Chapter Two

Chapter 2: The Real and Complex Number Systems
2.1 The real number system

2.2 The set of complex numbers
Main Objectives of this Chapter:
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-
I Check the closure property of a given set of numbers on some
operations.
I Determine the GCF and LCM of natural numbers.
I Apply the principle of mathematical induction to prove different
mathematical formulae.
I Determine whether a given real number is rational number or not.
I Plot complex numbers on the complex plane.
I Convert a complex number from rectangular form to polar form and
vice-versa.
I Extract roots of complex numbers.
Ashenafi Awraris and Flagot Yohannes Mathematics for Natural Sciences September 22, 2022 1 / 81
Chapter 2: The Real and Complex Number Systems

2.2 The set of complex numbers
Main Objectives of this Chapter:
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-
I Check the closure property of a given set of numbers on some
operations.
I Determine the GCF and LCM of natural numbers.
I Apply the principle of mathematical induction to prove different
mathematical formulae.
I Determine whether a given real number is rational number or not.
I Plot complex numbers on the complex plane.
I Convert a complex number from rectangular form to polar form and
vice-versa.
I Extract roots of complex numbers.
The set of natural numbers

Definition 1
Natural(counting) numbers is denoted by N and is described as
N = {1, 2, 3, ...}
Operations on the set of natural numbers
1 Addition. 2 Multiplication.
Properties of operations:
1 Closerity:∀a, b ∈ N 3 Associative: ∀a, b, c ∈ N
F a+b ∈N F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F ab ∈ N F (ab)c = a(bc),
2 Commutative: ∀a, b ∈ N
F a+b =b+a
4 distributive: ∀a, b, c ∈ N
F ab = ba, F a(b + c) = ab + ac.
5 1 is a multiplication identity element on the set of natural numbers.


Definition 1
N = {1, 2, 3, ...}
F a+b ∈N F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F a+b =b+a


Definition 1
N = {1, 2, 3, ...}
F a+b ∈N F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F a+b =b+a


Definition 1
N = {1, 2, 3, ...}
F a+b ∈N F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F a+b =b+a

Order Relation in N
Definition 2
Consider two numbers a and b, we say a is greater than b denoted by
a > b if a exist in the right of b in number line.
Well ordering principle in the set of natural numbers:- Every

non-empty subset of the set of natural numbers has smallest (least)
element.
Ex. A = {2, 3, 4, ...} ⊆ N . Then smallest element of A = 2
Propertys of relation
1 Transitive property:
For any a, b, c ∈ N, if a > b & b > c then a > c.
2 Addition property:
For any a, b, c ∈ N, if a > b then a + c > b + c.
3 Multiplication property:
For any a, b, c ∈ N, if a > b then ac > bc.
4 Law of trichotomy
For any a, b, c ∈ N, we have a > b or a < b or a = b.
Order Relation in N
Definition 2

element.
4 Law of trichotomy
Order Relation in N
Definition 2

element.
4 Law of trichotomy
Order Relation in N
Definition 2

element.
4 Law of trichotomy
Factors of a number
Definition 3
If a, b, c ∈ N such that ab = c, then a&b are factors (divisors) of c and c
is product (multiple) of a&b.
Ex . Find the factors of 15.

soln. Factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, 15. Or we can write it as : F15 = {1, 3, 5, 15}
Definition 4
A number a ∈ N is said to be
1 Even if it is divisible by 2.
2 Odd if it is not divisible by 2.
3 Prime if it has only two factors (1 and itself).
4 Composite if it has three or more factors.
Remark 1
1 is neither prime nor composite.
Factors of a number
Definition 3

Definition 4
Remark 1
Factors of a number
Definition 3

Definition 4
Remark 1
Prime Factorization
Definition 5 (Prime Factorization)

Prime factorization of a composite number is the product of all its prime
factors.
a. 6 = 2 × 3 d. 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
b. 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 e. 180 = 22 × 32 × 5
c. 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 22 × 3 e. 60 = 22 × 3 × 5
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Every composite number can be expressed as a product of its prime
factors. This factorization is unique except the order of the factors.
Definition 6 (The greatest common factor (GCF))
The greatest common factor (GCF) of two numbers a&b is denoted by
GCF (a, b) and is the greatest number which is a factor of each of the
given number.
Prime Factorization

factors.
a. 6 = 2 × 3 d. 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
b. 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 e. 180 = 22 × 32 × 5
c. 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 22 × 3 e. 60 = 22 × 3 × 5

given number.
Prime Factorization

factors.
a. 6 = 2 × 3 d. 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
b. 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 e. 180 = 22 × 32 × 5
c. 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 22 × 3 e. 60 = 22 × 3 × 5

given number.
Prime factorization method
Definition 7 (The least common multiple (LCM))

The least common multiple (LCM) of two numbers a&b is denoted by
LCM (a, b) and is the least number which is a multiple of each of the
given number.
Prime factorization method for GCF:
I Step 1: Find the prime factorization of each of the natural numbers
I Step 2:Form the GCF of the given numbers as the product of every
factor that appears in each of the prime factorization but take the least
number of times it appears.
Prime factorization method for LCM:
I Step 2: Form the LCM of the given numbers as the product of every
factor that appears in any of the prime factorization but take the
highest number of times it appears.
Ex. Find GCF and LCM of the given numbers
1 18 and 24.
2 20, 80 and 450.

given number.
1 18 and 24.
2 20, 80 and 450.

given number.
1 18 and 24.
2 20, 80 and 450.

given number.
1 18 and 24.
2 20, 80 and 450.
Principle of Mathematical Induction
Definition 8 (Mathematical induction)

Mathematical induction is a mathematical proof technique used to prove
that a statement holds for every natural number; that is, the overall
statement is a sequence of infinitely many cases.
Procedure of mathematical induction
Step 1 Base Step: proves the statement true for n = 1
Step 2 Hypothesis of Induction step: Assume that statement true for any
given case n = k
Step 3 Induction step: show that n = k is true implies next case n = k + 1 is
also true.
Ex. Prove the following by using Mathematical Induction for any n ∈ N
n(n + 1)
1 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2
2 1 + 3 + 5...(2n − 1) = n2
3 5n + 6n < 9n for n ≥ 2
1 1 1 n
4 + + ... + =
1×2 2×3 n(n + 1) n+1
Principle of Mathematical Induction
Definition 8 (Mathematical induction)

Mathematical induction is a mathematical proof technique used to prove
that a statement holds for every natural number; that is, the overall
statement is a sequence of infinitely many cases.
Procedure of mathematical induction
Step 1 Base Step: proves the statement true for n = 1
Step 2 Hypothesis of Induction step: Assume that statement true for any
given case n = k
Step 3 Induction step: show that n = k is true implies next case n = k + 1 is
also true.
Ex. Prove the following by using Mathematical Induction for any n ∈ N
n(n + 1)
1 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2
2 1 + 3 + 5...(2n − 1) = n2
3 5n + 6n < 9n for n ≥ 2
1 1 1 n
4 + + ... + =
1×2 2×3 n(n + 1) n+1
The set of Integers
Definition 9
An Integer is a set of negative and positive numbers, including zero with
no decimal or fractional part.
The set of Integer numbers is denoted by Z and is described as
Z = {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
Operations on the set of Integers
1 Addition. 2 Subtraction. 3 Multiplication.
1 Closerity:∀a, b ∈ Z F
F a+b ∈Z 3 Associative: ∀a, b ∈ Z
F ab ∈ Z F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F a−b ∈Z
F (ab)c = a(bc),
2 Commutative: ∀a, b ∈ Z
F a+b =b+a
4 distributive: ∀a, b, c ∈ Z
The set of Integers
Definition 9
Z = {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
F ab ∈ Z F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F a−b ∈Z
F (ab)c = a(bc),
F a+b =b+a
The set of Integers
Definition 9
Z = {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
F ab ∈ Z F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
F a−b ∈Z
F (ab)c = a(bc),
F a+b =b+a
Order Relation in Z
5 For any integer a, it holds that a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

6 For any integer a, it holds that a × 1 = 1 × a = a
Propertys Order Relation in Z
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, if a > b & b > c then a > c.
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, if a > b then a + c > b + c.
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, if a > b then ac > bc.
4 Law of trichotomy
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, we have a > b or a < b or a = b.
Order Relation in Z
5 For any integer a, it holds that a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

6 For any integer a, it holds that a × 1 = 1 × a = a
Propertys Order Relation in Z
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, if a > b & b > c then a > c.
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, if a > b then a + c > b + c.
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, if a > b then ac > bc.
4 Law of trichotomy
For any a, b, c ∈ Z, we have a > b or a < b or a = b.
The set of rational numbers
Definition 10
Rational numbers are part of number system, that can be expressed in
a
the form , where a and b are integers and b 6= 0.
b
The set of Rational numbers is denoted by Q and is described as
a
Q = { : a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0}
b
a c
Operations on the set of Rational numbers: For any , ∈ Q we
b d
have
a c ad + bc
1 Addition: + =
b d bd
a c ad − bc
2 Subtraction: − = .
b d bd
a c a×c
3 Multiplication: × = .
b d b×d
a c a×d
4 Division: ÷ = .
b d b×c
Properties
Properties of addition and multiplication on the set of rational

numbers:
1 The set of rational numbers is closed under addition and multiplication.
2 Addition and multiplication are both commutative on the set of
rational numbers.
3 Addition and multiplication are both associative on the set of rational
numbers.
4 0 is the additive identity
5 Every rational number has an additive inverse.
6 1 is the multiplicative identity
7 Every non-zero rational number has a multiplicative inverse.
Remark 2
1 From the expression a , a is called numerator and b is called
b
denominator.
a
2 A rational number b is said to be in lowest form if GCF (a, b) = 1.
Order Relation in Q
1Transitive property:
a c e a c c e a e
For any , , ∈ Q, if > & > then > .
b d f b d d f b f
a c e a c a e c e
For any , , ∈ Q, if > then + > + .
b d f b d b f d f
a c e e a c ae ce
For any , & ∈ Q, with > 0 if > then > .
b d f f b d bf df
4 Law of trichotomy
a c a c a c a c
For any , ∈ Q, we have > ∨ < ∨ = .
b d b d b d b d
Decimal representation of rational numbers
a
Rational number can be written in decimal form using long division
b
Ex Express the fraction number 25 25
4 and 3 in decimal form.
25 25
soln. 1
4 = 6.25 2
4 = 8.333333...
Fraction form of decimal numbers
Fraction form of decimal numbers

1Terminating decimals
Consider any terminating decimal number d. Suppose d has n digits
after the decimal point then d can be converted to its fraction form as
below:
10n
d =d× n
10
Ex Convert the terminating decimal 3.47 to fraction form.
2 Non-terminating periodic decimals
Consider any non-terminating periodic decimal numbers d. Suppose d

has p non-terminating digits and k terminating digits after the decimal
point then d can be converted to its fraction form as below:
10k+p − 10k
d =d×
10k+p − 10k
Ex Convert the decimal 42.558 and 0.41666... to fraction form.
Irrational and real numbers
Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating

periodic. Such types of numbers are called irrational numbers.
Irrational numbers are numbers that are not rational numbers, that
is, irrational numbers cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers.
0
The set of irrational numbers denoted by Q can be described as
0
Q = {x : x ∈
/ Q}
.
Ex. 62.757757775....
√
Ex. Show that 2 is an irrational number.
Definition 11
Real numbers are numbers that includes both rational and irrational
numbers. The set of real numbers denoted by R can be described as
0
R = {x : x ∈ Q ∪ Q }
.

0
0
Q = {x : x ∈
/ Q}
.
Ex. 62.757757775....
√
Definition 11
0
R = {x : x ∈ Q ∪ Q }
.

0
0
Q = {x : x ∈
/ Q}
.
Ex. 62.757757775....
√
Definition 11
0
R = {x : x ∈ Q ∪ Q }
.

0
0
Q = {x : x ∈
/ Q}
.
Ex. 62.757757775....
√
Definition 11
0
R = {x : x ∈ Q ∪ Q }
.

0
0
Q = {x : x ∈
/ Q}
.
Ex. 62.757757775....
√
Definition 11
0
R = {x : x ∈ Q ∪ Q }
.
Operations and there properties
Operations on the set of real numbers
2 Subtraction. 4 Division.
1 Closerity:∀a, b ∈ R 3 Associative: ∀a, b ∈ R

a
F a + b, ab, a − b, b
∈R F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
2 Commutative: ∀a, b ∈ R F (ab)c = a(bc),
F a+b =b+a 4 distributive: ∀a, b, c ∈ R
5 0 is the additive identity in R

6 Every real number has an additive inverse.
7 1 is the multiplicative identity in R
8 Every non-zero real number has a multiplicative inverse.
Operations and there properties
Operations on the set of real numbers
2 Subtraction. 4 Division.
1 Closerity:∀a, b ∈ R 3 Associative: ∀a, b ∈ R

a
F a + b, ab, a − b, b
∈R F (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
2 Commutative: ∀a, b ∈ R F (ab)c = a(bc),
F a+b =b+a 4 distributive: ∀a, b, c ∈ R
5 0 is the additive identity in R

6 Every real number has an additive inverse.
7 1 is the multiplicative identity in R
8 Every non-zero real number has a multiplicative inverse.
Properties of relations
For any a, b, c ∈ R, if a > b & b > c then a > c.
For any a, b, c ∈ R, if a > b then a + c > b + c.
For any a, b, c ∈ R, if a > b then ac > bc.
4 Law of trichotomy
For any a, b, c ∈ R, we have a > b or a < b or a = b.
Definition 12
Let a and b be two real numbers such that a < b, then the intervals which
are subsets of R with end points a and b are denoted and defined as:
1 (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} open interval from a to b.
2 [a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b} closed interval from a to b.
3 (a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b} open-closed interval from a to b.
4 [a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b} closed-open interval from a to b.
Upper bounds and lower bounds
Definition 13
Let A be non empty and A ⊆ R.
1 A point a ∈ R is said to be an upper bound of A iff x ≤ a for all
x ∈ A.
2 An upper bound of A is said to be least upper bound (lub) iff it is the
least of all upper bounds.
3 A point a ∈ R is said to be lower bound of A iff x ≥ a for all x ∈ A.
4 A lower bound of A is said to be greatest lower bound (glb) iff it is
the greatest of all lower bounds.
Completeness property of real number

1 Every non-empty subset of R that has lower bounds has glb.
2 Every non-empty subset of R that has upper bounds has a lub.
Upper bounds and lower bounds
Definition 13
Let A be non empty and A ⊆ R.
1 A point a ∈ R is said to be an upper bound of A iff x ≤ a for all
x ∈ A.
2 An upper bound of A is said to be least upper bound (lub) iff it is the
least of all upper bounds.
3 A point a ∈ R is said to be lower bound of A iff x ≥ a for all x ∈ A.
4 A lower bound of A is said to be greatest lower bound (glb) iff it is
the greatest of all lower bounds.
Completeness property of real number

1 Every non-empty subset of R that has lower bounds has glb.
2 Every non-empty subset of R that has upper bounds has a lub.
Definition of Complex Numbers
Definition 14
The set of complex numbers is denoted by C and is described by
C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, where i 2 = −1}
From the expression z = x + iy , the real number x is called the real

part and y is called the imaginary part:
Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y
x + iy = 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.
EX Let z = 2 + 3i , this defines z as a complex number. Then Re(z) = 2
and Im(z) = 3
Definition 15
Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if
Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) & Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ) .
Definition 14

x + iy = 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.
and Im(z) = 3
Definition 15
Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) & Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ) .
Definition 14

x + iy = 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.
and Im(z) = 3
Definition 15
Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) & Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ) .
Definition 14

x + iy = 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.
and Im(z) = 3
Definition 15
Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) & Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ) .
Definition 14

x + iy = 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.
and Im(z) = 3
Definition 15
Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) & Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ) .
Plotting complex numbers
Any complex number z = x + iy can be drawn in the complex plane as

below ::
Figure: x+iy plotted on an Argand Diagram
Plotting Examples
A complex number z = 2 + 3i can be drawn in the complex plane as below:
Im(z)
3i 2 + 3i
2i
1i
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Re(z)
−1i
−2i
−3i
Figure: 2+3i plotted on an Argand Diagram
Operations on Complex numbers
Let z1 = x1 + y1 i & z2 = x2 + y2 i be any two complex numbers.Then
1 Addition: z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i
2 Subtraction: z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )i
3 Multiplication: z1 .z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
4 Division:z1 ÷ z2 = + i
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Ex. Let z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = 4 + i. Then find z1 + z2 , z1 − z2 , z1 .z2 , z1 /z2
Definition 16
The Conjugate of a complex number z = x + yi is denoted by z and is
defined as z = x − yi.
Ex Find the modulus of the complex number z1 = 2 + 3i

Properties of Conjugate
1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Definition 16

1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Definition 16

1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Definition 16

1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Definition 16

1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Definition 16

1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
x1 x2 + y1 y2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
x22 + y22 x22 + y22
Definition 16

1 z =z 4 (z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z2
2 z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) 5 (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2
z1
3 z − z = 2iy = 2i Im(z) 6 ( zz12 ) =
z2
Additive and multiplicative inverses
Let z = x + yi be a complex number, then

1 its Additive Inverse denoted by −z is given by −z = −x − yi
2 its Multiplicative Inverse denoted by z −1 is given by
x y
z −1 = − 2 i
x2 + y2 x + y2
Ex. Find the additive and the multiplicative inverse of z1 = 2 + 3i.
Modulus
Definition 17
Let z = x + yi be a complex number. Then the absolute value (or
Modulus) of z is a non-negative real number denoted by |z| and is defined
as p
|z| = x 2 + y 2
.
Properties of Modulus of a complex numbers
1 |z| = |z| z1 |z1 |

4 =
2 z2 |z2 |
2 |z| = zz 5 |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
3 |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | 6 |z1 − z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |
Modulus
Definition 17
as p
|z| = x 2 + y 2
.
1 |z| = |z| z1 |z1 |

4 =
2 z2 |z2 |
2 |z| = zz 5 |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
3 |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | 6 |z1 − z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |
Modulus
Definition 17
as p
|z| = x 2 + y 2
.
1 |z| = |z| z1 |z1 |

4 =
2 z2 |z2 |
2 |z| = zz 5 |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
3 |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | 6 |z1 − z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |
Argument
Definition 18
Let z = x + yi be a complex number. Then the Argument of z is the
angle formed by the complex number z with the positive x-axis denoted by
arg (z) and is defined as
y
arg (z) = tan−1 ( )
x
.
The particular argument of z that lies in the range −π < θ < π is

called the principal argument of z and is dented by Argz. That is,
arg (z) = Arg (z) + 2πn; wheren = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
Argument
Definition 18
Let z = x + yi be a complex number. Then the Argument of z is the
angle formed by the complex number z with the positive x-axis denoted by
arg (z) and is defined as
y
arg (z) = tan−1 ( )
x
.
The particular argument of z that lies in the range −π < θ < π is

called the principal argument of z and is dented by Argz. That is,
arg (z) = Arg (z) + 2πn; wheren = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
Modulus and Argument
Formulae for the principal argument of a complex number z = x + iy

Quadrant Sign of x and y Arg (z)
I x > 0, y > 0 tan−1 (y /x)
II x < 0, y > 0 π + tan−1 (y /x)
III x < 0, y < 0 −π + tan−1 (y /x)
IV x > 0, y < 0 tan−1 (y /x)
Ex. Find the principal argument of the following complex numbers:
1 z =1+i√
2 z = 2 − 2 3i
3 z = −1√+ i
4 z =− 3−i
Modulus and Argument
Formulae for the principal argument of a complex number z = x + iy

Quadrant Sign of x and y Arg (z)
I x > 0, y > 0 tan−1 (y /x)
II x < 0, y > 0 π + tan−1 (y /x)
III x < 0, y < 0 −π + tan−1 (y /x)
IV x > 0, y < 0 tan−1 (y /x)
Ex. Find the principal argument of the following complex numbers:
1 z =1+i√
2 z = 2 − 2 3i
3 z = −1√+ i
4 z =− 3−i
Polar form of a complex numbers
There are number of ways in which to represent a complex number
1 Standard form: z = x + yi
2 The exponential form: z = re iθ where r is the modulus of z and θ is
the argument of z. p
3 The polar form: z = r (cos(θ) + i(sin(θ)) where r = |z| = x 2 + y 2
is modulus of z and θ = Arg (z) is principal argument of z
Polar coordinates of the point (x, y ) defined as x = rcosθ and
y = rsinθ.
Standard Form Exponential Form Polar Form
x + yi re iθ r (cos(θ) + isin(θ))
√ π
i
3+3 3 6e 3 6(cos( π3 ) + isin( π3 ))
−5 −5 5(cos(π) + isin(π))
π
i
7(cos π2 + isin π2

7i 7e 2
Table: Table showing different forms of representing complex numbers

Polar form of a complex numbers
There are number of ways in which to represent a complex number
1 Standard form: z = x + yi
2 The exponential form: z = re iθ where r is the modulus of z and θ is
the argument of z. p
3 The polar form: z = r (cos(θ) + i(sin(θ)) where r = |z| = x 2 + y 2
is modulus of z and θ = Arg (z) is principal argument of z
Polar coordinates of the point (x, y ) defined as x = rcosθ and
y = rsinθ.
Standard Form Exponential Form Polar Form
x + yi re iθ r (cos(θ) + isin(θ))
√ π
i
3+3 3 6e 3 6(cos( π3 ) + isin( π3 ))
−5 −5 5(cos(π) + isin(π))
π
i
7(cos π2 + isin π2

7i 7e 2
Table: Table showing different forms of representing complex numbers

properties complex numbers
If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) , then

1 Multiplication in polar forms:
z1 .z2 = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ))

z1
2 Division in polar forms: = rr12 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ))
z2
3 Argument of a product: Arg (z .z ) = Argz + Argz
1 2 1 2
z1
4 Argument of a quotient: Arg . = Argz1 − Argz2
z2
5 De Moivre’s Formula:
z n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ)

6 Euler’s Formula: The complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) can be
written in exponential form as:z = re iθ . Then
z n = r n e i(nθ)
Ex. Express (2 + 2i)100 in polar form.
Ex. Express the complex number z = (1 + i)7 by using Euler’s formula.


z1
z2
1 2 1 2
z1
z2

z n = r n e i(nθ)


z1
z2
1 2 1 2
z1
z2

z n = r n e i(nθ)
Extraction of roots
A number w is the nth root of a non zero complex number z if

w n = z.
If let w = ρ(cos φ + i sin φ) and z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) then
ρn (cos nφ + i sin nφ) = r (cos θ + i sin θ)
ρn = r ∧ cos(nφ) = cos(θ) and sin(nφ) = sin(θ)

1
θ + 2πk
n
⇒ρ=r ∧φ=( ); k = 0, 1, ..., (n − 1)
n
Thus the n roots of a nonzero complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)
is given by

1 θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
wk = r n cos( ) + i sin( ) where k = 0, 1, ..., (n − 1)
n n
I Examples √
1 Find the square roots of z = 1 + 3i
2 Find the cubed roots of z = 8i
Extraction of roots

w n = z.

1
θ + 2πk
n
⇒ρ=r ∧φ=( ); k = 0, 1, ..., (n − 1)
n
is given by

1 θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
n n
I Examples √
Extraction of roots

w n = z.

1
θ + 2πk
n
⇒ρ=r ∧φ=( ); k = 0, 1, ..., (n − 1)
n
is given by

1 θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
n n
I Examples √
Extraction of roots

w n = z.

1
θ + 2πk
n
⇒ρ=r ∧φ=( ); k = 0, 1, ..., (n − 1)
n
is given by

1 θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
n n
I Examples √
Chapter 3:Functions
On completion of this chapter students will be able to:

I understand the notion of relation and function
I determine the domain and range of relations and functions
I find the inverse of a relation
I define polynomial and rational functions
I perform the fundamental operations on polynomials
I find the inverse of an invertible function
I apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial
functions
I apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
I sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
I define exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
I sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions
I use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, hyperbolic and
trigonometric functions to solve physical problems
3.1. Review of relations and functions
Relations and functions – these are the two different words having
different meanings mathematically.
Before we go deeper about ”Relations and functions”, let’s first
understand the Cartesian Product of two sets.
Definition 1.1 (Cartesian product)
Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B , denoted by
A × B , is the set which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate
is an element of A and second coordinate is an element of B , i.e.
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
.
Ex For A = {2, 4} and B = {−1, 3} , we have
1 A × B = (2, −1), (2, 3), (4, −1), (4, 3) , and
2 B × A = (−1, 2), (−1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4)
3.1. Review of relations and functions
Relations and functions – these are the two different words having
different meanings mathematically.
Before we go deeper about ”Relations and functions”, let’s first
understand the Cartesian Product of two sets.
Definition 2.1 (Cartesian product)
Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B , denoted by
A × B , is the set which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate
is an element of A and second coordinate is an element of B , i.e.
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
.
Ex For A = {2, 4} and B = {−1, 3} , we have
1 A × B = (2, −1), (2, 3), (4, −1), (4, 3) , and
2 B × A = (−1, 2), (−1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4)
Review of relations and functions
What is relations?
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
Definition 2.2 (Relation from A into B)
If A and B are sets, any subset of A × B is called a relation from A into B.
Ex. Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {6, 8} . Let R be the relation from A to

B . Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
Remark 3
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R ⊆ A × B and
hence for each (a, b) ∈ A × B , we have either (a, b) ∈ R or (a, b) ∈
/ R.
1 If (a, b) ∈ R , we say “ a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and write
aRb .
2 If (a, b) ∈
/ R , we say that “ a is not related to b”.
In particular if R is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that

R is a relation on A. Mathematics for Natural Sciences
Ashenafi Awraris and Flagot Yohannes September 22, 2022 31 / 81
What is relations?

B . Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
Remark 3
/ R.
aRb .
2 If (a, b) ∈

What is relations?

B . Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
Remark 3
/ R.
aRb .
2 If (a, b) ∈

What is relations?

B . Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
Remark 3
/ R.
aRb .
2 If (a, b) ∈

What is relations?

B . Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
Remark 3
/ R.
aRb .
2 If (a, b) ∈

What is relations?

B . Then, R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)}.
Remark 3
/ R.
aRb .
2 If (a, b) ∈

Domain and Range
Definition 2.3 (Domain and Range)

Let R be a relation from A into B . Then,
1 the domain of R, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of first coordinates
of the elements of R, i.e
Dom(R) = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}
2 the range of R, denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second

coordinates of the elements of R, i.e
Range(R) = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R}
Remark 4
If R is a relation from the set A to the set B , then the set B is called the
codomain of the relation R . The range of relation is always a subset of
the codomain.
Domain and Range
Definition 2.3 (Domain and Range)

Let R be a relation from A into B . Then,
1 the domain of R, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of first coordinates
of the elements of R, i.e
Dom(R) = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}
2 the range of R, denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second

coordinates of the elements of R, i.e
Range(R) = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R}
Remark 4
If R is a relation from the set A to the set B , then the set B is called the
codomain of the relation R . The range of relation is always a subset of
the codomain.
Examples
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the relation on A defined by
R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ A, a is a factor of b } . Then find
1 R 2 Dom(R) 3 Range(R)
2 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, ..., 67} . Let
R = {(x, y ) ∈ A × B : x is cube root of y}. Then find
Remark 5
If R is a relation from A into B, then the inverse relation of R, denoted by
R −1 , is a relation from B to A and is given by:
R −1 = {(y , x) : (x, y ) ∈ R}.
3 Let R be a relation defined on N by
R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ N, a + 2b = 11}. Then find
1 R 2 Dom(R) 3 Range(R) 4 R −1
Examples
2 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, ..., 67} . Let
Remark 5
R −1 = {(y , x) : (x, y ) ∈ R}.
Examples
2 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, ..., 67} . Let
Remark 5
R −1 = {(y , x) : (x, y ) ∈ R}.
Examples
2 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, ..., 67} . Let
Remark 5
R −1 = {(y , x) : (x, y ) ∈ R}.
Functions
Definition 2.4 (FUNCTION)

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds
to exactly one element of the range.
Alternative Definition of Function:

1 In a function, no two ordered pairs can have the same first component
and different second components.
2 In order to be a function, every X must have a one Y . No Y s can
share any X s.
3 A function is a set of ordered pairs in which no first component is
repeated.
4 A function is a rule or correspondence that assigns exactly one range
value to each domain value.
Ex: Determine whether the following relations are functions.
1 R = {(3, 4), (3, 5), (6, −4)}
2 R = {(5, −2), (3, 5), (3, 7)}
3 R = {(2, 4), (3, 4), (6, −4)}
Functions
Definition 2.4 (FUNCTION)

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds
to exactly one element of the range.
Alternative Definition of Function:

1 In a function, no two ordered pairs can have the same first component
and different second components.
2 In order to be a function, every X must have a one Y . No Y s can
share any X s.
3 A function is a set of ordered pairs in which no first component is
repeated.
4 A function is a rule or correspondence that assigns exactly one range
value to each domain value.
Ex: Determine whether the following relations are functions.
1 R = {(3, 4), (3, 5), (6, −4)}
2 R = {(5, −2), (3, 5), (3, 7)}
3 R = {(2, 4), (3, 4), (6, −4)}
Functions:
Definition 2.5
A relation f from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted by
R
A −→ B or A − → B if and only if
1 Dom(f ) = A
2 No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e.
if (x, y ) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f , then y = z .
Ex1: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 6, 8, 11, 15} . Which of the following
are functions from A to B.
1 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 8
2 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 15
3 f defined by f (1) = 6, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 6
4 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 11
5 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 11, f (4) = 15
Ex2: f (x) = 2x + 1:
y = 2x + 1 is a function, since each x will produce only one y .
Functions:
Definition 2.5
R
1 Dom(f ) = A
1 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 8
2 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 15
3 f defined by f (1) = 6, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 6
5 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 11, f (4) = 15
Ex2: f (x) = 2x + 1:
Functions:
Definition 2.5
R
1 Dom(f ) = A
1 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 8
2 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 15
3 f defined by f (1) = 6, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 6
5 f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 11, f (4) = 15
Ex2: f (x) = 2x + 1:
Functions: Vertical Line Test
A relation is a function if a vertical line drawn through its graph,

passes through only one point.
“The Pencil Test”: Take a pencil and move it from left to right
(–x to x); if it crosses more than one point, it is not a function.
Ex. Use the vertical line test to determine whether each relation is a
function
1 f = {(x, y ) ∈ R × R : y = x 2 }
2 f = {(x, y ) ∈ R × R : y = x + 5}
3 f = {(x, y ) ∈ R × R : y 2 = x}
1 √
4 f = {(x, y ) ∈ [ , ∞] × R : y = 3x − 1}
3
Functions
Remark 6 (Domain, codomain and range of a function)

For a function f : A −→ B
1 The set A is called the domain of f
2 The set B is called the codomain of f
3 The set {f (x) : x ∈ A} of all image of elements of A is called the
range of f
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, ..., 10}. Let f : A −→ B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A , its square.
2 Let A = {2, 4, 6, 7, 9}, B = N. Let x and y represent the elements in
the sets A and B, respectively. Let f : A −→ B be a function defined
by f (x) = 15x + 17 , x ∈ A .
Then find
i. f iii. Range(f )
ii. Dom(f ) iv. codomain f
3.2. Real Valued functions and their properties
Real Valued functions and their properties: Let f be a function
from set A to set B . If B is a subset of the set of real numbers R ,
then f is called a real valued function.
1 f (x) = x 2 + 3x + 7 , x ∈ R is a real function.
2 f (x) = |x|, x ∈ R is a real function.
Definition 2.6 (Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two
functions)
Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions. We define the following four
functions:
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x); The sum of the two functions.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x); The difference of the two functions.
3 (fg )(x) = f (x)g (x); The product of the two functions.
f (x)
4 ( gf )(x) = g (x) ; The quotient of the two functions (provided g (x) 6= 0).
with Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f − g ) = Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g )
Composition of functions
Definition 2.7 (Composition of functions)

Given two functions f (x) and g (x) , the composition of the two functions
is denoted by f ◦ g and is defined by:
(f ◦ g )(x) = f [g (x)].
(f ◦ g )(x) is read as ” f composed with g of x ” . The domain of f ◦ g

consists of those x’s in the domain of g whose range values are in the
domain of f , i.e. those x’s for which g (x) is in the domain of f .
Ex Given f (x) = 3x 2 + x + 10 and g (x) = 1 − 20x find each of the

following.
1 (f ◦ g )(5)
2 (f ◦ g )(x)
3 (g ◦ f )(x)
4 (g ◦ g )(x)
Definition 2.8 ((Equality of functions))
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two
conditions hold:
1 The functions have the same domain;
2 Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain
Examples
1 Let f : Z −→ Z+ ∪ 0 and g : Z −→ Z+ ∪ 0 be defined by
f = (n, n2 ) : n ∈ Z and g = (n, |n|2 ) : n ∈ Z . Now, for all n ∈ Z ,
f (n) = n2 = |n|2 = g (n) . Thus, f = g .
2
−25
2 Let f (x) = xx−5 ; x ∈ R/{5} , and g (x) = x + 5, x ∈ R. The function
f and g are not equal because Dom(f ) 6= Dom(g )
3.3. Types of functions and inverse of a function
Definition 2.9 (One-to-One (Injection))

A function f : A → B is said to be one-to-one if
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2
for all elements x1 , x2 ∈ A .
The contrapositive of this definition is: A function f : A → B is

one-to-one if x1 6= x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
To prove f : A → B is one-to-one:
1 Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
2 Show it must be true that x1 = x2
3 Conclude: we have shown if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) then x1 = x2 , therefore f is
one-to-one, by definition of one-to-one.
Ex.1 Prove the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x + 2 is one-to-one.
√ whether the function h : [2, ∞) → R defined by
Ex.2 Determine
h(x) = x − 2 is one-to-one.

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2

1 Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
Ex.2 Determine

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2

1 Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
Ex.2 Determine

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2

1 Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
Ex.2 Determine

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2

1 Assume f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
Ex.2 Determine
Types of functions
To prove f : A → B is NOT one-to-one:

1 Exhibit one case (a counterexample) where x1 6= x2 and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
2 Conclude: we have shown there is a case where x1 6= x2 and
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) , therefore f is NOT one-to-one.
Ex Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 7, 8} .
1 The function f : A → B defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4 , f (3) = 4,
f (4) = 8
2 The function g : A → B given by f (1) = 4 , f (2) = 7 , f (3) = 1 ,
f (4) = 8.
Then, f is not one to one because f (2) = 4 = f (3) but 2 6= 3.
However, g is a 1 − 1 function.
Optional
Remark 7
Interestingly, sometimes we can use calculus to determine if a real function
is one-to-one. A real function f is increasing if x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ),
and decreasing if x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2). Obviously, both increasing
and decreasing functions are one-to-one. From calculus, we know that
A function is increasing over an open interval (a, b) if f 0 (x) > 0 for all
x ∈ (a, b) .
A function is decreasing over an open interval (a, b) if f 0 (x) < 0 for
all x ∈ (a, b) .
Onto functions
Definition 2.10 (Onto (surjection))

Let f be a function from a set A into a set B . Then f is called an onto
function(or f maps onto B ) if if every element of B is an image of some
element in A , i.e, Range(f ) = B .
Ex1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B={ 1 , 4 , 5 } .

I The function f : A → B defined by f (1) = 1 , f (2) = 5, f (3) = 1 is
not onto because there is no element in A, whose image under f is 4.
I The function g : A → B given by g = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1)} is onto
because each element of B is an image of at least one element of A
Definition 2.11 (1-1 correspondence)

A function f : A → B is said to be a 1-1 correspondence if f is both
one-to-one and onto.
Inverse of a function
Inverse of a function
Given two one-to-one functions f (x) and g (x) if
(f ◦ g ) (x) = x AND (g ◦ f ) (x) = x
then we say that f (x) and g (x) are inverses of each other. More
specifically we will say that f (x) is the inverse of g (x) and denote it by
g (x) = f −1 (x). Note that, f −1 (x) 6= f (x)
1
.
Finding the Inverse of a Function: Given the function f (x) we

want to find the inverse function, f −1 (x)
Step1 First, replace f (x) by y .
Step2 Replace every x with a y and replace every y with an x.
step3 Solve the equation from Step 2 for y .
Step4 Replace y with f −1 (x)
Step4 Verify your work by checking that f (f −1 )(x) = x and f −1 (f (x)) = x
are both true.
Examples
Given f (x) find f −1 (x)(x). Where

1 3x − 2
f (x) = √
2 f (x) = x − 3
x+4
3 f (x) = 2x−5
3.4. Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational
functions and their graphs
Definition 2.12 ( Polynomial functions)

A polynomial function is a function of the form
y = an xn + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a1 x 1 + a0 , an 6= 0.
Each ai is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer,

an is called the leading coefficient. Such a polynomial is said to be of
degree n.
The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real

numbers.
(Types of polynomials)
1 A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
2 A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
3 A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function. i.e
p(x) = a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 , a3 6= 0.
Properties of polynomial functions
The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word

smooth means that the graph does not have any sharp corners as
turning points.
If p is a polynomial of degree n , then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a
quadratic polynomial has at most 2 zeros.
The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most
n − 1 turning points. Thus, the graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can
have at most 4 turning points.
The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as x
gets very large, y gets very large.
Example of polynomial functions
1 p(x) = 2x 2 + 1 ,
2 q(x) = 3x 4 + 2x − 4
3 f (x) = 2x 3 .
Zeros of a polynomials
The zeros of a polynomial can find by factorizing the polynomial.

However, we have no general method for factorizing polynomials of
degree greater than 2.
In this subsection, we turn our attention to methods that will allow us
to find zeros of higher degree polynomials.
To do this, we first need to discuss about the division algorithm.
Recall that a number a is a zero of a polynomial function p if
p(a) = 0 .
Division Algorithm
Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) 6= 0 , and with the degree of
d(x) less than or equal to the degree of p(x) . Then there are polynomials
q(x) and R(x) such that p(x) = d(x).q(x) + R(x), where either R(x) = 0
or the degree of R(x) is less than degree of d(x).
x4 − 1
Ex Divide
x 2 + 2x
Zeros of a polynomials
The Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial p(x) of degree at least 1 is divided by x − r , then the
remainder is p(r ) .
Example: The remainder when P(x) = x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 1 is divided by

x − 2 is p(2) = 9 .
The Factor Theorem
x − r is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(r ) = 0 .
Example: x − 2 is a factor of p(x) = 3x 2 − 10x + 8 because p(2) = 0

Location theorem
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that
a < b . If f (a)f (b) < 0,then there is at least one zero of f between a & b.
Example: The polynomial function p(x) = 6x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x − 2 has zero

between 1 and 2.
Rational Functions and their Graphs
Rational Functions
n(x)
1 A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = d(x) where both
n(x) and d(x) are polynomials and d(x) 6= 0 .
n(x)
2 Note that the domain of the rational function f (x) = d(x) is
{x : d(x) 6= 0}
5 3
The functions f (x) = xx−1 3
2 −4 , f (x) = x−12 and f (x) =
x +2x +x+1
5x 2 −x
are
examples of rational function
Ex. Find the domain and zeros of the function f (x) = x 23x−5
−x−12
The following terms and notations are useful in our next discussion:
1 x → a+ : x approaches a from the right but x > a.
2 x → a− : x approaches a from the left but x < a.
3 x → ∞: x approaches or tends to infinity. For instance, x can be 106 ,
1010 , 1012 , etc.
4 x → −∞: x approaches or tends to negative infinity. For instance, x
can be –106 , –1010 , –1012 , etc.
Graphical illustration of rational function
The following steps are usually used to sketch (or draw) the graph of a
rational function f (x).
1 Identify the domain and simplify it.
2 Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible.
1 y-intercept:-y = f (0), or (0, f (0)) is the y-intercept if 0 ∈ Dom(f ).
2 x-intercept:-x = a or (a, 0) is x-intercept if f (a) = 0.
3 Determine the asymptotes of the graph:
1 Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x = a is called a vertical
asymptote(VA) of f(x) if
F a∈ / dom(f ), i.e., f is not defined at x = a; and
F f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞ when x → a+ or x → a– .
2 Horizontal Asymptote:-A horizontal line y = b is called horizontal
asymptote (HA) of f (x) if the value of the function becomes closer and
closer to b, i.e., f (x) = b as x → ∞ or as x → −∞
n(x)
A rational function f (x) = d(x) has a HA only when
degree(n(x)) ≤ degree(d(x)).
n(x)
n(x)
n(x)
n(x)
n n n−1 1
Let f (x) = bam xxm+a n−1 x +...+a1 x +a0
+bn−1 x m−1 +...+b1 x 1 +b0
a rational function where the
degree of the numerator is n and the degree of the denominator is m.
1 If n < m, then the x-axis (given by y = 0) is the horizontal asymptote
of the graph f (x).
2 If n = m, then the line y = bann is the horizontal asymptote of the graph
f (x).
3 If n > m, then the graph has no horizontal asymptote.
3 Oblic Asymptote:- The oblique line y = ax + b, a 6= 0, is called an
oblique asymptote (OA) of f if the value of the function, f (x),
becomes closer and closer to ax + b(i.e., f (x) becomes approximately
ax + b) as either x → ∞ or x → −∞.
n(x)
Note I A rational function f (x) = d(x) has an OA only when
degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1.
n(x)
I In this case, d(x) using long division, if the quotient of d(x) is ax + b,
then y=ax+b is the OA of f .
n n n−1 1
+bn−1 x m−1 +...+b1 x 1 +b0
of the graph f (x).
f (x).
n(x)
n(x)
n n n−1 1
+bn−1 x m−1 +...+b1 x 1 +b0
of the graph f (x).
f (x).
n(x)
n(x)
n n n−1 1
+bn−1 x m−1 +...+b1 x 1 +b0
of the graph f (x).
f (x).
n(x)
n(x)
n n n−1 1
+bn−1 x m−1 +...+b1 x 1 +b0
of the graph f (x).
f (x).
n(x)
n(x)
n n n−1 1
+bn−1 x m−1 +...+b1 x 1 +b0
of the graph f (x).
f (x).
n(x)
n(x)
Graphical ... function
1
Ex Sketch the graphs of f (x) = (x−a) n where a > 0 and n is a positive
integer.
Soln. Obviously a ∈ / Dom(f ). Next, we investigate the trend of the values
of f (x) near a. To do this, we consider two cases, when n is even or
odd:
case1: Suppose n is even
I In this case (x–a)n > 0 for all x ∈ R/{a}
I (x–a)n → 0 as x → a+ or x → a− . Therefore, x = a is a VA of f (x).
I y = a1n or (0, a1n ) is its y-intercept since f (0) = a1n .
I it has no x-intercept since f (x) > 0 for all x in its domain.
case2: Suppose n is ode:
1
I In this case (x–a)n > 0 for all x > a and (x−a) n → ∞ when x → a
+
as
in the above case. Thus, x = a is its VA.
1 −
I In this case (x–a)n < 0 for all x < a and (x−a) n → −∞ when x → a
as in the above case. Thus, x = a is its VA.

I y = − a1n or (0, − a1n ) is its y-intercept since f (0) = a1n .
1
integer.
odd:
1
+
as
1 −

1
integer.
odd:
1
+
as
1 −

1
integer.
odd:
1
+
as
1 −

Figure:
Examples
Ex. Sketch the graphs of
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
soln1. St1. Since x − 1 = 0 at x = 1, dom(f ) = R/{1}.
St2. Intercepts:
1 y-intercept: x = 0 ⇒ y = f (0) = –2. Hence, (0, –2) is y-intercept.
2 x-intercept: y = 0 ⇒ x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = –2. Hence, (–2, 0) is
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
F Since x − 1 = 0 at x = 1 and x + 2 6= 0 at x = 1, x = 1 is VA of f .
F In fact, if x → 1+ , then x + 2 ≈ 3 but the denominator x–1 is almost 0
(but positive). Consequently
1 f (x) → ∞ as x → 1+ and also
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
2 HA: The largest exponent in both the numerator and denominator is 1
so by the fact there will be a HA at the line, y = 1
Using these information, you can sketch the graph of f as displayed
slide below in Figure.
Examples
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
St2. Intercepts:
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
Examples
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
St2. Intercepts:
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
Examples
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
St2. Intercepts:
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
Examples
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
St2. Intercepts:
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
Examples
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
St2. Intercepts:
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
Examples
x+2
1 f (x) = x−1
x 2 +3x+2
2 g (x) = x 2 −1
St2. Intercepts:
x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
x+2
Figure: f (x) = x−1
Examples
soln2. St1. The factorize and simplify form of g(x) is given by:
2 (x+2)(x+1)
g (x) = x x+3x+2
2 −1 = (x−1)(x+1) x+2
= x−1
* Since (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 at x = 1 and x = −1 , dom(g ) = R/{−1, 1}
This implies that only x = 1 is VA and g (x) is not defined at x = –1.
St2. Intercepts:
2 x-intercept: y = 0 ⇒ (x + 2)(x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = –2 and x = −1.
Hence, (–2, 0) and (−1, 0) are x-intercept.
St3. Asymptotes:
1 VA:
2 f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− .
Exponents and radicals
Definition 2.13
For a natural number n and a real number x, x n is defined as follows
x n = x| · x · x{z· · · · · x}
n times
means multiplied number x by itself n times. In the symbol x ,x is called

the base and n is called the exponent.
Based of the definition of x n , n must be a natural number. It does

not make sense for n to be negative or zero.
However, we can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and
negative exponents.
Definition 2.14 (Zero and Negative Exponents)
1 Definition of zero Exponent: x 0 = 1; x 6= 0
2 Definition of Negative Exponent: x −n = 1
xn ; x 6= 0
Definition 2.13
x n = x| · x · x{z· · · · · x}
n times


negative exponents.
xn ; x 6= 0
Definition 2.13
x n = x| · x · x{z· · · · · x}
n times


negative exponents.
xn ; x 6= 0
Definition 2.13
x n = x| · x · x{z· · · · · x}
n times


negative exponents.
xn ; x 6= 0
Rules for Integer Exponents
an am = an+m 1
1
7 (ab)−n =
2 (an )m = anm (ab)n
( n−m
a 1
an 8 = an
3 = 1 , a 6= 0 a−n
am
am−n a−n bm
4 (ab)n = an b n
9
−m
= n
b a
a n an
5 = n , b 6= 0 10 (an b m )k = ank b mk
b b
a −n b n bn
n k
a ank
6 = = n 11
m
= mk
b a a b b
Example: Simplify each of the following and write the answers with
only positive exponents.
n−2 m 5x −1 y −4
3
1 4x −4 y 5 2 3
7m−4 n−3 −2 9
(3y 5 ) x
Rules for Integer Exponents
an am = an+m 1
1
7 (ab)−n =
2 (an )m = anm (ab)n
( n−m
a 1
an 8 = an
3 = 1 , a 6= 0 a−n
am
am−n a−n bm
4 (ab)n = an b n
9
−m
= n
b a
a n an
5 = n , b 6= 0 10 (an b m )k = ank b mk
b b
a −n b n bn
n k
a ank
6 = = n 11
m
= mk
b a a b b
Example: Simplify each of the following and write the answers with
only positive exponents.
n−2 m 5x −1 y −4
3
1 4x −4 y 5 2 3
7m−4 n−3 −2 9
(3y 5 ) x
Rational Exponents
1
Definition 2.15 (Rational Exponent a n )
1
1 If n is an odd positive integer, then a n = b if and only if b n = a
1
2 If n is an even positive integer and a ≥ 0 , then a n = |b| if and only if
b n = a.
Ex. Evaluate each of the following on R.
1 1 1 1
1 25 2 = −− 2 32 5 = −− 3 (−16) 4 = −− 4 −16 4 = −−
m
1 m 1
If a n is a real number, then a n = (a n )m
3 45
625 4 = −−

1 243
2
32
Rational Exponents
1
1
1
b n = a.
1 1 1 1
1 25 2 = −− 2 32 5 = −− 3 (−16) 4 = −− 4 −16 4 = −−
m
1 m 1
3 45
625 4 = −−

1 243
2
32
Rational Exponents
1
1
1
b n = a.
1 1 1 1
1 25 2 = −− 2 32 5 = −− 3 (−16) 4 = −− 4 −16 4 = −−
m
1 m 1
3 45
625 4 = −−

1 243
2
32
Radicals
Definition 2.17 (nth root of a)

√
n
1
a = a n where n is a positive integer.
Properties (
√
n a, if n is odd
1 an =
|a|if n is even
√
n √ √
2
rab = √
n
a nb
a n
a
3 n
= √
n
b b
Ex: Write each of the following radicals in exponent form.
√
4
√
5
√
3
√
4
1 16 2 243 3 −125 4 −16
Ex Simplify each of the following. Assume that x, y , and z are positive.

p p p √
3
√
3
1 y7 2 18x 6 y 11 3 5
x 12 y 4 z 24 4 9x 2 6x 2
Exponential Functions
Definition 2.18 (Exponential Function)

A function of the form f (x) = b x , where b > 0 and b 6= 1, is called an
exponential function with base b.
Here are some examples of exponential function.

I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x
The general form of the exponential function f (x) = b x can be

clasified in to two:
1 If b > 1,the function grows at a rate proportional to its size.
2 If 0 < b < 1, the function decays at a rate proportional to its size.
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, and the range of f
is the set of all real positive numbers.
An exponential function will never be zero,(i.e, b x 6= 0, ∀x ∈ R).
An exponential function is always positive(i.e, b x > 0, ∀x ∈ R).
The exponential function is 1-1. Algebraically if b x = b y , then x = y


I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x



I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x



I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x



I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x



I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x



I f (x) = 2x I g (x) = 3x I h(x) = ( 21 )x

How to sketch the graph of b x
Given an exponential function f (x) = b x to sketch the graph use the

following steps:
Create a table of points.
Plot at least 3 point from the table,including the y-intercept (0, 1).
Draw a smooth curve through the points.
State the domain (−∞, ∞), the range (0, ∞), and the horizontal
asymptote, y=0.
The graph of b x
1. Here’s the sketch of functions f (x) = 2x . Let’s first get a table of

values for functions.
x ... -2 -1 0 1 2 ...
f (x) = 2x ... 14 1
2 1 2 4 ...
The graph of b x
2. Here’s the sketch of functions g (x) = ( 12 )x

x ... -2 -1 0 1 2 ...
1 x
f (x) = ( 2 ) ... 4 2 1 12 14 ...
The graph of b x
The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential

functions y = b x and their graphs.
f (x) = b x Growth( b > 1) Decay (0 < b < 1)
Domain R R
Range (0, ∞) (0, ∞)
x-intercept none none
y-intercept (0, 1) (0, 1)
HA y =0 y =0
VA none none
Convergence f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ f (x) → 0 as x → ∞
f (x) → 0 as x → −∞ f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞
increasing decreasing
The graph of b x
Figure: The graph of b x
Graphing Transformations of Exponential Functions
Transformations of exponential graphs behave similarly to those of

other functions.
Just as with other parent functions, we can apply the four types of
transformations—shifts, reflections, stretches, and
compressions-to the parent function f (x) = b x without loss of
shape.
1 Graphing Shift: For any constants c and d, the
function f (x) = b x+c + d shifts the parent function f (x) = b x
I vertically d units, in the same direction of the sign of d.
I horizontally c units, in the opposite direction of the sign of c.
I The y-intercept becomes (0, b c + d).
I The horizontal asymptote becomes y = d.
I The range becomes (d, ∞).
I The domain, (−∞, ∞) ,remains unchanged.

other functions.
shape.

other functions.
shape.

other functions.
shape.

other functions.
shape.

other functions.
shape.

other functions.
shape.

other functions.
shape.
How To Sketch The graph of f (x) = b x+c + d
Given an exponential function of the form f (x) = b x+c + d,graph the

translation.
1 Draw the horizontal asymptote y = d and fix y-intercept of (0, b c + d).
2 Identify the shift as (−c, d) . Shift the graph of f (x) = b x left c units
if c is positive, and right c units ifc is negative.
3 Shift the graph of f (x) = b x up d units if d is positive, and down d units
if d is negative.
4 State the domain, (−∞, ∞) ,the range, (d, ∞),and the horizontal
asymptote y = d.
Ex. Sketch the graph of the following functions. State the domain, range,
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x
Sol.1 We have an exponential equation of the form f (x) = b x+c + d,

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.
Draw the horizontal asymptote y = d, so draw y = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.

translation.
if d is negative.
asymptote y = d.
and asymptote.
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. 3 f (x) = 2x−1 + 3.
2 f (x) = 2 + 2x

with b = 2, c = 1, and d = −3.
The graph of f (x) = b x+c + d,
Identify the shift as (−c, d), so the shift is (−1, −3).

Shift the graph of f (x) = b x ,left 1 units and down 3 units.
Figure: f (x) = 2x+1 − 3.
The domain is (−∞, ∞) ; ,the range is (−3, ∞) ; ,the horizontal

asymptote is y = −3

Figure: f (x) = 2x+1 − 3.


Figure: f (x) = 2x+1 − 3.

Stretches and Compressions of the Parent Function
f (x) = b x
2 Stretches and Compressions of the Parent Function f (x) = b x

For any factor a > 0,the function f (x) = a(b)x
I is stretched vertically by a factor of a if |a| > 1.
I is compressed vertically by a factor of a ,if |a| < 1.
I has a y-intercept of (0, a).
I has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0, a range of (0, ∞), and a domain
of (−∞, ∞),which are unchanged from the parent function.
f (x) = b x

f (x) = b x

f (x) = b x

f (x) = b x

Reflections of the Parent Function f (x) = b x
3 Reflections of the Parent Function f (x) = b x

The function f (x) = −b x
I reflects the parent function f (x) = b x about the x-axis.
I has a y-intercept of (0, −1).
I has a range of (−∞, 0)
I has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 and domain of (−∞, ∞),which are
unchanged from the parent function.
The function f (x) = b −x
I reflects the parent function f (x) = b x about the y-axis.
I has a y-intercept of (0, 1),
I a horizontal asymptote at y = 0, a range of (0, ∞), and a domain
of (−∞, ∞), which are unchanged from the parent function.
and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x

and asymptote.
1 g (x) = 2−x . 2 h(x) = −2x
Here’s the sketch of functions.
1 dom(g ) = (−∞, ∞) and Range(g ) = (−∞, 0)

The y-intercept is (0, −1)
The graph has no x - intercepts
The line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
g (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and g (x) → 0 as x → −∞
2 dom(h) = (−∞, ∞) and Range(g ) = (0, ∞)
The y-intercept is (0, 1)
h (x) → 0 as x → ∞ and h (x) → ∞ as x → −∞
Remark 8
The natural exponential function is f (x) = ex where,
e = 2.71828182845905 . . .
1 dom(g ) = (−∞, ∞) and Range(g ) = (−∞, 0)

g (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and g (x) → 0 as x → −∞
2 dom(h) = (−∞, ∞) and Range(g ) = (0, ∞)
h (x) → 0 as x → ∞ and h (x) → ∞ as x → −∞
Remark 8
e = 2.71828182845905 . . .
1 dom(g ) = (−∞, ∞) and Range(g ) = (−∞, 0)

g (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and g (x) → 0 as x → −∞
2 dom(h) = (−∞, ∞) and Range(g ) = (0, ∞)
h (x) → 0 as x → ∞ and h (x) → ∞ as x → −∞
Remark 8
e = 2.71828182845905 . . .
Logarithmic Functions
In the previous subsection we noted that the exponential function

f (x) = b x (where b > 0 and b 6= 1 ) is one to one.
Thus, the exponential function has an inverse function. What is the
inverse of f (x) = b x ?
To find the inverse of f (x) = b x
I Interchange x and y we’ve x = b y
I solve for y we’ve y =????
I There is no algebraic procedure we can use to solve x = b y for y .
I x = b y means y is the exponent to which b must be raised to yield x .
I This relationship gives the definition of logxb : logxb is an exponent to
which the base b must be raised to obtain x.
I Then we have
y = logxb is equivalent tox = b y
(x)
A logarithmic function f (x) = logb , b > 0, b 6= 1, x > 0 (logarithm
to the base b of x) is the inverse of the exponential function
f (x) = b x .

I Then we have
(x)
f (x) = b x .

I Then we have
(x)
f (x) = b x .

I Then we have
(x)
f (x) = b x .

I Then we have
(x)
f (x) = b x .

I Then we have
(x)
f (x) = b x .
Logarithmic...
Definition 2.19
For b > 0 and b 6= 1 , we write y = logxb to mean y is the exponent to
which b must be raised to yield x . In other words, y = logxb ⇔ x = b y
Ex. Calculator give the exact value of each of the following logarithms.
27
1 y = log16
2
2 y = log625
5
3 y = log36
1 4 y = log 38
6 2
Definition 2.20
1 f (x) = logx10 is called the common logarithm function. We write
logx10 = logx .
2 f (x) = logxe is called the natural logarithmic function. We write logxe = ln x.
Ex. Evaluate
√
1 ln 3 e 3 Find the inverse f (x) = e x + 1 .
2 log 1000 function of
Logarithmic...
Definition 2.19
27
1 y = log16
2
2 y = log625
5
3 y = log36
1 4 y = log 38
6 2
Definition 2.20
logx10 = logx .
Ex. Evaluate
√
Logarithmic...
Definition 2.19
27
1 y = log16
2
2 y = log625
5
3 y = log36
1 4 y = log 38
6 2
Definition 2.20
logx10 = logx .
Ex. Evaluate
√
Logarithmic...
Definition 2.19
27
1 y = log16
2
2 y = log625
5
3 y = log36
1 4 y = log 38
6 2
Definition 2.20
logx10 = logx .
Ex. Evaluate
√
The graph of logarithm:
The graph of f (x) = logxb has the following properties:

1 dom(f ) = (0, ∞) and Range(f ) = (−∞, ∞)
2 The x-intercept is 1. There is no y - intercept.
3 The y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
4 If b > 1, then
F f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → −∞ as x → 0, x > 0
5 If 0 < b < 1,then
F f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → ∞ as x → 0, x > 0
6 The graph logxb is the reflection of graph b x by line y = x
The basic properties of logarithm:
The following are the basic properties of logarithm:
1 logbb = 1 5 logxy x
b r = logb + logb
y
x x
2 log1b = 0 6 logb = r logb
logbb
x
(x )
3 =x 7 logb y = logxb − logyb
logbb
x
logx
4 b =x 8 logxy = logyb ; b > 0 andb 6= 1
b
Ex. Express in terms of simpler logarithms

(x 3 y ) 4
!
9x
1 logb √
y x2 + y2
2 log3 3 log 3
(x − y )
Ex. Solve
2
−t
1 7 + 15e1−3z = 10 2 10t = 100 3 x − xe5x+2 = 0
The natural and common logarithm:
Trigonometric functions and their graphs

Chapter Two

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Chapter 2: The Real and Complex Number Systems

2.1 The real number system

2.1 The real number system

The set of natural numbers

5 1 is a multiplication identity element on the set of natural numbers.

The set of natural numbers

5 1 is a multiplication identity element on the set of natural numbers.

The set of natural numbers

5 1 is a multiplication identity element on the set of natural numbers.

The set of natural numbers

5 1 is a multiplication identity element on the set of natural numbers.

Well ordering principle in the set of natural numbers:- Every

Well ordering principle in the set of natural numbers:- Every

Well ordering principle in the set of natural numbers:- Every

Well ordering principle in the set of natural numbers:- Every

Ex . Find the factors of 15.

Ex . Find the factors of 15.

Ex . Find the factors of 15.

Definition 5 (Prime Factorization)

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Definition 5 (Prime Factorization)

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Definition 5 (Prime Factorization)

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Definition 7 (The least common multiple (LCM))

Definition 7 (The least common multiple (LCM))

Definition 7 (The least common multiple (LCM))

Definition 7 (The least common multiple (LCM))

Definition 8 (Mathematical induction)

Definition 8 (Mathematical induction)

5 For any integer a, it holds that a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

5 For any integer a, it holds that a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

Properties of addition and multiplication on the set of rational

Fraction form of decimal numbers

Consider any non-terminating periodic decimal numbers d. Suppose d

Ex Convert the decimal 42.558 and 0.41666... to fraction form.

Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating

Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating

Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating

Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating

Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating

Operations on the set of real numbers

1 Closerity:∀a, b ∈ R 3 Associative: ∀a, b ∈ R

5 0 is the additive identity in R

Operations on the set of real numbers

1 Closerity:∀a, b ∈ R 3 Associative: ∀a, b ∈ R

5 0 is the additive identity in R

Completeness property of real number

Completeness property of real number

C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, where i 2 = −1}

From the expression z = x + iy , the real number x is called the real

C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, where i 2 = −1}

From the expression z = x + iy , the real number x is called the real

C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, where i 2 = −1}

From the expression z = x + iy , the real number x is called the real

C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, where i 2 = −1}

From the expression z = x + iy , the real number x is called the real

C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R, where i 2 = −1}