‭Cardiology‬

‭The need for a circulatory system:‬

‭-‬ ‭Organisms need a constant supply of reactants‬
‭-‬ ‭Single celled organisms have a high enough surface area to volume ratio to gain oxygen and glucose‬
‭directly from surroundings by diffusion to all parts of the cell‬
‭-‬ ‭Larger organisms have a low surface area to volume ratio and are make up of many layers making it‬
‭very difficult for the organisms to gain large enough quantities of reactants in the little time they need‬
‭them to supplied in and therefore require a circulatory system‬
‭-‬ ‭Large organisms have high energy requirement: so the delivery of reactants for metabolism‬
‭needs to happen quickly‬
‭-‬ ‭The diffusion distance is to great‬
‭-‬ ‭Exchange surfaces are connected to a‬‭mass transport‬‭system‬

‭Mass transport:‬
‭-‬ ‭is the bulk movement of gases or liquid in one direction usually by vessels and tubes like the‬
‭circulatory system‬
‭-‬ ‭The one way flow of blood within the vessels carries essential nutrients and gases to all the cells of the‬
‭body‬
‭-‬ ‭Bring substances quickly from one exchange site to another‬
‭-‬ ‭Maintain diffusion gradients: at exchange sites and between cells‬
‭-‬ ‭Ensure effective cell activity: by supplying reactants and removing waste product‬

‭Double circulatory system‬

‭-‬ ‭Blood goes to the heart twice‬
‭-‬ ‭When the blood enters the lung, it loses some pressure so delivering it back to the heart increases its‬
‭pressure again to be able to pump it around the body quicker‬
‭-‬ ‭If blood is pumped at high pressure to lungs it might damage them‬
‭-‬ ‭Also to prevent oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing‬
 ‭Blood vessels: structure and function‬

‭Arteries:‬
‭-‬ ‭Transport usually oxygenated (except the pulmonary artery) blood to the heart‬
‭-‬ ‭Usually work at high pressure so have very strong walls and narrow lumen to maintain and withstand‬
‭the high pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭A pulse is present in arteries as they stretch to accommodate more volume of blood with each‬
‭heartbeat‬

‭-‬ ‭Artery walls consist of 3 layers: tunica externa/adventitia, tunica media, tunica intima,‬
‭3) tunica intima:‬‭Made of‬‭endothelium‬‭- inner layer‬
‭-‬ ‭Is one cell thick and lines the lumen of all vessels‬
‭-‬ ‭Has smooth muscle which reduces friction for blood flow‬
‭-‬ ‭Tunica intima‬‭is highly folded which allows it to‬‭expand under high pressure‬

‭2) tunica media‬

‭-‬ ‭Smooth muscle and elastic tissue = tunica media‬
‭-‬ ‭Layer is thick in arteries‬
‭-‬ ‭Layer of Smooth muscle‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭cells gives the arteries the strength to withstand high blood pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Muscle‬‭contraction‬‭allow the artery to constrict which‬‭narrows the lumen for‬
‭reduced blood flow‬
‭-‬ ‭Used to divert blood away from certain locations‬
‭-‬ ‭Elastic tissue:‬
‭-‬ ‭Helps maintain blood pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Stretches‬‭and‬‭recoils‬‭to even out any fluctuations‬‭in pressure‬
‭1) tunica externa‬
‭-‬ ‭Contains the‬‭structural protein‬‭collagen‬
‭-‬ ‭Collagen‬‭protects blood vessels from damage by‬‭over-stretching‬
‭Veins:‬
‭-‬ ‭Receive blood that has passes through capillary networks and returns the blood to the heart‬
‭-‬ ‭Veins have the same 3 layers as arteries but in different proportions‬

‭-‬ ‭Tonica media: smooth muscle + elastic tissue‬

‭-‬ ‭Is much thinner as there is no need for a thick muscular layer as veins don’t have to withstand‬
‭high blood pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Tunica intima: inner layer make of endothelium‬
‭-‬ ‭Large central Lumen: in veins is much wider to help blood return to heart at an efficient speed‬
‭-‬ ‭Helps reduce friction between blood and the endothelium of the veins‬
‭-‬ ‭Rate of blood flow is slower in veins but with a larger lumen it’s the same as the arteries‬
‭-‬ ‭Valves‬
‭-‬ ‭Help prevent the backflow of blood‬
‭-‬ ‭A pulse is‬‭absent‬‭due to increases distance from the‬‭heart‬
‭Capillaries‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Have a thin‬‭single layer of‬‭endoth‬‭elial‬‭cell‬‭walls‬‭which are permeable allowing substances to leave‬
‭the blood and diffuse into the body tissue‬
‭-‬ ‭Capillary beds: are networks of capillaries which are very important exchange surfaces‬
‭-‬ ‭Large number of capillaries branch between cells so that substances can diffuse at a higher rate due to‬
‭shorter diffusion distance‬

‭-‬ ‭Narrow diameter:‬

‭-‬ ‭Very narrow lumen to allow red blood cells to pass in single file‬
‭-‬ ‭Makes blood travel slowly which provides more time for diffusion‬

‭-‬ ‭Single layer of endothelial cells‬

‭-‬ ‭Layer lines lumen in arteries and veins‬
‭-‬ ‭Wall is one cell thick for shorter diffusion distance for oxygen and CO2 to diffuse‬
‭-‬ ‭Cells of the wall have gaps called pores which allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue‬
‭fluid‬
‭-‬ ‭White blood cells can combat infection in affected tissue by squeezing through capillary pores‬

‭The Cardiac Cycle‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ system that transport fluids containing materials needed and waste material‬
A
‭-‬ ‭Described as being either‬‭open‬‭or‬‭closed‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Open: the blood or equivalent is inside the body and bathes the organs‬
‭-‬ ‭Closed: blood pumped around the body is always contained within a network of blood vessels‬
‭-‬ ‭Can be‬‭double‬‭or‬‭single‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Double: have two loops one to the lungs and one to the heart the blood enters the heart twice‬
‭per cycle‬
‭-‬ ‭Single‬‭: (like in fish) have one loop that runs from‬‭the lungs (gills) to the body‬
‭-‬ ‭Humans have a‬‭double, closed circulatory system‬
‭HEART STRUCTURE‬
‭-‬ ‭Right side is deoxygenated and sends blood to the lungs via pulmonary artery‬
‭-‬ ‭Left side has a thicker ventricle wall and is oxygenated sending blood to the rest of the body via aorta‬

‭Heart : a hollow muscular organ located in the chest cavity‬

‭-‬ ‭The human heart weighs 300g‬
‭-‬ ‭Protected in the chest cavity by the‬‭pericardium‬‭,‬‭a tough fibrous sac‬
‭-‬ ‭Is divided into 4 chambers : top 2 are aerotas and bottom 2 is ventricles‬

‭Valves in the heart‬

‭-‬ ‭Keep blood flowing forward in the right direction and maintaining correct pressure in chambers‬
‭-‬ ‭Right ventricle and pulmonary artery are separated into by a‬‭semilunar valve also known as the‬
‭pulmonary valve‬
‭-‬ ‭Left ventricle and aorta are separated by semilunar valves known as the‬‭aortic valve‬
‭-‬ ‭ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE = tricuspid valve or bicuspid valve‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ alves open: when the pressure of blood behind them is greater than the pressure in front of them‬
V
‭-‬ ‭Valves Close: when the pressure of blood in front of them is greater than the pressure behind them‬

‭-‬ ‭ alve tendons or cords: valves are attached to the heart walls by valve tendons / cords, which prevent‬
V
‭valves from flipping inside out under high pressure‬
‭Adaptations of the structures of the heart‬
‭-‬ ‭Ventricles:‬
‭Thicker walls than atria to pump blood out of the heart whereas atria only pumps blood into‬
‭ventricles‬
‭Left ventricle‬‭:‬‭has thicker muscle walls than the‬‭right ventricle this allows it to contract stronger‬
‭to pump blood all the way around the body via the aorta compared to the right ventricle which‬
‭only pumps deox-blood to the lungs‬
‭-‬ ‭Tricuspid valves:‬
‭Prevent backflow of blood from ventricle into atria‬
‭-‬ ‭Semilunar valves‬
‭Prevent backflow of blood from the aorta or pulmonary artery into the ventricle‬

‭Blood vessels and the heart:‬

‭To the heart:‬
‭-‬ ‭Vena cava: a vein that supplies deox-blood to the heart and into the right atria‬
‭-‬ ‭Pulmonary vein: only vein to supply oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart‬

‭ way from the heart:‬

A
-‭ ‬ ‭Pulmonary artery: only artery that takes detox-blood from right ventricle to the lungs‬
‭-‬ ‭Aorta: artery that takes away oxygenated blood to the rest of the body‬

‭ or the heart‬
F
‭-‬ ‭Coronary arteries: supply oxygenated blood to the muscles of the heart so they can respire and‬
‭contract, can be seen running across the surface of the heart‬

‭ he Cardiac Cycle‬
T
-‭ ‬ ‭Series of events that happen in one heartbeat including muscle contraction and relaxation‬
‭-‬ ‭Systole: is the contraction of the heart | diastole: is the relaxation of the heart‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ olume and pressure changes‬

V
‭-‬ ‭volume changes lead to corresponding pressure changes‬
‭-‬ ‭Contraction: causes a decrease in volume in the corresponding chamber of the heart which increases‬
‭pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Relaxation: causes an increase in volume in the corresponding chamber of the heart which decreases‬
‭pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Pressure causes valves to open and close‬

‭Atrial systole‬
‭-‬ ‭Walls of atria contract, which decreases volume and therefore increases pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭The difference of pressure above the tricuspid valves and below causes the atrioventricular valves to‬
‭open‬
‭-‬ ‭Blood is in the ventricles there is a slight increase in ventricles pressure and chamber volume as the‬
‭ventricles receives the blood from the atria‬
‭-‬ ‭The ventricles are relaxed; ventricular diastole happens with atrial systole and vise versa‬

‭Ventricular systole‬
‭-‬ ‭Contract‬‭: Walls of the ventricles contract which causes‬‭an decreases of volume and a increases of‬
‭pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭Valves‬‭: The pressure in the ventricles rise above‬‭that in the atria this forces the AV valves to close‬
‭preventing backflow of blood‬
 ‭-‬ ‭ emilunar valves‬‭: open due to high pressure in ventricular and blood is forced into arteries and out of‬
S
‭the heart‬
‭-‬ ‭Atrial diastole‬‭: atria relaxes which coincides with‬‭the ventricular systole and atria begins to fill with‬
‭blood again‬

‭Diastole:‬
‭-‬ ‭Both ventricles and atria are both relaxed‬
‭-‬ ‭Pressure in the ventricles drops which forces SL valves to close‬
‭-‬ ‭Blood returns to the heart which increases the pressure in arterioles more than ventricles which causes‬
‭AV valves to open‬
‭-‬ ‭Blood flows passively into the ventricles without the need of atrial systole‬
‭-‬ ‭Cycle begins with atrial systole‬

‭Analysing the cardiac cycle‬

‭-‬ ‭Starts with the left side of the heart‬
‭-‬ ‭Lines on graph represent the pressure of the left atrium, aorta and the left ventricle‬
‭-‬ ‭Points where the lines cross each other indicate valves opening and closing‬

‭Point A: end of diastole‬

‭-‬ ‭Atrium has filled with blood during the preceding diastole‬
‭-‬ ‭Pressure is higher in the atrium than in the ventricle so the AV valves open‬

‭Between points A and B = atrial systole‬

‭-‬ ‭Left atrium contacts causing an increase in martial pressure forcing blood down into left ventricle‬

‭Point B: beginning of ventricular systole‬

‭-‬ ‭Left ventricle contracts causing the ventricular pressure to increase‬
‭-‬ ‭Pressure in the left atrium drops during atrial diastole‬
‭-‬ ‭Difference in pressure causes AV valves to close‬

‭Point C: ventricular systole‬

‭-‬ ‭Ventricles contract‬
 -‭ ‬ ‭ ressure in the left ventricle is higher that in the aorta‬
P
‭-‬ ‭Aortic valve opens and blood is forced into the aorta‬

‭Point D: beginning of diastole‬

‭-‬ ‭Left ventricle has been emptied of blood‬
‭-‬ ‭Muscles in the walls of the left ventricle relax and the pressure falls below that of the newly fuilled aorta‬
‭-‬ ‭Aortic valves close‬

‭Process repeats‬

‭Between Points D and E - early diastole‬

‭-‬ ‭Ventricle remains relaxed and ventricular pressure continues to decrease‬
‭-‬ ‭Blood is flowing into the relaxed atrium from the pulmonary vein causing an increase in pressure‬

‭Point E - diastole‬
‭-‬ ‭Left atrium fills with blood causing the pressure in the atrium to exceed that in the newly emptied‬
‭ventricle‬
‭-‬ ‭Av valve opens‬

‭After point E - late diastole‬

‭-‬ ‭Short period of time‬‭during which the‬‭left ventricle‬‭expands‬‭due to relaxing muscle‬
‭-‬ ‭This increases internal volume of the left ventricle and decreases the ventricular pressure‬
‭-‬ ‭At the same time blood is flowing slowly through the newly opened AV (bicuspid valve) into the left‬
‭ventricle, causing a‬‭brief decrease in pressure‬‭in‬‭the left atrium‬