Theoretical linguistics

This is a branch of linguistics concerned with the form of language representation in the mind,
that is, linguistic competence and the structure and the components of mental grammar. It is
concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. The fields that are generally
considered the core of theoretical linguistics are syntax, phonology, morphology and semantics.
Although phonetics often guides phonology, it is often excluded from the purview of theoretical
linguistics along with psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Theoretical linguistics also involves
the search for an explanation of linguistic universals: properties all, or most languages have in
common.
Theoretical linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the fundamental questions about
language. Some key areas within theoretical linguistics:
Phonology
Phonology/Phonetics: Phonology studies the sound patterns and rules governing how sounds are
organized in languages. Phonetics, on the other hand, examines the physical properties of speech
sounds.
Morphology
Morphology: Morphology investigates the structure of words, including how they are formed
from smaller units (morphemes) and how they convey meaning.
Syntax
Syntax: Syntax explores the rules governing sentence structure, word order, and grammatical
relationships. It answers questions like: How do we form sentences? What constitutes a valid
sentence?
Semantics
Semantics: Semantics deals with meaning. It explores how words and sentences convey
meaning, including aspects like word sense, reference, and truth conditions.
Historical linguistics
Historical Linguistics: This field examines language change over time. Linguists study historical
texts, trace language evolution, and analyze language families.
Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics investigates how language varies across social groups, regions,
and contexts. It explores dialects, language attitudes, and language use in different communities.
Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics explores the cognitive processes involved in language
production, comprehension, and acquisition. It bridges linguistics and psychology.
Computational linguistics
Computational Linguistics: This interdisciplinary area combines linguistics with computer
science. It focuses on developing algorithms and models for natural language processing,
machine translation, and speech recognition.
Linguists continue to explore and unravel the intricacies of language, contributing to our
understanding of this remarkable human phenomenon.

DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH IN KENYA

Colonial Introduction:
English arrived in Kenya during the 19th century, when the British colonized the territory.
In 1895, the British declared Kenya a protectorate, and by 1920, it had become a British
colony12.
Prior to colonization, Swahili had already established itself as a trade language along the Swahili
Coast. Swahili was also used in education during this period.
The British reduced the influence of Swahili and made English the medium of instruction in
Kenyan schools. After Kenya’s independence on December 12, 1963, English remained in
official use alongside Swahili. While English is not as commonly spoken as native languages in
Kenya, it plays a crucial role in areas such as media, government, and education.
Educational Significance:
English is the primary language in areas such as media, government, and schools. Almost all
Kenyans with an educational background have some level of proficiency in English. It is the
medium of instruction in schools and taught as a subject from primary to form 4 level
Language Policy:
The colonial language policy in Kenya is important as it impacted greatly in post-colonial
language policy
Kenya’s official languages are English and Swahili. Swahili is also recognized as the national
language. In the education system, English is studied as a compulsory subject from per-primary
to the end of secondary education. It is also the dominant language in print and electronic media.
The majority of careers require proficiency in English thus increasing motivation to learn the
language.
In summary, English in Kenya has evolved from colonial introduction to a vital language in
education, governance, and media.
ROLE OF KISWAHILI
It is a national language and also an official language alongside English. This means that
Kiswahili is used for official purposes especially in government offices.
As a national language, Kiswahili is the language that is legally recognized as being understood
and spoken by the majority in a country.
- It is a language of national identity
- Fosters national consciousness
- Promotes patriotism
- Unifies a multi-ethnic community
- Makes those that are literate and illiterate communicate at par
- Breaks tribalistic and ethnic divisions
- Fosters communalism

Language Policy in Education

The colonial language policy in Kenya is important putting into consideration the fact that it
impacted greatly in post-colonial language policy.
Pre-independence
In pre second world war, there were several players involved in the formulation of language
policy. Among them were the Christian missionaries who thought that the gospel would be
spread in mother tongue. Among the first missionaries to introduce colonial education were
Bishop Steere, Rev. Kraph and Father Sacleux. The language issue (Mother tongue, Kiswahili
and English) in education was discussed during the United Missionaries Conference in Kenya in
1909. The conference adopted the use of mother tongue in the first three classes in primary
school, Kiswahili in two of the middle classes in primary while English was to be used in the rest
of the classes up to the university.
While mother tongue, Kiswahili and English were used with ease at various levels of education,
the colonial administration grew apprehensive over the teaching of English to Africans shortly
before the 1920’s. There was a realization that English education interfered with the goal of
maintaining a subordinate class of workers forcing it to review the education policy. Many
European settlers regarded the teaching of the English language to natives as a potentially
subversive force. Social distance between master and subject had to be maintained partly through
linguistic distance. Following the review of the education policy, English was to be taught to
Africans guardedly in order to ensure that majority of them never acquired secondary and
university education.
Going by the above, it is evident that the colonial language policy remained eclectic depending
on the colonisers interests at any particular time. There were times when the administrators
would favour the promotion of either African language or English in view of their interests at
stake. For example, the 1924 Phelps-Stokes commission recommended that Kiswahili be
dropped in the education curriculum except in areas where it was spoken as the first language.
The commission also recommended that mother tongue be taught in lower primary classes while
English was to be taught from upper primary up to the university.
After the 2nd world war, there was a shift in the British colonial language policy which hurt local
languages. When self-rule was imminent in Kenya following the freedom struggle, the British
colonialists mounted a campaign to create some westernized elite in the country. They believed
and rightly so that such an elite group in the country would protect their interests in independent
Kenya. In 1950-51, the education department reports pointed out that it was inappropriate to
teach three languages at primary school. The reports included Beechers (1949), Binns (1952),
among others. The documents recommended that English be introduced in the lower primary to
be taught alongside mother tongue, and called for the dropping of Kiswahili in the curriculum
except in areas where it was the mother tongue. The implementation of this policy took effect in
1953.
In 1955, Kiswahili’s elimination from the curriculum was partly aimed at forestalling its growth
and spread on which Kenyan’s freedom struggle was coalescing. A further boost to English at
the expense of local languages occurred when the Pratos Hutasoit commission endorsed that
English be the only language of instruction in all school grades. To implement the new
curriculum, teachers were to be trained in English while their mother tongue was viewed as
instrumental in teaching the lower primary.
Post-Colonial Language Policy
When Kenya attained self-rule in 1963, English was declared an official language. It was to be
used in all important government sectors, education inclusive. In 1964 the Kenyan Education
Commission- Ominde Commission mounted a survey to establish the interests of the citizens
with regard to language use. The findings revealed that people wanted a trilingual approach to
education. Mother tongue was preferred for verbal communication especially in rural areas while
english and Kiswahili were preferred for education from lower primary to the university.
Kiswahili was especially favoured in education for purposes of national and regional unity.
Furthermore, Kiswahili was seen as the appropriate language for the Pan-Africanism dream.
However, unlike English, Kiswahili was not anchored into the school curriculum, and for a long
time it remained an optional language.
The Ominde Commission also The Ominde Commission also recalled that many Kenyans were
in favour of English as the medium of instruction from the beginning class in primary school to
university. The commission threw its weight behind English language arguing that it would
expedite learning in all subjects by ensuring smooth transitions from vernacular and owing to its
intrinsic resources. English was therefore introduced in beginning classes in primary school
through the New Primary Approach (NPA) in which its learning was heavily emphasized. The
task force also emphasized the use of Kiswahili and Mother tongue in the education system at
different levels and localities.
In 1967, the Kenya Institute of Education started purchasing books in various mother tongues,
Kiswahili inclusive; for use in primary schools. In the same year, Kiswahili was to be used
singularly. Nonetheless, English supremacy in the Kenya Educational system was entrenched
following Gachathi Commission in 1976, which recommended that English becomes the
language of instruction from the fourth grade in primary school to the university. Though the
commission also declared Kiswahili an important subject in primary and secondary classes, the
language received inferior status when compared with English in the school curriculum –
English was allocated 8-10 periods out of the 40 hours per week, Kiswahili was allotted 3 hours.
In 1981, the Mackay commission recommended 8 years of primary school, 4 years of secondary
school and 4 years of University Education. The commission passed that English remains the
language of instruction while Kiswahili was made a compulsory subject in both primary and
secondary education. This policy was also followed by the production of Kiswahili books to
meet the increased demands of both students and teachers. The Mackay commission further
advised that mother tongue be used in lower grades of primary schools in areas where this was
possible.