ECHELON INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Faridabad
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Subject- Hydraulics Engineering Lab

1. Flow Visualization
2. Studies in Wind Tunnel
3. Boundary Layer
4. Flow around an Aerofoil/circular cylinder
5.a Uniform flow
5.b Velocity Distribution in open channel flow
6. Venturi Flume
7. Standing wave flume
8. Gradually Varied flow
9. Hydraulic Jump
10. Flow under Sluice gate
11. Flow through pipes
12.a Turbulent flow through pipe
12.b Laminar flow through pipe
13 Major losses / Minor losses in pipe
 Experiment-1
Aim: To Examine the Flow Visualization

Theory:
Open channel: An open channel is a passage in which liquid flows with its upper
surface exposed to atmosphere. In comparison to pipe flow, where flow occurs
in closed passages under pressure, the flow in open channels takes place under
the influence of gravity in open channels. The primary purpose of this piece of
apparatus is to demonstrate visually a wide range of hydraulic effects
associated with flow in open channels.
Velocity Distribution over Channel Cross Section: Typical velocity distribution
curves in a straight reach of a rectangular channel are shown in figure below. It
is clear from the figure that the velocity diminishes towards the sides and the
base of the channel because of frictional resistance. Theoretically the velocity
of flow should be maximum at the topmost point on the vertical centre line.
However due to effect of surface tension and resistance offered by the air the
velocity is reduced at the free water surfaceF1-00, Armfield Ltd. England, April
1996 Vertical velocity curve is a representation of velocity measured along a
vertical line of channel cross section. Horizontal velocity curve is a
representation measured along a horizontal line of channel cross section.
Reynolds Number: It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force acting in
any flow phenomenon.

Apparatus Required: Hydraulic Flume Test Rig, Water

Procedure:
1. The inlet pipe is connected direct to the Hydraulics Bench outlet by a quick
release connector. The model is positioned on the side channels of the bench
top, with the overshot weir adjacent to the volumetric tank.
2. Adjustable feet are provided for leveling the apparatus. Water is fed to the
streamlined channel entry via a stilling tank which incorporates marbles to
reduce turbulence.
3. The channel consists of a Perspex working section of large depth to width
ratio incorporating an undershot weir and an overshot weir at the Inlet and
discharge ends respectively.
4. Water discharging from the channel is collected in the volumetric tank of the
Hydraulics Bench and returned to the sump for recirculation.
5. A dye injection system, consisting of a reservoir flow control valve manifold
and hypodermic A tubes is incorporated at the inlet to the channel and permits
flow visualization in conjunction with a graticule on the rear face of the
channel.
6. The overshot weir is fully raised for low visualisation experiments, this is
achieved by releasing thumb screw and weir support moving the weir to the
desired position and locking the screws. Before use the packet dye supplied
must be diluted with 1 liter of deionised/distilled water.
7. Open the 3gm packet of Blue Dye and pour the contents along with 1 liter of
de-ionised or distilled water
Observation and Calculations :

The flow visualization technique involves the use of dye injected at the
hypodermic tubes. In operation, the overshot weir should be raised fully and
the undershot weir should be removed. With the overshot weir in the raised
position, the channel run full of water enabling flow patterns around and over
submerged objects to be demonstrated.

Results and Discussions:

Area of usage:

Sources and sinks in a uniform flow  Doublet in a uniform stream  Flow

around a cylinder and an airfoil , flow through an orifice and a diffuser  Flow
through a heat exchanger  The momentum equation  Laminar flow
relationship for flow between two parallel plates  Mean velocity equations 
Potential flow relationships
 Experiment-2
Aim: Studies in Wind Tunnel

Theory:
1. Wind tunnels are large tubes with air blowing through them. The tunnels are used to replicate
the actions of an object flying through the air or moving along the ground. Researchers use
wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly. NASA uses wind tunnels to
test scale models of aircraft and spacecraft. Some wind tunnels are large enough to contain
full-size versions of vehicles. The wind tunnel moves air around an object, making it seem as
if the object is really flying.
2. Most of the time, large powerful fans blow air through the tube. The object being tested is
held securely inside the tunnel so that it remains stationary and does not move. The object can
be a small model of a vehicle, or it can be just any part of a vehicle. It can be a full-size
aircraft or spacecraft. It can even be a common object like a tennis ball. The air moving
around the stationary object shows what would happen if the object was moving through the
air. The motion of the air can be studied in different ways; smoke or dye can be placed in the
air and can be seen as it moves around the object. Coloured threads can also be attached to the
object to show how the air moves around it. Special instruments can often be used to measure
the force of the air exerted against the object.
3. The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the early days
of aeronautic research, when many attempted to develop successful heavier-than-air flying
machines. The wind tunnel was envisioned as a means of reversing the usual paradigm:
instead of the air standing still and an object moving at speed through it, the same effect
would be obtained if the object stood still and the air moved at speed past it. In that way a
stationary observer could study the flying object in action, and could measure the
aerodynamic forces being imposed on it.
4. The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane. Large wind
tunnels were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing was considered of strategic
importance during the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft and missiles.
5. Later, wind tunnel study came into its own: the effects of wind on man-made structures or
objects needed to be studied when buildings became tall enough to present large surfaces to
 the wind, and the resulting forces had to be resisted by the building's internal structure.
Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required
strength of such buildings and such tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings.

6. Still later, wind tunnel testing was applied to automobiles, not so much to determine
aerodynamic forces per se but more to determine ways to reduce the power required to move
the vehicle on roadways at a given speed. In these studies, the interaction between the road
and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration
when interpreting the test results. In an actual situation the roadway is moving relative to the
vehicle but the air is stationary relative to the roadway, but in the wind tunnel the air is
moving relative to the roadway, while the roadway is stationary relative to the test vehicle.
Some automotive-test wind tunnels have incorporated moving belts under the test vehicle in
an effort to approximate the actual condition, and very similar devices are used in wind tunnel
testing of aircraft take-off and landing configurations.
7. Wind tunnel testing of sporting equipment has also been prevalent over the years, including
golf clubs, golf balls, Olympic bobsleds, Olympic cyclists, and race car helmets. Helmet
aerodynamics is particularly important in open cockpit race cars (Indycar, Formula One).
Excessive lift forces on the helmet can cause considerable neck strain on the driver, and flow
separation on the back side of the helmet can cause turbulent buffeting and thus blurred vision
for the driver at high speeds.[1]
8. The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling on high-speed digital
computers has reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing.

Procedure:
1. Using the barometer and thermometer in the laboratory determine the
density of the air flowing in the wind tunnel.
2. Using the Wing Tunnel Calibration VI calibrate the wind tunnel test section
by generating a plot of velocity (m/sec) versus motor frequency (0- 60 Hz) using
the upstream pitot-static tube and Bernoulli's equation. Please see Wind Tunnel
Laboratory Notes: week 1 for details.
3. Use standard propagation of error analysis to estimate the error in U∞

4. A pressure wing is mounted vertically in the wind tunnel. The pressure tubes
(18 with locations indicated in the Appendix) from the wing are connected to
the inlet nipples of the tunnel pressure transducer array sampling system. The
static pressure of the test section is connected to the reference connection of
the pressure transducer. The dynamic pressure of the air stream q∞ is
measured with the Pitot probe. Dividing the pressure measured with the
sampling system by q∞ gives the pressure coefficient at the point of the
measurement:
5. Operate the tunnel at airspeeds of 20, 35 and 50 m/sec and make pressure
measurements on the wing at angles of attack of 0°, 4°, 8°, 12°, and 16°. Please
see Wind Tunnel Laboratory Notes: week 2 for details. Always check the zero
velocity pressure measurements from the wing and pitot probe before each
data set. You will need to measure and correct for any offsets in the pressure
transducer at zero velocity.

Results and Use-full Remarks:

1. Plot the pressure coefficient data points (upper and lower surface) as a
function of distance along the chord line of the wing and integrate to find the
Normal Force coefficient Cn which is given as

Find this normal force coefficient for all angles of attack and flow speeds.

2. Determine the Lift coefficients CL from CN and Plot CL vs. α for each air-
speed. Show the results on one graph for comparison purposes.

3. On a separate graph plot Cd vs. α for each air-speed. Note that this method
does not measure drag viscous forces due to shear stresses and thus may under
represent the total drag force on the wing. The drag force and drag coefficient
measured in this experiment is the component of the normal force in the
direction parallel to the free stream flow, and increases as the angle of attack
increases.
4. Using the equation for the pitching moment

a) Calculate the leading edge pitching moment CM LE for the airfoil as a

function of angle of attack for each velocity and present the results in a table.
b) Calculate the center of pressure for the airfoil as a function of angle of
attach for each velocity and present the results in a table.

c) Calculate the pitching moment through the quarter chord point as a function
of angle of attack for each velocity and present the results in a table.

5. a). Operate the tunnel at airspeeds of 20, 35 and 50 m/sec and obtain wake
pressure survey measurements in the wake of the vertically mounted pressure
wing at angles of attack of 0°, 4°, 8°, 12°, and 16°. Always check the zero
velocity pressure measurements from the wing and pitot probe before each
data set. You will need to measure and correct for any offsets in the pressure
transducer at zero velocity..
 Experiment-3
Aim: Boundary Layer

Apparatus Required:
1. Flat Plate Setup
2. Micrometer
3. Pitot Static prot
4. Thermometer
5. Digital manometer
6. Wind Tunnel

Theory: When we consider flow of a fluid on a surface, friction plays an

important role as during flow fluid sticks on the surface due to friction between
the surface of plate and air. The velocity at surface is zero at the surface due to
no slip condition and hence the flow is retarded near the surface. This region of
surface where flow is retarded is known as boundary layer. Boundary layer is
defined in a physical sense as the distance in transverse direction of plate from
no slip condition to the area where the velocity of stream is 95-99% of free
stream velocity which is the velocity of fluid when it is not obstructed. There
are two type of boundary layer. 1- Laminar boundary layer 2- Turbulent
boundary layer

Assumptions
1. Flow over plate is laminar.
2. Flow is incompressible (ρ= Constant)
3. The boundary layer is very thin in comparison with the length of the body.
(δ<<
4. Flow over the plate is 2D and the angle of attack is zero, without the effect of
gravity and other volumetric forces.

Procedures
1- Room temperature and pressure are recorded.
2- Flat plate is placed on a table in front of wind tunnel to ensure boundary
layer formation. Pitot static probe is placed in the direction facing the
upcoming flow of fluid
3- Pitot static tube is adjusted through micrometer and screwed down to a point
where it just touches the flat plate. A paper is used to ensure that probe
touches the plate ,as a slight resistance while removing the paper between
probe and plate is felt ensures its contact.
4- Wind tunnel is switched on and allowed tp run for 1 or 2 minutes to ensure
steady flow.
5- Readings are taken at a gap of 0.02 cm and successively till pressure reading
shows constant signifying location above boundary layer where free steam
velocity is reached.
6- Repeat the experiment for 4 locations.

Observations and Calculations:

Results:

Discussions: Through above experiment we achieve the mentioned objectives.

1- Measured the pressure in transverse direction at different locations and
drawn velocity profile for those values.
2- All the velocity profile are for laminar flow so profiles.
3- Compared the velocity profiles with Blasius and then corrected with
correction factor.
4- calculated displacement ,momentum and energy thickness.
 Experiment-4
Aim: Flow around an Aerofoil/circular cylinder

Apparatus Required: Wind tunnel, Testing model and Smoke Generator.

Theory: Flow visualization is the study of methods to display dynamic behavior

in liquids and gases. The field dates back at least to the mid-1400, where
sketched images of fine particles of sand and wood shavings which had been
dropped into flowing liquids. Since then, laboratory flow visualization has
become more and more exact, with careful control of the particulate size and
distribution. An advance in photography has also helped extend our
understanding of how fluids flow under various circumstances. More recently,
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) have extended the abilities of scientists to
study flow by creating simulations of dynamic behavior of fluids under a wide
range of conditions. The result of this analysis is usually a 2-D or a 3-D grid of
velocity vectors, which may be uniformly or non-uniformly spaced. The goal is
then to analyze this vector field to identify features such as turbulence,
vortices, and other forms of structure.

Procedure:
1. Mount the test model at various angles (0o , 5 o , 10 o , 15 o , 20 o , and 25
o ) on the stand provided in the test section of the wind tunnel. The trailing
edge should be faced towards the fan.
2. On the Smoke Generator and wait for a few minutes to generate smoke.
3. Visualize the flow over test model and the streamlines separating from the
surface.
4. Take the pictures of flow separations at various velocities of the air.

Results and Discussions:

Draw or capture the flow patterns and boundary layer formations at various
angle of attacks (0 o , 5 o , 10 o , 15 o , 20 o , and 25 o ).

Precautions:
1. Do not stand behind the wind tunnel while operating it.
2. Wait for a few minutes to generate the smoke after switching on Smoke
generator.
 Experiment-5(a,b)
Aim: To Study Uniform flow and Velocity Distribution in open Channel

Apparatus Required: Wind Tunnel Setup, Stop Watch

Theory: The effect on the velocity distribution due to boundary roughness is

indicated by the line ABC. Outside the surface represented by ABC, the velocity
distribution is practically uniform. Near the channel surface and within the
region ABC, velocity varies according to distance from channel surface. The
region inside ABC is known as boundary layer. At the beginning of the flow in
the channel, the flow is entirely laminar and a laminar boundary layer is
developed along the channel surface, as shown by the curve AB. The velocity
distribution in this layer is approximately parabolic. As water travels further
along the channel, the flow in the boundary layer will eventually change to
turbulent (at point B). Downstream from B a turbulent boundary layer is
developed, as shown by the curve BC. The velocity distribution in this layer is
approximately logarithmic. The turbulent boundary layer intersects the free
water surface at a distance where the flow is assumed to be fully developed.
Procedure:
To determine the velocity distribution profile in the vertical
i) Place the current meter at the middle of the flume.
ii) Measure the depth of flow Y.
iii) Place the current meter at water surface, at 0.2Y, 0.4Y, 0.6Y and 0.8Y from
the water surface and near the bottom in the vertical plane and take the
reading of revolution of the current meter (N) and corresponding time (t) at
each depth.
iv) Calculate the point velocities at each depth by using the formula, v = a(N/t)
+b, where a and b are the current meter constants.
v) Plot the point velocity (v) against the distance from the channel bottom (y).
To calculate the channel roughness height k
i) For every set of point velocity (v) and distance from bottom (y), roughness
height (k) can be determined by using Eq.(9.6).
ii) Channel roughness height is obtained by averaging all values of k.
To calculate the cross-sectional mean velocity V
i) By using the average value of k, the cross-sectional mean velocity V is
calculated

Shape of depth vs velocity graph:

As the velocity distribution profile is logarithmic, the y vs v graph is logarithmic
as shown in the following figure. For logarithmic velocity distribution, the
maximum velocity occurs at the free surface. But in practice, the maximum
velocity occurs below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the total
depth.

Results and Discussion:

 Experiment-6
Aim: Study of Venturi Flume

Apparatus Required: Hydraulic Flume Test Rig Setup

In open channel flow

Introduction:

hydraulics, control
structures are used by
hydraulic engineers to
regulate or
control the flow
characteristics upstream
and downstream. In this
experiment, a narrow
constriction
was used as a control,
which increased the
velocity of flow and
caused flow through it to
be critical.
For the structure to act as
a control structure, the
flow upstream of it has to
be deep and slow (sub-
critical flow condition) and
it has to be shallow and
fast downstream (super-
critical flow condition).
A drowned constriction
has no effect on the
overall flow variation and
is therefore not considered
a control structure.
This report is a
compilation of the
investigation carried out
to determine how the
constriction
affects flow and the total
and specific energy in the
channel. The theory that
was used in the analysis
of the experimental results
is first presented, followed
by the procedures that
were employed. The
analysis of the
experimental results is
given, with regards to total
and specific energy
concepts and
the errors arising from
theoretical analysis.
Lastly, the conclusions
drawn from the
experiment are
briefly stated.
The objective of this
experiment was to
determine the influence
of a control structure on
open
channel flow. The
laboratory experiment was
conducted at the
University of the
Witwatersrand,
school of Civil and
Environmental
Engineering. An open
channel flow flume with
a lateral
constriction was used.
The uniform flow in the
channel was achieved by
adjusting a tailgate
downstream of the
channel. For each
position of the tailgate,
flow depths were
measured at
different positions along
the flume, while keeping
the discharge constant.
The collected data was
used to compute the
velocity, total en
The objective of this
experiment was to
determine the influence
of a control structure on
open
channel flow. The
laboratory experiment was
conducted at the
University of the
Witwatersrand,
school of Civil and
Environmental
Engineering. An open
channel flow flume with
a lateral
constriction was used.
The uniform flow in the
channel was achieved by
adjusting a tailgate
downstream of the
channel. For each
position of the tailgate,
flow depths were
measured at
different positions along
the flume, while keeping
the discharge constant.
The collected data was
used to compute the
velocity, total en
Theory: Assuming the flow to be choked (controlled by the width of the
venturi) the flow undergoes a smooth transition from subcritical to supercritical
flow through the restricted section. If the throat section is sufficiently long to
establish parallel flow then critical conditions occur in the throat.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Place the venturi flume assembly, including an appropriate spacer, in the
Armfield C4-MKII flume.
2.The venturi throat should be closer to the upstream end. Measure the
undisturbed width of the flume and the width at the venturi throat with a ruler.
3. Adjust the flow valve in the Armfield F1-10 Hydraulics Bench to allow at least
two different flow rates through the flume.
4. For each flow rate measure water depths just upstream, in the throat (at the
end of the parallel section) and just downstream of the flume, and measure the
discharge by timed collection of water.

Observation and Calculations:

Results and Discussions:

Experiment-7
Aim: Study of Standing wave flume

Apparatus Required: Hydraulic flume Test Rig Experimental Setup

Introduction: Venturi flume is an artificial construction provided in a channel

for the purpose of measuring the discharge passing through it. Venturi flume is
similar to a venturimeter which is used for measuring the discharge passing
through a pipe. The formula for the discharge passing through the venturi
flume can be derived exactly in the same manner and as it was derived for the
venturimeter i.e. by applying Bernoulli’s equation along with the continuity
equation. When the flow through the venturi flume occurs under critical
condition (i.e. when the specific energy is minimum for a given discharge or
discharge is maximum for a given specific energy.) then a hydraulic jump or
standing wave flume is formed on the downstream side of the diverging portion
of the venturi flume under the favorable conditions. The venturi-flume is then
called as ‘Standing wave flume’ or ‘Critical Depth flume’. Provision of a hump in
the throat portion of the venturi flume ensures the formation of hydraulic jump
over a wide range of discharge variation, so that the venturi flume essentially
functions as a standing wave flume. The advantage of the standing wave flume
is that the discharge can be obtained by measuring the depth of flow in the
channel only at the upstream side.
Theory: Theory: Formula for discharge in case of a venturi flume can be
obtained by applying Bernoulli’s equation along with E1 = E2,

Experimental set up : It consists of glass walled (Perspex sheet made)

rectangular tilting bed flume 5m long , 10.3 cm wide and 60 cm deep into
which water is supplied by a pump. A sluice is fitted in the upstream side of the
flume. A pointer gauge is used to measure the depth of water in the channel.

Procedure:
1. Set up the tilting flume to zero bed slopes.
2. Obtain bed reading of flume at a section just on the u/s by installing pointer
gauge.
3. Switch on the centrifugal pump and allow all discharge to pass through the
flume by closing the valve.
4. Ensure the formation of standing wave i.e. hydraulic jump on D/s as standing
wave flume.
5. Measure the depth of flow in flume by taking the water surface reading at
D/s section with pointer gauge.
6. Measure the discharge passing through the flume with the help of measuring
tank of the flume.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for sufficient no. of observations.
Experimental data:
1. Width of tilting flume = T =
2. Width of throat of standing wave flume = B =
3. Height of hump of standing wave flume = z =
4. Bed slope of tilting flume = So =
5. Bed Reading of tilting flume (Initial Pointer gauge reading) = h1 = 6. Area of
the tank (Al) =

Observation and Calculations:

Results and Discussion:

Experiment-8
Aim: To Study Gradually Varied flow

Apparatus Required: hydraulic Flume Test Rig Setup

Theory: In The Majority of Cases of flow in an Open Channel is Non-uniform and Due to Friction
Water Surface Profile Changes Gradually. When the Flow is Steady , non-uniform and the Water
Surface Profile Chages Gradually, It Is Called Gradually Varied flow. As Such Determination of
Water Surfae Profile is Necessary to Complete the Design of the Channel Dimensions.

Procedure and Experimental Setup:

Experiments were conducted in a flume with a length of 12.5 (m) whose cross
section dimensions and related facilities are in The floor of main channel and
floodplains was constructed of concrete in two stages, with two fixed bed slopes
of 0.0121 and 0.0032 corresponding to steep and mild slope conditions. In both
stages, some experiments were conducted first to determine the Manning's
value (n) for flow in the main channel alone. The Manning's values for both
stages of experiments were calculated about 0.0104. The discharge was
measured with an electromagnetic flowmeter with 0.01 (lit/s) precision and a V-
notch weir (for measurement control). The water levels were recorded using a
point gauge meter mounted above the flume. In this paper, some visual
experimental observations related to the formation of gradually and rapidly
water surface profiles combinations are reported and compared with the
predictions of 1-D analysis of gradually varied flow through compound channels

Critical Depth

Observations and Calculations:

Results and Discussions:

Experiment-9
Aim: To Study Hydraulic Jump

Apparatus Required:
Hydraulic flume test Rig
Pump
Plexiglas trough and end weir
Piping and valves
Stopwatch
Bucket

Theory: A hydraulic jump occurs when a confined liquid flowing at a high

velocity is exposed to a sudden reduction in pressure (often atmospheric
conditions) as it exits the confinement. In theory, the flow must be in the
supercritical range where the Froude number (NF) describes critical flow:

Procedure

1. Measure y1 and the trough width.

2. Create a hydraulic jump in the trough by turning the pump on and adjusting the flow control
valve. The position of the jump along the length of the trough (L) should remain constant
over the entire experiment and is controlled by the weir at the end of the trough.
3. Measure y2 and calculate 1 from the flow rate and the cross sectional area.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 at a different flow rate by re-adjusting the flow control valve.
5. Repeat the procedure until the data for a total of five flow rates have been recorded.

Results

1. Calculate the Froude number at each flow rate.

2. Calculate the ratio y2/y1 at each flow rate.
3. Plot y2/y1 vs NF on linear graph paper. Calculate and report the slope and the intercept of the
resultant line.
4. Calculate the energy loss for each flow rate and comment.

Discussions:

If it is assumed that NF > 1 in equation (11) then:

Experiment-10
Aim: To Study Flow under Sluice gate

Apparatus Required:
i) Hydraulic Flume Test Rig
ii) Sluice Gate
iii) Stop Watch
Theory: The Bernoulli energy equation may be applied in those cases where
there is a negligible loss of total head from one section to another, or where the
magnitude of the head loss is already known. Flow under a sluice gate is an
example of converging flow where the correct form of the equation for
discharge may be obtained by equating the energies at Sections 1 and 2

Procedure:

• The sluice gate will be installed in the flume, which has to be leveled. One
vernier is located downstream the weir to measure y1 and the other upstream
of the gate to measure yo. The verniers are zeroed with the bed of the channel.
• The procedure has two (2) parts:
The first part consists of holding a constant upstream depth, yo, by adjusting
the gate opening height for each different flow rate (7 flow rates). Hold yo at
120 mm, and start with a flow rate of 0.5 L/s. Adjust the gate opening until the
upstream depth of water keeps constant at 120 mm. Record the accurate flow
rate, the gate opening, and the downstream depth. Then, increase the flow rate
in increments of 0.25 L/s and repeat the procedure.
The second part consists of holding a constant flow rate, Q, and increasing
gradually the gate opening (10 gate openings). Hold the flow rate at 1.75 L/s
(measure the accurate flow rate), and start with an initial gate opening of 20
mm. Wait until the water depth stabilizes and then measure yg, yo, and y1.
Finally, increase the gate opening in increments of 3 mm and repeat the
procedure.

Observation table:
Results and Discussions:
 Comment on the trend of each plot (the relationship of the plotted
variables).
 Comment on effects of yo (when Q is constant) and Q (when yo is
constant) on the discharge coefficient Cd for flow under the gate. Which
factor has the greatest effect?
 Compare the values of Ho and H1 and comment on the differences?
 Describe the flow pattern observed during the experience.
 Experiment-11

Aim: To Study Flow through pipes

Apparatus Required: CCl4, Hg, Manometers, Smooth CI Pipes Flow Setup

Theory: Pipe flow under pressure is used for a lot of purposes. A fundamental
understanding of fluid flow is essential to almost every industry related with
chemical engineering. In the chemical and manufacturing industries, large flow
networks are necessary to achieve continuous transport of products and raw
materials from different processing units. This requires a detailed
understanding of fluid flow in pipes. Energy input to the gas or liquid is needed
to make it flow through the pipe. This energy input is needed because there is
frictional energy loss (also called frictional head loss or frictional pressure
drop) due to the friction between the fluid and the pipe wall and internal
friction within the fluid. In pipe flow substantial energy is lost due to frictional
resistances.

One of the most common problem in fluid mechanics is the estimation of this
pressure loss. Calculating pressure losses is necessary for determining the
appropriate size pump. Knowledge of the magnitude of frictional losses is of
great importance because it determines the power requirements of the pump
forcing the fluid through the pipe. For example, in refining and petrochemical
industries, these losses have to be calculated accurately to determine where
booster pumps have to be placed when pumping crude oil or other fluids in
pipes to distances thousands of kilometres away.

Pipe losses in a piping system result from a number of system characteristics,

which include among others; pipe friction, changes in direction of flow,
obstructions in flow path, and sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section
and shape of flow path.

In this experiment, pressure loss measurements are made as a function of

flowrate on different pipe components namely; a) straight pipe, (b)globe valve
(c) o gate valve (d)an Expander (e)Reducer (f)standard elbow (g) 90 Bend.

There are in general three types of fluid flow in pipes

 laminar
 turbulent
 transient

Procedure:
1. Keep the valve leading to the smooth pipe open and valves leading to
other lines closed.
2. Keep the bypass valve completely open and the main valve completely
closed. Switch on the pump.
3. Connect a CCL4 manometer,to the pressure taps across the smooth pipe.
Ensure that no air bubbles present and height in both the limbs of
 manometer are the same.
4. Set a flow rate of water through the pipe by opening the main valve and
throttling the bypass valve suitably using the rotameter.

5. Note down the rotameter reading and manometer reading after a steady
state is attained.
6. Increase the flow rate of water by opening the main valve and throttling
the bypass valve suitably and repeat step 4 and 5.
7. Use mercury manometer for higher flow rates.
8. Take eight readings with CCL4 manometer as well as with Hg manometer.

Data:
Diameter of the pipe= D = m
Length of the pipe= L = m
Density of water == kg/m3
Viscosity of water = =cp= kg/ms
Density of CCl4 = 1600 kg/m3
Density of Hg = 13600 kg/m3

Observation table:
Calculations:
Result and Discussion:

Plot fexpt vs NRe on log-log graph. Compare them.

Experiment-12(a,b)
Aim: To Study Turbulent flow and Laminar flow through pipe

Apparatus Required:
1. Hydraulics Flume test Rig Setup,
2. The Reynolds demonstration apparatus,
3. Cylinder for measuring flow,
4. Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement, and
5. Thermometer.

Theory: In nature and in laboratory experiments, flow may occur under two
very different regimes: laminar and turbulent. In laminar flows, fluid particles
move in layers, sliding over each other, causing a small energy exchange to
occur between layers. Laminar flow occurs in fluids with high viscosity, moving
at slow velocity. The turbulent flow, on the other hand, is characterized by
random movements and intermixing of fluid particles, with a great exchange of
energy throughout the fluid. This type of flow occurs in fluids with low viscosity
and high velocity. The dimensionless Reynolds number is used to classify the
state of flow. The Reynolds Number Demonstration is a classic experiment,
based on visualizing flow behavior by slowly and steadily injecting dye into a
pipe. This experiment was first performed by Osborne Reynolds in the late
nineteenth century.

Procedure:

Set up the equipment as follows:

 Position the Reynolds apparatus on a fixed, vibration-free surface (not on
the hydraulics bench), and ensure that the base is horizontal and the test
section is vertical.
 Connect the bench outflow to the head tank inlet pipe.
 Place the head tank overflow tube in the volumetric tank of the hydraulics
bench.
 Attach a small tube to the apparatus flow control valve, and clamp it to a
fixed position in a sink in the lab, allowing enough space below the end of
the tube to insert a measuring cylinder. The outflow should not be
returned to the volumetric tank since it contains dye and will taint the
flow visualisation.
 Start the pump, slightly open the apparatus flow control valve and the bench valve, and allow
the head tank to fill with water. Make sure that the flow visualisation pipe is properly filled.
Once the water level in the head tank reaches the overflow tube, adjust the bench control
valve to produce a low overflow rate.
 Ensuring that the dye control valve is closed, add the blue dye to the dye reservoir until it is
about 2/3 full.
 Attach the needle, hold the dye assembly over a lab sink, and open the valve to ensure that
there is a free flow of dye.
 Close the dye control valve, then mount the dye injector on the head tank and lower the
injector until the tip of the needle is slightly above the bellmouth and is centered on its axis.
 Adjust the bench valve and flow control valve to return the overflow rate to a small amount,
and allow the apparatus to stand for at least five minutes
  Adjust the flow control valve to reach a slow trickle outflow, then adjust the dye control valve
until a slow flow with clear dye indication is achieved.
 Measure the flow volumetric rate by timed water collection.
 Observe the flow patterns, take pictures, or make hand sketches as needed to classify the flow
regime.
 Increase the flow rate by opening the flow control valve. Repeat the experiment to visualize
transitional flow and then, at higher flow rates, turbulent flow, as characterized by continuous
and very rapid mixing of the dye. Try to observe each flow regime two or three times, for a
total of eight readings.
 As the flow rate increases, adjust the bench valve to keep the water level constant in the head
tank.

Observation Table:

Results and discussions:

Please visit this link for accessing excel workbook for this experiment.

The following dimensions of the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If required,
measure them to make sure that they are accurate [7].

 Diameter of test pipe: d = 0.010 m

 Cross-sectional area of test pipe: A =7.854×10-5 m2
 Experiment-13
Aim: To Study Major losses / Minor losses in pipe

Apparatus Required: Pipes Setup

1. Concrete lined (100mm)

2. Cast iron (100mm)
3. P.V.C. (100mm & 25mm)
4. Galvanised iron (25mm)
5. Polyethylene (25mm)

Theory:
Major Losses

Pressure loss is proportional to L/D ratio and velocity head. For low velocities, where the flow is
laminar, friction loss is caused by viscous shearing between streamlines near the wall of the pipe and
the friction factor (f) is well defined.

For high velocities where the flow is fully turbulent, friction loss is caused by water particles coming
into contact with irregularities in the surface of the pipe and friction factor itself is a function of
surface roughness.

In most engineering applications, the velocity is less than that required for fully turbulent flow and f
is a function of both the viscosity of a boundary layer and the roughness of the pipe surface. Values
of f can be determined experimentally and plotted in dimensionless form against Reynolds Number
Re to from a Moody Diagram.

Minor Losses

Minor losses behave similarly to major losses, where a device with a large k value leads to a high
pressure loss. In general, a very sudden change to the flow path contributes to significant pressure
loss.
Procedure:

1. Select a pipe and pass a high speed flow through it. Record flow and pressure readings. The
pressure loss between upstream and centre, and centre and downstream tapping points must be
taken separately. Reduce the flow in stages, taking readings of pressure loss and flow rate
2. Repeat for all pipes
3. Establish one flow rate in the minor losses line and record pressure levels across each device.
Note that a length of pipe between tapping points also contributes to the observed pressure
loss.

Observation and calculations:

Major
Losses

Pipe Dia. Flow rate Length Upstream Pressure Downstream Pressure

Pipe (m) (m^3/s) (m) (kPa) (kPa)
Galvanise
d

PVC

Poly

Cast Iron

PVC

Concrete

Minor
Losses

Minor Pipe Dia. Flow rate Length Upstream Pressure Downstream Pressure
Loss (m) (m^3/s) (M) (kPa) (kPa)
Globe
Valve
Elbow
Gate Valve

Results and calculations: