shah
Suri's example of fixing the responsibility on village chiefs for highway robberies in their territory) that
the kotwal was to either recover stolen goods or be held responsible for their loss.
• The economy of the urban centers was highly doubled with the coming of the Europeans.
• Exports- Textiles, especially various kinds of cotton fabrics, indigo, raw silk, salt petre, pepper, opium
and various kinds of drugs and miscellaneous goods.
• Imports- Bullion, horses, metals, perfumes, drugs, China goods especially porcelain and silk, African
slaves and European wines.
• India, from the days of the Arab trade, was known for her rich trade. However, with the coming of the
Europeans, the Indian institutional economy became richer.
• The most important Indian silks handled by the trading companies were the Bengal taffetas, which
before 1700 occupied a major position in the textile exports from the region.
• Bengal Muslins and Coromandel chintz were in wide demand for aristocratic fashion wear.
• Cairo based mercantile organization called the karim, the Gujarati Banias, and the European traders were
deeply involved with the trade in the Indian Ocean.
• The Portuguese by the first part of the 16th century became the master in the Indian Ocean due to its
naval supremacy and its strict outpost in the Indian Ocean. Due to its Kartaz system, the Portuguese made
a lot of profit stretching from India to China to Indonesia and this also boosted the economy of India.
• By the 17th century the naval superiority of the Dutch and the English largely replaced and took over the
inter-Asian trade previously carried on by the
• During the 18th century, India’s foreign trade underwent a considerable expansion as a result of the
tripartite participation of the Dutch, English, and the French.
• The commercial organization of the north European trading companies in India rested on a common
structural form throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Its main feature was a head settlement or factory
situated at or near some major Indian port with subordinate stations in the interior where many of the
export goods were produced.
Coinage
• The standard gold coin of the Mughals was the Muhar (170 to 175 grains), the equivalent of nine rupees
in Abul Fazl’s time.
• Half and quarter muhars are known to have been issued by several emperors, and a very few smaller
pieces, also.
• Rupee, adopted from Sher Shah’s currency, is the most famous of all Mughal coins.

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• In addition to the regular gold and silver currency, special small pieces were occasionally struck for
largess. The commonest of these is the Nisar, struck in silver by Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• Jahangir issued similar pieces, which he called nur afshan and khair qabul.
• The Mughal copper coinage is based on dam of Sher Shah which with its half, quarter and eighth,
continued to be struck until the fifth year of Aurangzeb.
• Mughals maintained the high standard and purity of its gold and silver for three hundred years.
Considering its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some of its series, the influence it
exerted on contemporary and subsequent coinages, and the importance of its standard coin, the rupee, in
the commerce of today, the Mughal currency surely deserves to rank as one of the great coinages of the
world.
Society
• As a result of continuous immigration from the Muslim countries of central and West Asia the Muslim
population retained the mixed character which it had acquired during the previous centuries.
• In coastal regions the immigrants were primarily traders, hailing originally form Arabia and the Persian
Gulf. As a result of their regular or irregular unions with the local Hindus or converts a number of
Muslim communities of mixed origin had come into existence, eg the Navayats of western India, the
Mappillas or Moplabar, and the Labbais of the Coromandel cost.
• There were also a considerable number of Muslims of Abyssinian origin, most of whose ancestors were
originally imported as slaves.
• As large parts of Afghanistan formed an integral part of the Mughal Empire, Afghans living in India
could hardly be placed in the category of immigrants.
• The Turanis (Central Asians) and the Afghans were Sunnis and the Persians (Iranians) were Shias. There
was much rivalry for political prominence and social promotion among these Muslims of diverse origins.
• Hindu society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was characterised by conflicting trends of
liberalism and catholicity on the one hand and exclusiveness and conservatism on the other.
• Some of the Vaishnava and Tantric teachers recognized, to some extent, the religious and social rights of
women as also of the Sudras.
• Some non-Brahmin followers of Chaitanya become spiritual perceptors (gurus) not only of the three
lower castes but also of Brahmins. In Maharashtra Tukaram, a Sudra, and Madhavdev, who was Kayastha,
had Brahmin disciples.
• However the Brahmin authors of the nibandhas tried to maintain the integrity of the ancient socio-
religious system (Varnasrama dharma) by regulating the life and conduct of all classes of Hindus in the
minutest details in conformity with traditional caste rules.
• Some writers of the Smriti nibandhas had royal patrons and their injunction carried political sanction.
One of them, Keshava Pandit, was judge under the Maratha King Sambhaji.
• But there were eminent authors like Raghunandan and Ramnath of Bengal, Pitambar of Kamrup and
Kamalakar Bhatta of Maharashtra whose authority was accepted by the Hindu society even though it was
not backed by royal patronage. Their influence effectively counteracted the liberal trends. They raised
their voice against the usurping of the privileges of the Brahmins by the lower castes.
Women
• Strict veiling of women was the common practice among the Muslim in their native land. Naturally in a
foreign country like India, greater stress was laid upon it.

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• The Hindus adopted purdah as a protective measure. The tendency to imitate the ruling class was another
factor which operated in favour of introducing purdah among the Hindu families. In some form this
practise began in elite sections before the arrival of muslims.
• Seclusion thus became a sign of respect and was strictly observed among the high-class families of both
communities.
• In the Vijayanagar Empire, purdah was confined only to the members of the royal household. No such
coercive purdah system was observed among the Hindu middle class and certainly not among the Hindu
masses.
• The custom, in those days, did not allow girls to remain in their parents’ home for more than six to eight
years after birth, ie pre puberty marriage.
• Dowry was demanded while in some castes and localities the bride-price was also known to be prevalent.
• Monogamy seems to have been the rule among the lower strata of society in both communities during
the medieval period.
• In spite of the decision of ulema in the Ibadat Khana in Adbar’s times, that a man might marry any
number of wives by mutah but only four by nikah. Akbar had issued definite orders that a man of ordinary
means should not possess more than one wife unless the first proved to be barren.
• Polygamy was the privilege of the rich.
• Divorce and remarriage, common among Muslims, were prohibited for Hindu women.
• Widow-remarriage, except amongst the lower caste people, had completely disappeared in Hindu
society during the medieval age.
• The custom of sati was prevalent in eastern India and among Rajputs.
• Some of the Delhi Sultans did try to discourage the custom of sati. Muhammad Tughluq was, in all
probability, the first medieval ruler who place restrictions on sati. Though Akbar did not forbid the sati
altogether, he had issued definite orders to the kotwals that they should not allow a woman to be burnt
against her inclination. Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders (1664) forbidding sati
in his realm altogether.
• Though sati was only voluntary in the south and not enjoined upon widows, it is difficult to account for
its wide popularity in the Vijayanagar Empire, whose rules do not seem to have put up any restriction on
its observance.
• Mehr, or entente nuptial settlement, was another safeguard for Muslim women whereas a Hindu woman
had no right to the property of her husband’s parents.
• A Hindu woman was only entitled to maintenance and residence expenses besides movable property like
ornaments, jewellery, etc. Thus, from the legal point of view, women were reduced to a position of
dependency in every sphere of life.
• The women in the south under the Cholas (8th to 13th century), however, had the right to inherit property.
Language and Literature

• Persian language became widespread as wel as court language in the Mughal Empire by the time of
Akbar’s reign.
• Abul Fazl was a great scholar and historian of his period. He set a style of prose writing and it was followed
by many generations. He authored historical works like Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by
Abul Fazl.
• Akbar had Navratna in his court, who were 9 great men of various fields.
• Leading poet of this period was Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was
done under his supervision.

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• Jahangir patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah. His autobiography
Humayun nama was written by his sister Gulbadan Begum.
• Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah
Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
• Shah Jahan’s son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language.
• The literature of Bhakti and Sufi movement reached its peak during this time.
• Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also developed during this
period.
• Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional
languages.
• The most influential Hindi poet in Hinduism was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the
Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas (Awadhi dialect)
Music
• Music also developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior, who composed many
ragas. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.
• Raja Mansingh is said to have played an important role in the perfection of the Dhrupad style of North
Indian Music.
• In the south a system of ragas known as the Janaka and Janya ragas existed during this period.
• By the 18th century several new forms of music like Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal had come into existence.
Religious policy
Historians and thinkers have given conflicting views regarding the religious policy followed by the Mughal
rulers.
Babur
The following instances indicate that Babur was not liberal in his religious outlook:
• He declared the battle against Rana Sanga of Mewar as Jihad’ and assumed the title of Ghazi after his
victory at Khanwa in 1527.
• Babur again fought a ‘holy war’ against Medini Rai of Chanderi.
• He discriminated against the Hindu traders when he abolished some duties for all Muslim traders.
• However, some of the historians think that all these acts were done on political considerations and not
on religious considerations.
• Babur had to infuse a new spirit among his soldiers when he realised that they had to face stiff opposition
from the brave Rajput’s.
Humayun
• Humayun was not a bitter persecutor of the Hindus and was engaged in a fight with many Rajput ruler at
the same time.
• Humayun wanted to crush the power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat who had annexed Malwa.
• Humayun found an opportunity to overpower Bahadur Shah when he was engaged in war with Mewar,
but he didn’t. Some historians blame it to his lethargy and others to his wish of not attacking a muslim
ruler.

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Akbar
• Akbar is known for his liberal ideas and liberal religious policy. He adopted a policy of mutual
understanding and reconciliation among followers of different faiths and equality of all religions and to
harmonize the relations.
• He founded a new religion known as Din-i-Ilahi, based on the common points of all religions. Of course,
in this endeavour he was not successful.
• The sixteenth century was a century of religious revival in the history of the world. The grand currents
of the reformation compare favourably with the staging up of a new life in India. India experienced an
awakening that quickened her progress and virtualized her national life.
• He emphasised truth in every religion.
• He took following steps for him aim
o Equal treatment with subjects of all faiths.
o Abolition of Jazia and other taxes imposed on the Hindus.
o Employment of Hindus at higher posts.
o Freedom of worship to all.
o Founding a new religion based on the common points of all religions.
• It is worth remembering that at a time when Europe was plunged into strife of warring sects, when
Roman Catholics were burning Protestants at the stake, and Protestants were executing Roman
Catholics, Akbar guaranteed peace not only to ‘warring sects’ but to different religions.
Jahangir
• The Hindus were not burdened with extra taxes but there are examples which point out that his treatment
with the Hindus was not fair.
• He punished Hindus of Rajuri in the state of Kashmir because they used to marry Muslim girls.
• He got a cow killed after his conquest of the Kangra fort.
• He threw away the idol of god Varaha at Ajmer into a pond.
• Jahangir closed Christian churches when he was at war with the Portuguese.
• The most important action of his fanaticism was that he executed the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun Dev,
although a political murder, it flamed the martial sentiments into a bhakti sect.
• He ordered the expulsion of all Jains from Gujarat as he suspected that they helped Khusru.
• On the other hand, he opened higher services for Non-Muslims. Some historians even claimed that he
made practically no difference between the Hindus and the Mohammadans or the Christian subjects.
Shah Jahan
• According to Khafi Khan, Shah Jahan, issued an order prohibiting employment of Hindus in services.
• He had established a separate department for securing conversion to Islam.
• Temples in Banaras, Allahabad, Gujarat and Kashmir were broken during his reign.
• He ordered that those Hindus who embraced Islam would get their share from the property of their father
immediately.
• The war captives were converted to Islam in large numbers.
• Culprits who accepted Islam were left free. Christians were persecuted after the capture of Hooghly.
• According to S.R. Sharma, he embarked upon a campaign of complete destruction of the new temples of
the Hindus.

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Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb completely reversed the religious policy of Akbar and followed a policy of persecuting people
of all faiths other than Sunnis.
• He established a separate department for the destruction of temples. All important temples of north India
including the Vishwanath Temple of Banaras, Keshav Dev Temple at Mathura etc. were destroyed during
his period. Mosques were raised the sites of temples. Images of Hindu gods and goddesses were broken
and used for the construction of mosques.
• He commissioned the compilation of Fatawa e Alamgiri (or Fatawa e Hindiya) based on Sunni Hanafi
Sharia law, by over 500 experts in Islamic jurisprudence from around the world. It highlights the Sunni
orthodox view of Aurangzeb and his religious impositions over his state, where the dominance of Ulema
class reached its peak under Mughal Empire. Although, in earlier part of reign he did ordered that
Zawabit (secular decreses) may supersede the Sharia.
• Several taxes including Jazia were re-imposed on the Hindus.
• Various kinds of temptations were offered to Hindus to embrace Islam.
• Restrictions were imposed on the public celebration of Hindu festivals and fairs.
• However, the number of Hindus employed by the Emperor's administration in Mughal history, is the
highest during Aurangzeb's reign. Hindus rose to represent 31.6% of Mughal nobility, the highest in the
Mughal era.
• The execution of the 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur on his refusal to embrace Islam is the most glaring
example of the bigotry of Aurangzeb.
• During his reign, two sons of the 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh were buried alive. Guru Gobind Singh
wrote him a defiant letter in Persian, titled Zafarnama.
• He was at constant warfare with Marathas, however, he also gave them offices in bureaucracy in large
numbers.

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11. THE MARATHAS
Shivaji
• Shivaji was born at Shivner, 1627.
• Father- Shahji Bhosale. Mother- Jija Bai
• Shivaji inherited Jagir of Poona from his father in 1637
• In 1663, Shaishta khan captured Poona but Shivaji reclaimed it
• Aurangzeb sent Raja jai Singh of Amber, who besieged Purander fort.
• This resulted in Treaty of Purander, 1665, where Shivaji surrendered 23 of 35 forts to Mughals and
promised loyalty to the Mughal Empire and Aurangzeb.
• However, they soon fell off when Shivaji was captured by Emperor.
• In 1674, Shivaji recaptured all his lost territory & crowned himself at Raigarh assuming the title of
Chhatrapati.
• His spiritual Guru was Samarth Ramdas, a brahmin saint and spiritual poet of Maharashtra, his major
text was an Advaita Vedantist text, the Dasbodh.
• Died 1680.
Administration
• The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the undisputed head of the administration.
• The administrative system of Shivaji had eight ministers to assist him in the work.
• The ministers, however, did not form a cabinet in the modern sense of the term, for they were responsible
to Shivaji alone, who appointed and dismissed them at will and the function of the ministers was purely
advisory.
• Among the ministers the Peshwa enjoyed a higher status and royal confidence, but not supremacy over
his colleagues.
The 8 main ministers were called Astapradhan

1. Peshwa- Finance & General administrator. His main duties were to control other officers and promote
harmony in the administration. He represented the king in his absence and put his seal below the king’s
to all royal letters and dispatches.
2. Amatya or Majumdar- Accountant General. His duty was to check all the accounts of income and
expenditure and to countersign all statements of accounts, whether of the kingdom as a whole or of the
particular districts.
3. Sar e Naubat or Senapati- Military commander. He was in charge of the recruitment, organization and
discipline of the army. He had also to arrange for the disposition of the troops on the fields of battle.
4. Mantri or Waqnavis- Intelligence & Household affairs. He was in charge of compiling a daily record of
the king’s activities and to watch over his invitation lists, meals, etc., so as to guard against plots.
5. Sachiv or Shuru Navis- His duty was to see that all royal letters and dispatches were drafted in the proper
style. He had to revise the letters and dispatches. One of his duties was to check the accounts of the
parganas.
6. Sumanta or Dabir- His duty was to advise the king on matters relating to foreign states and on questions
of war and peace. He had also to receive foreign ambassadors and envoys and to keep in touch with the
activities of other powers.
7. Nyayadhish- Chief Justice, he was responsible for civil and military justice and for endorsing judicial
decisions regarding rights of lands, village headship, etc.

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8. Pandit Rao- Charities & Religious administrator. His main duties were to fix dates for religious
ceremonies, to punish heresy and to disburse among the Brahmans large sums of money set apart by the
king for charity. He was the judge of canon law, royal Almanac and Censor of Public Morals.
• Except the Senapati, all other ministers were Brahmans.

• All the ministers except the Pandit Rao and the Nyayadhish were required to command armies and lead
expeditions.
• Shivaji appointed his own revenue official Karkuns, diminishing the power of existing Deshmukhs and
Kulkarnis.
Other Officers
1. diwan- secretary
2. mujumdar – auditor and accountant
3. fadnis – deputy auditor
4. sabnis or daftardar – office incharge
5. karkhanis – commissary
6. chitins – correspondence clerk
7. jamdar – treasurer
8. potnis – cashier
• Shivaji instinctively adopted the guerilla system of warfare, which became its modus operandi against far
more powerful Mughals.
• Shivaji also understood the necessity of building up a navy. He built dockyards and ships for trade as well
as for protection. The Maratha navy held its own against the British, Portuguese and Dutch.
• Shivaji employed members of all castes and tribes to maintain balance among them.
• No office was hereditary in Marathas except Chhatrapati and later Peshwa.
• It was rare to assign jagirs to civil and military officers during Shivaji
• He gave special attention towards the administration of the forts, which were the basis of his Kingdom.
• In matters of administration, he gave superior position to his civil officers as compared to military
officers.
• He established Ryotwari system in revenue administration. The state kept direct contact with the farmers
and fought tooth and nail to eliminate intermediaries.
Provinces
• Shivaji divided his kingdom into four provinces. Each province was under the head called Mamlatdar or
Viceroy. Each province was divided into several districts and villages. The village was an organised
institution.
• The chief of the village was called Deshpande or Patel. The head used to run the affairs of the village
with the help of the Village Panchayat.
• Like the centre, there was a committee or council of eight ministers with Sar e Karkun or the prantpati
as its head.
Revenue system
• The Ryotwari system was introduced in which the revenue was directly collected from the farmers.
Wherever possible, Shivaji abolished the jagirdari system.
• Land in every village was measured and the produce was roughly assessed.

Page 100 of 102
• On the basis of assessment, the cultivators were asked to pay 40 per cent of their produce as land revenue.
• The farmers had the option to pay land revenue in cash or kind.
• The accounts of the revenue officers began to be thoroughly checked.
• In the event of famine of natural calamity, the state offered loans to the peasants.
• According to foreign commentators at the time, Shivaji's tax-collecting regime appeared to be demanding
and oppressive.
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were two types of taxes collected in South India, however, Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi were not introduced by Marathas.
• Before Marathas, the tradition of Mulkgiri (Arabic term signifying a plundering raid on foreign lands)
was established by raiders like Muhammad bin Qasim.
• Even Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were already familiar taxes in Deccan well before Shivaji. In fact,
Portuguese had also paid these taxes to the neighbouring kings of their territories to avoid conflicts with
them.
• Shivaji divided the entire area into two parts. One is Swarajya or Mulk e Qadim, the area that belonged
to the Marathas.
• Other is the outside area, which whenever plundered was to be levied the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
The states of Bijapur and Golconda had agreed to pay Rs. 3 Lakh and Rs. 5 Lakh respectively per annum
to avoid Maratha incursions.
• Chauth was comprised of 25% of the revenue assessment whereas Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy
of 10% of revenue which Shivaji claimed on being the Sardeshmukh (overlord).
Coinage
Shivrai- copper coin minted during the rule of Marathas and remained in circulation till the end of the 19th
century, primarily in the Bombay Presidency region.
• Minted for the first time on the occasion of coronation of Shivaji, copper coins were minted (including
a gold coin called Shivrai Hon).
• Dudandi Shivrais were minted during Peshwa period. Dudandi literally means two-bars.
• The British East India Company also minted Shivrais at Poona during the period of 1820-1830.
Religious policy
• Shivaji was a devout Hindu, but respected all religions within the region.
• Shivaji had great respect for other contemporary saints, especially Samarth Ramdas, to whom he gave the
fort of Parali, later renamed as 'Sajjangad'.
• Among the various poems written on Shivaji, Ramdas' Shivastuti is the most famous.
• Shivaji's son Sambhaji later built a samadhi for Ramdas Swami on Sajjangad upon the latter's death.
• Samarth Ramdas had also written a letter to Sambhaji guiding him on what to do or not to do after death
of Shivaji.
• Shivaji allowed his subjects freedom of religion and opposed forced conversion.
• Shivaji also promulgated other enlightened values, and condemned slavery.
• He applied a humane and liberal policy to the women of his state.
• Kafi Khan, the Mughal historian, and Francois Bernier, a French traveller, spoke highly of his religious
policy.
• He also brought converts like Netaji Palkar and Bajaji back into Hinduism.

Page 101 of 102
• Shivaji's contemporary, the poet Kavi Bhushan stated “Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost
its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised".
However, such claims are obviously exaggerated.
• Though many of Shivaji's enemy states were Muslim, he treated Muslims under his rule with tolerance
for their religion.
• Shivaji had several noteworthy Muslim soldiers, especially in his Navy. Siddi Sanbal, Noor Khan, Daulat
Khan, and Siddi Misri were prominent in the navy; and Siddi Ibrahim Khan was chief of artillery.
Major Peshwas
• Balaji Vishvanath (Under Maratha ruler Shahu)
• Baji Rao (Under Maratha ruler Shahu)
• Balaji Baji Rao (made Peshwaship hereditary at Treaty of Sangola in 1750)
Maratha Confederacy
After the Third Battle of Panipat, Marathas were transformed into confederacy with Peshwa at Poona, four
major Sardars and other petty Sardars. The period of their comeback after the debacle at Panipat is called
Maratha Resurrection.
Four major Sardars

1. Bhonsle of Nagpur
2. Gaekwad of Baroda
3. Scindia of Gwalior
4. Holkar of Indore
Culture
• Mughal and Rajput cultural elements as well as the European entered the region and got assimilated into
the Maratha culture.
• With the sardars being their agents in the North, the Peshwas grew in wealth and power. New bazaars
that were established and mobile military camps became conduits of culture, as beautiful artefacts,
jewellery, and textiles from many regions of the country were sold here.
• The Peshwas wished to enhance their lifestyle, their adornment, and their architecture.
• Poona grew in importance and the Shanirwarada, the Peshwa mansion became the centre of
administration and culture.
• Various festivals were celebrated in the Maratha court, Ganeshotsav, Dassara, and Vasantpanchami.
The practice of sprinkling coloured water during Holi was a Rajput influence.
• The practice of enslavement of women, known as Kunbins, the bonded women were forced to do menial
work for their master who could also exploit them sexually, and anyone who tried to escape was jailed.
• Among the folk performing arts, the Tamasha and the Lavani (became very erotic during the time of the
Peshwas) were most famous.
Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit

• Though Persian was a common courtly language in the region, Shivaji replaced it with Marathi in his
own court, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions.
• The house of Shivaji was well acquainted with Sanskrit and promoted the language, his father Shahaji
had supported scholars such as Jayram Pindye, who prepared Shivaji's seal.

Page 102 of 102
• Shivaji continued this Sanskrit promotion, giving his forts names such as Sindhudurg, Prachandgarh, and
Suvarndurg.
• He named the Ashta Pradhan as per Sanskrit nomenclature with terms such as nyayadhish, and senapat,
and commissioned the political treatise Rajyavyavahar Kosh. His Rajpurohit, Keshav Pandit, was himself
a Sanskrit scholar and poet.


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Medieval History

1. THE CLASSICAL AGE - GUPTA PERIOD

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1. THE CLASSICAL AGE

The Gupta Dynasty

Decline of Gupta Empire

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The Literature of Classical Age

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The account of Fa-Hien (Faxian)

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Major temples during the time are

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2. EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD

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• Economy of early Medieval times was characterised by-

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The emergence of Rajputs

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Development of local cultures

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Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj

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The account of Huen Tsang (Xuanzang)

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• They observed high morality in their social and personal lives.

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The Third Urbanisation

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3. THE CHOLA EMPIRE

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Local Self Government

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Chola Bronze Sculpture

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Purpose of Bronze Statues

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Limitations of Alberuni's account

Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan

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Reason of sweeping victories of Turks over Indian rulers-